The Nervous System

2 division of the Nervous System

• Central Nervous System (CNS) - consists
of the brain and the spinal cord; located in the
dorsal body cavity surrounded by meninges.

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – consists

of the all neural structures outside the CNS
including the cranial nerves, spinal nerves,
ganglia and sensory receptors
Figure 13.2
 Composition of Nervous Tissue
• The Nervous System is composed mainly
of Nervous Tissue; connective tissue and
blood vessels are also present.
• Nervous tissue is composed of 2 types of
cells: Neurons and Supporting Cells
- Neurons (nerve cells) are conducting cells because
they generate electrical signals
- Supporting cells (neuroglia) are non-conducting cells
because they do not typically generate electrical
signals
Structure of a Neuron
Added notes Structure of a neuron: 3 regions
Cell body (Soma or
Perikaryon)
Contains the nucleus and all
other cytoplasmic organelles
EXCEPT CENTRIOLES
hence, neurons are generally
AMITOTIC
Contains well-developed rough
ER called Nissl Body or
Chromatophilic
substance; prominent nucleoli;
they indicate a neuron is a of a
secretory cell –
neurotransmitter from the axon
terminals. Neurotransmitters
are synthesized in the cell
body hence referred to as the
“BIOSYNTHETIC region” a
neuron
Axon
Dendrite/s A single process extending from
the cell body – each neuron can
Tapering processes that act as have only one axon; uniform
the “RECEPTIVE regions” of a diameter; unmyelinated or
neuron myelinated
Receive and convey electrical Generates and transmits action
signals toward the cell body potentials AWAY from the cell body
hence, known as the
“CONDUCTING region” of a
neuron
Branches at the end into telodendria
which end in bulbous ends called
axon terminals (=synaptic
knobs=boutons) – store and release
neurotransmitter hence the axon
terminals are referred to as the
“secretory region” of a neuron
 Added notes Classification of Neurons
• 2 ways:
• Structural classification
• Functional classification

• 3 Structural Classification of neurons: based on the number of

processes extending from the cell body of the neuron

• Multipolar neuron has at least 3 processes – one axon and at least

2 dendrites; most abundant neuron in the human body

• Bipolar neuron has 2 processes – one axon and one dendrite

• Pseudounipolar neuron has one short process extending from the

cell body that bifurcates into a central process and a peripheral
process
 Functional Classification of neurons:
3 Types

– 1. Sensory or Afferent neuron

transmits impulses from sensory
receptors TOWARD the CNS
– 2. Association neurons or
interneurons located in the
CNS between the sensory
neurons and the motor neurons
– Most of the neurons (99%) in
the body are association
neurons
- 3. Motor or Efferent neuron transmits
impulses AWAY from the CNS to
effector organs = glands, organs
Added notes In the Nervous system, the neurons
are organized with connective tissue to form
organs called

• Nucleus – a cluster of neuron cell bodies in the

CNS (next slide)

• Ganglion = a cluster of neuron cell bodies in the

PNS

• Tract = a bundle of axons in the CNS

(slide #14)

• Nerve = a bundle of axons in the PNS

Ganglion Nucleus
Tract or Nerve
Structure of a Nerve ( or a Tract) added notes

The plasma membrane of an axon is called an

axolemma
• Each axon is wrapped in a delicate connective
tissue membrane called ENDONEURIUM
• A bundle of endoneurium-covered axons is
called a fascicle
• Each fascicle is covered by the coarse
connective tissue membrane called the
PERINEURIUM
• A bundle of perineurium-covered fascicles form
the nerve or a tract which is covered in a tough
connective tissue membrane called the
EPINEURIUM
 6 Types of Supporting cells

• Supporting cells also referred to as Neuroglia

• 4 Supporting cells are located inside the CNS
– Astrocytes
– Microglia
– Ependymal cells
– Oligodendrocytes

• 2 Supporting cells are located inside the PNS

– Schwann cells
– Satellite cells
6 types of Supporting Cells (Neuroglia)
 4 Types of supporting Cells in the CNS

• Astrocytes
– Most abundant
– Numerous extensions that wrap around neurons
– Involved in forming the BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER, a selective
barrier that regulate the chemicals environment of the brain
– Regulate brain function
• Microglia
– Since the specific immune system does not have access to the
CNS; the microglia are phagocytes to engulf/destroy
pathogens and cell debris.
• Ependymal cells
– Ciliated columnar cells that line the ventricles – cavities in the
brain that contain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
– Currents created by beating of cilia circulate the CSF
• Oligodendrocytes
– Their extensions myelinate axons of neurons in the CNS
 2 Types of Supporting Cells in the
PNS

• Schwann cells = neurolemmocytes

– Myelinate axons of neurons in the PNS

• Satellite cells
– Surround cell bodies of neurons to control their
chemical environment
 Myelination of axons
• Myelination of axons in the PNS by Schwann cells:
• Each Schwann cell wraps around a segment of an axon
( external to the axolemma)
• Schwann cell squeezes around the segment of axon
wrapping concentric rings of its plasma membrane called
MYELIN SHEATH around the axon
• The cytoplasm and the nucleus of the Schwann cell
squeezed outside the myelin sheath is called the
NEURILEMMA
• The spaces between adjacent myelin sheaths are called
NODES OF RANVIER
• Myelination of axons in the CNS by
oligodendrocytes
• The axons in the CNS are myelinated by extensions
from the oligodendrocytes hence, neurilemma is
absent
Process of myelination by schwann cell
Myelination of axons in the PNS by Schwann cells
Myelination of Axons in the CNS by an Oligodendrocyte

NOTE: Myelin sheath is present but a

Neurilemma is absent
Added notes

Function of Myelin Sheath

1. Protection- physical protection

against trauma

2. Electrical insulation - to
prevent interference from
neighboring axons in a nerve
(if in the PNS) or tract (if in
the CNS)
3. Increase in the rate of impulse
transmission – using saltatory
conduction occurring only at
the nodes of Ranvier
 Severed axons in the PNS can regenerate but
severed axons in the CNS cannot
• Severed axons in the PNS can regenerate because
– When the axon is severed in the PNS, cells of the immune
system clean up the damaged area of cell debris, a process
known as debridement, which sets the stage for regeneration
– The neurilemma of the Schwann cell forms a REGENERATION
TUBE that guides regeneration of the severed axon

• Severed axons in the CNS fail to regenerate because:

– The microglia poorly clean up area of damage – debridement is
not complete
– No neurilemma to form a regeneration tube to guide growth of
severed axon
– Presence of growth-inhibiting proteins in the CNS inhibit
regeneration of a severed axon
Regeneration of a Severed Axon in the PNS

Figure 13.4
The Resting Membrane Potential
(RMP) = -70mV to -90mV
Phases of an Action Potential
 Added notes
Neurophysiology: Generation of Action Potential (AP)

1st Phase: Depolarization phase –entry of sodium ions (Na+) into

axon referred to as sodium influx makes membrane potential less and
less negative
When the Threshold Potential (-55mV) is reached, an action
potential develops when the threshold potential is
reached. AP is an all-or-none phenomenon
Upshoot or spike due to an explosive entry of Sodium ions = a
positive membrane potential is reached +30mV, the peak
• 2nd Phase:Repolarization phase: 2 events occur at the peak:
(i) sodium channels close (Na+ influx halts)
(ii) potassium channels open (K+ efflux begins) and potassium ions
(K+) rush out of the axon referred to as potassium efflux; this results in
reversal of themembrane potential toward a negative membrane potential
• 3rd Phase: Hyperpolarization phase – more K+ efflux occurs
past the RMP driving the membrane potential below the RMP
(RMP is restored by the Na+/K+ pump which pumps 3 Na+ out and 2 K+ in
 Added notes

Characteristics of Action Potentials

• All-or-none phenomenon – an action potential will be generated if
depolarization reaches a threshold potential

• Self propagating – once generated by the axon, it is propagated

down the axon to the axonal terminals; a propagated or transmitted
action potential is called a nerve IMPULSE

• All action potentials traced have the same shape and the SAME
amplitude (+30mV) irrespective of stimulus strength. Thus, the
difference between a stronger stimulus that causes the generation
of an action potential and a weaker stimulus that causes the
generation of an action potential is that the stronger stimulus causes
the impulse to be generated at a higher frequency than the weaker
stimulus
 Added notes

2 Refractory periods occur during an action

potential
• Absolute Refractory Period: coincides with the
depolarization phase of the action potential when sodium
channels are opened and therefore another action
potential cannot be generated because all the Na+
channels are already opened, and depolarization is
already occurring

• Relative Refractory Period: coincides with the

repolarization phase of the action potential when the
sodium channels are closed ( potassium channels are
open) thus, an exceptionally strong stimulus can cause
sodium channels to open to allow for sodium ion influx
leading to depolarization and the generation of another
action potential
Added notes
 Factors affecting the rate of impulse transmission =
Conduction Velocity added notes

• Diameter of the axon – larger axons transmit impulses at a

faster rate than smaller axons because the larger axon have larger
diameter and therefore presents with less resistance impulse
transmission; the resistance in the smaller axons is higher which
impedes impulse transmission

• Degree of myelination – myelinated axons transmit impulses

at a faster rate than unmyelinated axons.
Myelinated axons use SALTATORY conduction where
action potentials are generated only at the nodes of Ranvier hence,
the impulse “jumps from node to node down the axon
Unmyelinated axons use CONTINUOUS conduction where
action potentials developed stepwise across the entire axolemma
 Continuous Conduction vs Conduction

Continuous conduction
 Classification of Nerve Fibers:3 Types
(a nerve fiber is a long axon)
added notes

Classified based on:

(i) diameter
(ii) degree of myelination (next slide)
• Group A fibers – have the largest diameter and heavily myelinated:
transmit impulse at the rate of 150 m/s ( 335 miles per hour). Ex. Motor
neurons that innervate skeletal muscles
• Group B fibers – intermediate diameter and lightly myelinated (with
wider gaps of nodes of ranvier); transmit impulses at a rate of 15 m/s (33
miles per hour)
Ex. Preganglionic autonomic fibers
• Group C fibers – smallest diameters and unmyelinated; transmit
impulses at a rate of 1 m/s (2.2 miles per hour)
Ex. Postganglionic autonomic fibers that innervate smooth muscle’
pain fibers
C C

A A
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Added notes Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

• Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune

disease that results in demyelination of
axons in the CNS. As the disease
progresses, impulse transmission slows
down (fast saltatory conduction slow
continuous conduction- this interferes with
communication/control between the brain
and the rest of the body.

Complications:
• Paralysis, most typically in the legs
• Visual disturbances
• Urinary incontinence
• fecal incontinence
• Mental changes - forgetfulness or difficulties
concentrating
• Depression