Module-1

Introduction: Conventional and non-conventional energy resources; General

structure of electrical power systems using single line diagram approach.
Power Generation: Hydel, Nuclear, Solar & wind power generation (Block Diagram
approach).
DC Circuits: Ohm’s Law and its limitations. KCL & KVL, series, parallel, series-
parallel circuits. Simple Numerical.
Conventional and non-conventional energy resources
Conventional and non-conventional energy resources are two broad categories of energy sources used for
various purposes, including electricity generation, heating, transportation, and industrial processes. These
categories differ in terms of their availability, environmental impact, and technological maturity.

Conventional Energy Resources:

1. Fossil Fuels:
 Coal: Coal is a widely used fossil fuel for electricity generation and industrial processes. It's abundant but
has significant environmental and health impacts, such as air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.
 Oil: Oil (petroleum) is primarily used for transportation fuels, like gasoline and diesel, and also for heating
and electricity generation. It's a major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions.
 Natural Gas: Natural gas is used for electricity generation, heating, and as a cleaner alternative to coal
and oil. It emits fewer greenhouse gases, making it a transition fuel.
2. Nuclear Energy:
 Nuclear energy is produced through nuclear fission in nuclear reactors. It's a low-carbon energy source but
has safety concerns and issues related to radioactive waste disposal.
3. Hydropower:
 Hydropower harnesses the energy of flowing water to generate electricity. It's a clean and renewable
energy source but has environmental and land use considerations.
4. Biomass:
 Biomass energy is derived from organic materials like wood, agricultural residues, and biofuels. It can be
renewable if managed sustainably but may contribute to deforestation and carbon emissions.

Non-Conventional Energy Resources (Renewable Energy):

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1. Solar Energy:
 Solar energy is harnessed through photovoltaic (PV) cells or solar panels to convert sunlight into
electricity. It's a clean, abundant, and renewable resource.
2. Wind Energy:
 Wind energy is generated by wind turbines that convert kinetic energy from wind into electricity. It's
renewable, produces no direct emissions, and has minimal land use impacts.
3. Geothermal Energy:
 Geothermal energy taps into heat from the Earth's interior to produce electricity and provide heating and
cooling. It's a stable and renewable energy source.
4. Tidal and Wave Energy:
 Tidal and wave energy utilize the movement of ocean tides and waves to generate electricity. These
sources are highly predictable and renewable.
5. Hydrokinetic Energy:
 Hydrokinetic energy harvests the energy from flowing water, such as river currents and ocean tides, to
generate electricity.
6. Bioenergy:
 Bioenergy includes various sources like biogas, biofuels, and solid biomass. It's renewable when derived
from sustainable practices.
7. Hydrogen:
 Hydrogen can be produced through electrolysis of water or from natural gas with carbon capture. It has the
potential to be a clean energy carrier.
8. Waste-to-Energy:
 This involves converting municipal or industrial waste into energy, usually through combustion or
gasification.

Non-conventional energy resources are generally considered more sustainable and environmentally friendly than
conventional sources. They help reduce greenhouse gas emissions, dependence on fossil fuels, and
environmental impacts.

General structure of electrical power systems using single line diagram approach
A single-line diagram, also known as a one-line diagram or single-line electrical diagram, is a simplified graphical
representation of an electrical system or network. It shows the key components and connections in a
straightforward and easy-to-understand format. Figure below represents basic single-line diagram for an
electrical distribution system:

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 Figure. Single Line Diagram of Electrical System

Electric power is commonly (or usually) generated at 11 kV in generating stations in India and Europe.
While in some cases, generation voltage might be higher or lower. This generating voltage is then stepped up to
132kV, 220kV, 400kV or 765kV etc. Stepping up the voltage level depends upon the distance at which power is
to be transmitted. Longer the distance, higher will be the voltage level.

Stepping up of voltage is to reduce the losses in transmitting the power. This stage is called as primary
transmission

The voltage is the stepped down at a receiving station to 33kV or 66kV.

Secondary transmission lines emerge from this receiving station to connect substations located near load
centers (cities etc.).

The voltage is stepped down again to 11kV at a substation. Large industrial consumers can be supplied at
11kV directly from these substations.. This stage is called as primary distribution.

Either overhead lines or underground cables which carry power close to the load points (end consumers) up
to a couple of kilometers.

Finally, the voltage is stepped down to 415 volts by a pole-mounted distribution transformer and delivered
to the distributors.

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End consumers are supplied through a service mains line from distributors. The secondary distribution system
consists of feeders, distributors and service mains.

Power Generation: Hydel, Nuclear, Solar & wind power generation (Block Diagram approach).

Power plant is a place where electricity is generated. The machine used for the generation of electricity is called
generator/alternator. This generator converts mechanical power into electrical power. Mechanical power is
rotation, electrical power is P¿ VI

How to generate this mechanical power?

Via Wind/ Hydel / Thermal (coal and nuclear power plant)

Hydroelectric power plant

Working principle
Hydroelectric power plant utilizes the potential energy of water stored in a dam built across the river. The
potential energy of the stored water is converted into kinetic energy by first passing it through the penstock
pipe. The kinetic energy of the water is then converted into mechanical energy in a water turbine. The
turbine is coupled to the electric generator. The mechanical energy available at the shaft of the turbine is
converted into electrical energy by means of the generator.

Fig. Schematic representation of a Hydroelectric power plant.

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 Water reservoir Dam Gate Pressure tunnel Surge tank
Penstock Water turbine Draft tube Tail race level Powerhouse
The main components are

Water reservoir:

In a reservoir the water collected from the catchment area during the rainy season is stored behind a dam.
Catchment area gets its water from rains and streams. The level of the water surface in the reservoir is called the
Headwater level.

Dam:

the purpose of the dam is to store the water and to regulate the out going flow of water.

Spillway:

Spillway prevents the rise of the water level in the dam. Spillways are passages that allow the excess water to
flow to a different storage area away from the dam.

Gate:

A gate is used to regulate or control the flow of water from the dam.

Pressure tunnel:

It is a passage that carries water from the reservoir to the surge tank.

Surge tank:

A surge tank is a small reservoir or tank in which the water level rises or falls due to sudden changes in
pressure. There may a sudden increase of pressure in the penstock pipe due to sudden backflow of water, as the
load on the turbine is reduced.

Penstock: Penstock pipe is used to bring water from the dam to the hydraulic turbine. Penstock pipes are made
up of steel or reinforced concrete. Penstock is provided with a gate valve at the inlet to completely close the water
supply.
It has a control valve to control the water flow rate into the turbine.

Water turbine : The hydraulic turbine converts the kinetic energy of water into mechanical energy. The
mechanical energy (rotation) available on the turbine shaft is coupled to the shaft of an electric generator
and electricity is produced. The water after performing the work on the turbine blade is discharged through the
draft tube.

Draft tube:

Draft tube is connected to the outlet of the turbine. It converts the kinetic energy available in the water into
pressure energy. It maintains a pressure of just above the atmospheric at the end of the draft tube to move the
water into a tailrace.

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 Tailrace level:

Tailrace is a water path to lead the water discharged from the turbine to the river or canal. The water held in
the tailrace is called the Tailrace water level.

Power House:

The powerhouse consists of the water turbine, generator, transformer, and control room. As the water
rushes through the turbine, it spins the turbine shaft, which is coupled to the electric generator. The step-up
transformer increases the voltage of the current coming from the generator. The electricity is distributed
through power lines.

Wind power plant

Wind energy is a natural form of energy that is capable of producing electrical or mechanical forces.
Windmills or wind turbines are devices that are capable of converting the kinetic energy of wind into mechanical
energy. This mechanical energy is further converted into electrical energy.

Figure block diagram of Wind power plant

Working:

Wind power plant consists of a long tower located above foundation above which rotar/blades are mounted –
Tower provides support to blades.

Blades capture wind energy; they convert KE of wind into mechanical energy. But, their RPM is low –isn’t
sufficient to generate electricity. So, their RPM is to be increased.

That is done by the gearing which converts low speed RPM to high speed RPM. High RPM is given to
generator where mechanical energy is converted to electrical energy and transmitted everywhere.

1. Turbine and generators are mechanically coupled .via coupling system.

Sometimes, Because of high speed wind, mechanical structure of blade is altered, so generator too.

Solution : Add a controller

Controller has multiple functions:

1. Wind Speed and Direction Control: The controller monitors the wind speed and direction using sensors such as
anemometers and wind vanes. It adjusts the orientation of the turbine to ensure that the rotor blades are always
facing into the wind, maximizing energy capture.

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2. Rotor Speed Control: The controller adjusts the rotor speed to maintain it within a safe and efficient operating
range. It may vary the pitch of the blades or use other methods to control the rotational speed.
3. Load Control: The controller adjusts the turbine's load (i.e.the amount of energy it extracts from the wind) to
prevent overloading during high wind speeds and to optimize power production during lower wind speeds.
4. Fault Detection and Protection: The controller continuously monitors the performance of the wind turbine and
can detect faults or abnormal conditions. When issues are identified, it can take action to protect the turbine, such
as shutting it down to prevent damage.
5. Emergency Procedures: In the event of severe weather conditions or other emergency situations, the controller
can initiate emergency procedures to protect the wind turbine
6. Pitch and Yaw Control: The controller manages the pitch control of the rotor blades to optimize their angle for
efficient power production. It also controls the yaw system to keep the turbine facing the wind.

In summary, the controller in a wind turbine is responsible for managing the turbine's operation,
optimizing energy production, ensuring safety, and protecting the turbine from damage.

Nuclear power plant

A nuclear power plant is a complex facility that uses nuclear reactions to generate electricity. Below is a
block diagram of a typical nuclear power plant with explanations for each block or component:

Figure Block diagram of nuclear power plant

1. Nuclear Reactor: This is the heart of the nuclear power plant where nuclear fission reactions occur. In the
reactor, fuel rods containing uranium or plutonium, undergo controlled nuclear reactions, releasing a
tremendous amount of heat.
2. Control Rods: Control rods are inserted into the reactor core to control the rate of nuclear fission. By adjusting
the position of the control rods, operators can regulate the power output of the reactor.

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3. Coolant System: The reactor core is surrounded by a coolant system, typically water, which circulates through
the core, absorbing the heat generated by the nuclear reactions. The heated coolant is then used to produce
steam for the turbine.
4. Steam Generator: The hot coolant is used to heat water in a separate system, creating high-pressure steam.
5. Turbine: The high-pressure steam is directed toward the turbine, causing it to spin. The turbine is connected to a
generator.
6. Generator: The spinning turbine drives the generator, converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. This is
where electricity is produced.
7. Condenser: After passing through the turbine, the steam is condensed back into water in the condenser. This
water is then pumped back to the steam generator to continue the cycle.
8. Cooling System: Nuclear power plants require cooling to dissipate excess heat. They often use large cooling
towers or bodies of water (such as rivers or lakes) to release heat from the condenser.
9. Electrical Grid Connection: The electricity generated in the generator is connected to the electrical grid, allowing
it to be distributed to homes, businesses, and industries.
10. Safety Systems: Nuclear power plants incorporate numerous safety systems, including emergency cooling
systems, backup power supplies, and radiation monitoring systems, to ensure the safety of the facility and the
surrounding environment.
11. Fuel Handling System: This system is responsible for handling and storing nuclear fuel rods, as well as moving
them in and out of the reactor core. Fuel assemblies may be replaced periodically to maintain reactor efficiency.
12. Waste Storage: Nuclear power plants produce radioactive waste, which must be safely stored and managed.
This may include spent fuel rods and other radioactive byproducts.

In summary, a nuclear power plant produces nuclear energy by controlling nuclear fission reactions in the reactor
core. This produces heat, which is used to generate steam, drive a turbine, and produce electricity.

Solar power generator

A solar power system converts sunlight into electrical energy using photovoltaic (PV) cells or solar panels. There
are two forms of energy generated from the sun for our use – electricity and heat. Both are generated
through the use of solar panels. Below is a block diagram of a typical solar power system with explanations for
each block or component:

Figure Block diagram of Solar Power Plant

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1. Sunlight is the source of energy for the solar power system. Solar panels are designed to capture sunlight and
convert it into electricity through the photovoltaic effect.
2. Solar panels are the primary components that capture sunlight and convert it into direct current (DC) electricity.
They are made up of multiple photovoltaic cells that generate electrical current when exposed to sunlight.
Solar panels are mounted on a support structure, which can be on rooftops, ground-mounted frames, or other
suitable locations to position them for optimal sun exposure.
3. DC link" usually refers to the electrical connection that carries direct current (DC) from the solar panels to other
components within the system.
4. Inverter: The DC electricity generated by the solar panels (or from the battery bank) is converted into alternating
current (AC) by an inverter. Most appliances and the electrical grid use AC power.
5. The control board continuously monitors the performance of various components in the solar power plant,
including solar panels, inverters, batteries (if present), and other equipment. This real-time monitoring allows for
the early detection of issues or inefficiencies.
6. A control room in a solar power generation facility serves as the central hub for monitoring, controlling,
and optimizing the operation of the solar power plant. Its primary purpose is to ensure the efficient, safe, and
reliable production of electricity from solar energy
7. Three-phase line filters and transformers have several important uses in a solar power plant.
three-phase line filter is used to reduce harmonics in the grid-tied solar power system, ensuring that the electrical
output is clean and compliant with grid quality standards.
transformers are often used in solar power plants to adjust the voltage levels between the solar panels or inverters
and the rest of the electrical systems.
8. Circuit breakers are primarily used to protect the electrical circuits and components within the solar power
system from excessive current. In case of an overcurrent event, such as a short circuit or an overload, the
circuit breaker will trip (open the circuit) to interrupt the flow of electricity, preventing potential damage or
fires.
9. Electricity Load: The AC electricity from the inverter can be used to power various electrical loads, such as
appliances, lighting, and other devices within the home or business.

In summary, a solar power system captures sunlight using solar panels, converts it into electricity, and then
stores.
DC Circuits: Ohm’s Law and its limitations

Ohm's Law is a fundamental principle in electrical engineering and physics that describes the relationship
between voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R) in a direct current (DC) circuit. It is named after the German
physicist Georg Simon Ohm, who formulated the law. Ohm's Law is expressed as:

V=I*R

Limitations of Ohm's Law:

a. Non-Linear Components: Ohm's Law doesn't apply to non-linear components, such as diodes and transistors.
The relationship between voltage and current in these components is not proportional.

b. Temperature Effects: Ohm's Law assumes that the resistance of the conductor is constant. However, the
resistance of some materials, particularly conductors, can change with temperature.

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c. Frequency Dependence: Ohm's Law is formulated for DC circuits and doesn't account for the effects of
alternating current (AC) circuits,

d. Voltage and Current Direction: Ohm's Law assumes that voltage and current have consistent direction and
polarity. In some cases, such as when analyzing alternating current (AC) circuits, voltage and current can change
direction, requiring the use of complex notation (phasors) for accurate analysis.

e. Internal Resistance: In real-world components like batteries, internal resistance can affect the relationship
between voltage, current, and resistance. Ohm's Law alone may not account for these internal resistance effects.

KVL and KCL

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) and Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL) are two fundamental principles in
electrical circuit analysis developed by the German physicist Gustav Kirchhoff. These laws are essential
tools for understanding and analyzing electrical circuits. Here's an explanation of each law:

KCL: The total current or charge entering a junction or node is precisely equal to the total current or charge
exiting the node, as no charge is lost at the node”.
OR
The algebraic sum of all currents entering and exiting a node must be zero. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) is also
known as Kirchhoff’s First Law or Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule.

KVL: Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of the total EMF in a closed loop is equal to the
algebraic sum of the voltage drops across each resistance in the loop.
OR
In other words, the sum of voltages around a closed loop is always zero.

series, parallel, series-parallel circuits. Simple Numerical-REFER CLASSNOTES

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Series circuits-A combination of resistors in which they are connected end-to-end providing only one path for the
flow of electric current, called series connection of resistors.

Hence, when a number of resistors connected in series, then the equivalent resistance of the series
combination of resistances can be simply calculated by adding all the resistances.
Special Case − When N-resistors of same resistance value, say R, are connected in series, then their equivalent
resistance is calculated by,
Req=N×R -Where, N is the total number of resistors combined in series.
Important points that you should note about the series combination of resistors −
 The equivalent resistance of the series combination of resistors is always greater than the largest resistance
present in the combination.
 The current through all the resistances in series is the same.
 The voltage drop across each resistance is different and depends upon the value of the resistance.
 The resistors are connected in series to divide a voltage into multiple smaller voltage values.

Parallel Circuits
The combination of resistors in which the one end of all resistors is joined to a common point and the other end of
all resistors is joined to another common point so that the number of resistors and number current paths are
equal, it is called parallel combination of resistors.

Speial Case − When all the N-resistors connected in parallel are of same resistance value (say R), then the
equivalent resistance of the combination is given by,
Req=R/N
The following are the important points about the parallel combination of resistors −
 The equivalent resistance of the parallel combination of resistors is less than the smallest
resistance in the combination.
 The current through each resistance is different.
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  The voltage across all the resistances is the same.
 The parallel combination of resistors acts as a current divider as it divides a single electric current
in multiple currents.

A series-parallel circuitis-This is a combination of series and parallel circuits. In this circuit some of the elements
are connected in series fashion and some are in parallel.

In the circuit shown below, we can see that resistors R2 and R3 are connected in parallel with each other
and that both are connected in series with R1.

Simple Numericals:

Current Divider Rule:

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According to this rule, the current in each branch of a given circuit is represented as a portion of the total current
flowing in the circuit.

Numerical on Current Divider Rule:

1.Two resistors R₁ = 4 ohms and R₂ = 6 ohms are connected in parallel across 20V battery Calculate the
current flowing through each resistor Using current divider rule.

2. In the following diagram, calculate current through each branch using current divider rule. Also
calculate power dissipated in 2 ohm resistor.

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NOTE: REFER CLASS NOTE FOR REMAINING PROBLEMS

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