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Ian Menter
Editor-in-Chief
The Palgrave
Handbook of
Teacher
Education
Research
The Palgrave Handbook of Teacher
Education Research
Ian Menter
Editor-in-Chief
The Palgrave Handbook of

Teacher Education
Research
With 46 Figures and 73 Tables

Editor-in-Chief
Ian Menter
Department of Education
University of Oxford
Oxford, Oxfordshire, UK
ISBN 978-3-031-16192-6 ISBN 978-3-031-16193-3 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16193-3
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the
material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors
or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims
in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland
AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface
The Significance of Teacher Education
The global significance of teacher education has never been greater than it is today.
In this world where migration, inequality, climate change, political upheavals, and
strife continue to be manifest in many locations around the world, governments and
scholars alike are increasingly considering what role education systems can play in
achieving stability and managed, sustainable economic development. With growing
awareness that the quality of educational provision is closely related to the quality of
teachers and teaching, teacher education has moved into a key strategic location in
international debate and discussion. This proposition is as true and pertinent in the
global south and east as it is in the northern and western worlds. However, much of
the scholarship on teacher education hitherto has had a strongly western/northern
focus, and this handbook has sought to take some steps – modest ones admittedly –
to address this imbalance.
The Development of Teacher Education Research
As I point out in my own introductory chapter, the field of teacher education research
is one that has developed relatively rapidly over recent years, albeit from a rather
slow start in the late twentieth century. The underlying commitment of this handbook
is that it is essential that the development of both policy and practice in teacher
education is based on and informed by research of the highest quality. Given the
political attention teacher education has received in recent decades and the simulta-
neous growth of populist and/or nationalist politics in many parts of the world, it is
vital that the research community commits itself to interacting with the communities
of policy and practice at national and international levels. Only through such
interaction can it be ensured that teacher education develops positively and equitably
and is of the highest quality.
v
vi Preface
The Impact of the Global Pandemic
The handbook was commissioned in 2020, just as the phenomenon of the COVID-
19 global pandemic was emerging, leading to major disruptions to the lives of human
beings all over this planet. Its impact was felt strongly within education, including
within teacher education. Several chapters in the handbook explicitly address the
impact which the pandemic and associated “lockdowns” had on teacher education,
but I would also like to acknowledge the courage and conviction shown by teachers,
teacher educators, as well as by teacher education researchers, in response to these
unprecedented challenges. While the education of many students was adversely
affected, teachers and teacher educators have strived to ensure both that these
impacts were minimized and that sustained efforts have subsequently been made
to address the damage done. Furthermore, the research community has been assid-
uously contributing to our understanding of the social, emotional, psychological, and
pedagogical effects of the pandemic.
Peace and Security
We should also acknowledge the incredible fortitude of those teacher educators,

teachers, and researchers who have to undertake their professional work in situations
of conflict and instability. During the time of preparation of this handbook, we have
seen destructive conflict within Europe and continuing instability in many other parts
of the world. Simultaneously, climate change has been leading to famine, destructive
fires, and flooding. Wherever these events occur, education and teacher education are
affected and the challenges of making adequate provision increase.
The Handbook
The handbook is organized into eight main sections. Each of these has been edited by
one or two section editors. I have been very fortunate in establishing a superb team to
bring the whole handbook together. The section editors have taken a leading role in
identifying and commissioning contributors to the handbook, leading to the creation
of a cutting-edge compilation of innovative and definitive chapters which demon-
strate not only the rapid growth of the field, mentioned above, but also the increasing
methodological diversity that has so enriched our collective scholarship, and will
continue to do so.
The contributors to the handbook, the authors of all the chapters, come from
many countries and between them have an incredible range of experience and
expertise. Most of them are based in universities where teacher education is a key
activity. It is well known that in some contexts the university contribution to teacher
education has been under pressure from politicians and policymakers, for either
ideological and/or economic reasons. The work collected in this handbook provides
evidence of the important role that university-based teacher educators and
Preface vii
researchers play in maintaining quality – as well as equity and justice – in the

provision of teacher education. As editor-in-chief, I thank all of these contributors
for making the effort to record the aspects of their important work within these
chapters. The future of teacher education depends as much on continuing this
research activity as it does on the provision of programs offered to aspiring and
serving teachers, in partnership with teachers in schools and colleges.
The editorial team has been ably assisted throughout our work, with immense
patience and care, by Salmanul Faris Nedum Palli, our Editorial Assistant/Project
Coordinator at Springer in Chennai, India. We are deeply indebted to him for his
invaluable contribution to the handbook.
Oxford, UK Ian Menter

March 2023 Editor-in-Chief
Contents
Volume 1
Part I Introduction ....................................... 1
1 Teacher Education Research in the Twenty-First Century ...... 3

Ian Menter
Part II The Supply, Recruitment, and Retention of Teachers ..... 33
2 The Supply, Recruitment, and Retention of Teachers .......... 35

Moira Hulme
3 Teacher Quality: The Preparation, and Utilization of Teachers
in Sub-Saharan Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Nick Taylor
4 Rethinking the Complex Determinants of Teacher Shortages . . . . 75
Beng Huat See, Stephen Gorard, Rebecca Morris, and
Ourania Ventista
5 Standardized Testing as a Gatekeeping Mechanism for
Teacher Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Melissa Barnes and Russell Cross
6 Stayers: In the Long Run. A Comparative Study of Retention
in Two Swedish Teacher Generations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Per Lindquist and Ulla-Karin Nordänger
7 Newly Arrived Migrant Teachers and the Challenges of
Reentering Work: Introduction to the Swedish Teaching
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Elin Ennerberg and Catarina Economou
8 Educational Isolation and the Challenge of “Place” for
Securing and Sustaining a Quality Teacher Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Tanya Ovenden-Hope, Rowena Passy, and Philly Iglehart
ix
x Contents
9 Reshaping the Teaching Profession: Patterns of Flexibilization,

Labor Market Dynamics, and Career Trajectories in England . . . 185
Cécile Mathou, Marc A. C. Sarazin, and Xavier Dumay
Part III Pre-service Teacher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
10 Initial Teacher Education: The Opportunities and Problems

Inherent in Partnership Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Trevor Mutton
11 Developing a “Research Literacy Way of Thinking” in Initial

Teacher Education: Students as Co-researchers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Tone M. Eriksen and Lisbeth M. Brevik
12 School-Based Teacher Educators: Understanding Their Identity,

Role, and Professional Learning Needs as Dual Professionals . . . . 257
Simone White and Amanda Berry
13 Universities, Research, and Initial Teacher Education in

England and Wales: Taking the Long View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
John Furlong
14 Specialized Educational Knowledge and Its Role in Teacher

Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Jim Hordern
15 Towards Internationally Shared Principles of Quality Teacher

Education: Across Finland, Hong Kong, and the United States . . . 317
Kara Mitchell Viesca, A. Lin Goodwin, Anu Warinowski, and
Mirjamaija Mikkilä-Erdmann
16 Assessment in HE Initial Teacher Education: Competing

Contexts Discourses and the Unobtainable Pursuit for Fidelity . . . 341
Caroline Elbra-Ramsay
17 The Uses and Abuses of “Quality” in Teacher Education

Policy Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Clare Brooks
18 Student Response Systems in Initial Teacher Education:

A Scoping Review of Web-Based Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Enda Donlon
19 The Many Meanings of Practice-Based Teacher Education:

A Conceptualization of the Term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Inga Staal Jenset and Kirsti Klette
Contents xi
Part IV Continuing Professional Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
20 From Benign Neglect to Performative Accountability:

Changing Policy and Practice in Continuing Professional
Development for Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Nicole Mockler
21 Doubt, Skepticism, and Controversy in Professional
Development Scholarship: Advancing a Critical Research
Agenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
Linda Evans
22 An Inquiry into Teacher Agency and Professional Development:
The Introduction of the Early Career Framework in England . . . 477
Mark Hardman, Becky Taylor, and Caroline Daly
23 School-Based Teacher Educators: A Scottish Manifesto ........ 503
Aileen Kennedy and Linda Bell
24 Regulating and Reifying Teacher Professional Development:
Teachers’ Learning under Global Policy Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Ian Hardy
25 Continuing Professional Development: Negotiating the Zip . . . . . . 551
Geert Kelchtermans
26 Postgraduate Research as a Vehicle for (Trans)forming
Teachers’ Professional Development: Opportunities and
Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
Marta Kowalczuk-Walędziak, Amélia Lopes, and Isabel Menezes
Part V Teacher Education for Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
27 Teacher Leadership in the Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601

Tatiana Baklashova, Margery McMahon, and Roza A. Valeeva
28 Developing a Model of Establishing Receptivity to Teacher-Led
Change in Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
Dong Nguyen
29 Middle Leaders in the Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
Christine Forde and Kathleen Kerrigan
30 Standards for School Leadership and Principalship ........... 665
Margery McMahon and Deirdre Torrance
31 Laying the Foundations for Leadership: Research-Informed
Teacher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
Lauren Boath, Cristina Mio, and Stephen McKinney
xii Contents
32 External Change Agents in Professional Learning:

The Case of the General Teaching Council Scotland . . . . . . . . . . . 717
Pauline Stephen and Charlaine Simpson
Part VI Teacher Identity and Professionalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743
33 Anchoring Teacher Professional Learning and Development in

Context: How Schools Enable Teachers to Thrive . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745
Qing Gu
34 Reframing Teacher Professional Identity and Learning . . . . . . . . 763
Douwe Beijaard, Maaike Koopman, and Gonny Schellings
35 Professionalism in Practice: Contextual Differences in
Understandings, Practices, and Effects of Teacher Autonomy . . . . 787
Christopher Day
36 Pedagogical Change and Professional Courage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
Rupert Knight
37 Advancing Teacher Professionalism in Rural China:
An Equality-Oriented Policy Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
Wei Liao and Yi Wei
38 Subject Disciplines and the Construction of Teachers’
Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
Ian Thompson
39 Recent Trends in Teacher Identity Research and Pedagogy ..... 867
Brad Olsen, Rebecca Buchanan, and Christina Hewko
Volume 2
Part VII Policy Studies in Teacher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 891
40 Policy Problems: Policy Approaches to Teacher Education

Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893
Emma Towers and Meg Maguire
41 Trans-inclusive Policy and Opportunities for Trans-affirming

Teacher Education: An Ontario Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 913
Jenny Kassen
42 Shoring Up “Teacher Quality”: Media Discourses of Teacher

Education in the United Kingdom, United States, and
Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933
Nicole Mockler and Elizabeth Redpath
Contents xiii
43 Critiquing Teacher Well-Being Policy in England: Developing

a Values-Based Approach to Promote Trainee Teachers’
Well-Being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963
Helen Damon, Richard Brock, Alex Manning, and Emma Towers
44 Policy, Teacher Education, and Covid-19: An International

“Crisis” in Four Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 983
Tom Are Trippestad, Panagiota Gkofa, Sawako Yufu,
Amanda Heffernan, Stephanie Wescott, Meg Maguire, and
Emma Towers
45 Initial Teacher Education and Social Justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013

Martin Mills and Bob Lingard
46 Policy and Practice in Increasing BME Teachers’ Access to

ITE and a Leadership Career in the Teaching Profession in
England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035
Uvanney Maylor
47 Teacher Education in India: Virtual Capture of the “Public” . . . . 1061

Poonam Batra
48 Standards and Stories: Educational Policy and White

Supremacy in the Lives and Work of White Teachers . . . . . . . . . . 1081
Audrey Lensmire
49 Preparing and Supporting Beginning Teachers for the

Challenges of Teaching in Urban Primary Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . 1091
Lisa Gaikhorst and Monique L. L. Volman
Part VIII Comparative Studies in Teacher Education . . . . . . . . . . . 1109
50 The Need for Comparative Studies in Teacher Education . . . . . . . 1111

Maria Teresa Tatto
51 A Cross-National Analysis of Organizational Support for

Teachers’ Professional Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1133
Motoko Akiba, Alex Moran, Kyeongwon Kim, and Xiaonan Jiang
52 Centering Multilingual Learners and Countering Racism in

Teacher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1157
Jeff Bale and Lisa Lackner
53 Spatial Perspectives: A Missing Link for Comparative Teacher

Education Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1183
Clare Brooks, Qian Gong, Ana Angelita Rocha, and
Victor Salinas-Silva
xiv Contents
54 Reciprocal Learning in Teacher Education Between Canada

and China in a Globalized Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1207
Shijing Xu and Michael Connelly
55 Teacher Education Perspectives in the Ibero-Latin American

Context: A Comparative View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1237
Maria Assunção Flores, Juanjo Mena, Maria Inês Marcondes, and
Elvira G. Rincon-Flores
56 Learning to Teach Equitably: Theoretical Frameworks and

Principles for International Research and Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . 1259
Karen Hammerness, David Stroupe, and Kavita Kapadia Matsko
57 Teacher Education in Post-Soviet States: Transformation

Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1293
Aydar M. Kalimullin and Roza A. Valeeva
58 Intercultural Education: The Training of Teachers for

Inclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1313
Sylvia Schmelkes and Ana Daniela Ballesteros
59 The Development Discourse of “Quality Teachers”: Implications

for Teacher Professional Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1337
Michele Schweisfurth
60 Issues Related to Teacher Preparation in Southern Africa . . . . . . 1353

Rachel van Aswegen, Jacob Elmore, and Peter Youngs
61 The Political Economy of Teacher Training in Latin America:

A Review of the Research Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1379
Noel McGinn and Ernesto Schiefelbein
62 The Importance of Context: Teacher Education Policy in

England and France Compared . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1403
Jo B. Helgetun
63 Cases of Four International Reforming Contexts: Prelude to the

Pandemic and Beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1431
Cheryl J. Craig, Maria Assunção Flores, Maria Inês Marcondes, and
Darlene Ciuffetelli Parker
64 Teaching Diverse Students: A Comparative Analysis of

Perspectives from South Africa, Canada, and Hong Kong . . . . . . 1461
A. Lin Goodwin, Andrew Pau Hoang, Monaliza M. Chian, and
Melissa Au
65 Teacher Leadership in Cross-National Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . 1489

Gerald K. LeTendre
Contents xv
66 Learning to Teach: Building Global Research Capacity for

Evidence-Based Decision-Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1511
Maria Teresa Tatto, Ian Menter, Katharine Burn,
Christopher M. Clark, Sakiko Ikoma, Gerald K. LeTendre, Diane
Mayer, and Trevor Mutton
Part IX Globalization and Teacher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1561
67 Globalization, Teachers, and Teacher Education: Theories,

Themes, and Methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1563
Tore Bernt Sorensen
68 Global Discourses, Teacher Education Quality, and Teacher
Education Policies in the Latin American Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1593
Annelise Voisin and Beatrice Ávalos-Bevan
69 From Global to Local: Policy Vernacularization as Assemblage,
Refoulement, and Meld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1611
Elena Revyakina and Conor Galvin
70 The OECD, the Vehicularity of Ideas, “Wormholes,” and the
2018 Initial Teacher Education Curricular Reform in Mexico . . . 1639
Israel Moreno Salto, Susan L. Robertson, and
Artemio Arturo Cortez Ochoa
71 Reframing Global Education in Teacher Education from the
Perspectives of Human Capability and Cosmopolitan Ethics . . . . 1661
Suzanne S. Choo
72 Globalizing Teacher Education Through English as a Medium of
Instruction: A Vygotskian Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1685
Thi Kim Anh Dang and Russell Cross
73 Shadow Elite of Transnational Policy Networks: Intermediary
Organizations and the Production of Teacher Education
Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1709
Elena Aydarova
74 Globalization and the Impact of ICT on Teachers’ Work and
Professional Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1731
Gerald K. LeTendre
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1753
About the Editor-in-Chief
Ian Menter is a Fellow of the Academy of Social

Sciences in the UK and was President of the British
Educational Research Association (BERA), 2013-15.
He is Emeritus Professor of Teacher Education and
Emeritus Fellow of Kellogg College, at the University
of Oxford.
He previously worked at the Universities of Glasgow,
the West of Scotland, London Metropolitan, the West of
England, and Gloucestershire. Before that he was a
primary school teacher in Bristol, England. He is now
a Visiting Professor at three UK universities.
His main research interests are in research, policy,
and practice in teacher education, including comparative
studies of this topic. Recent edited and co-edited publi-
cations include Teacher Education in Russia
(Routledge) and The Palgrave Handbook of Teacher
Education in Central and Eastern Europe (Palgrave
Macmillan). His monograph, Raymond Williams and
Education, was published by Bloomsbury in 2022.
xvii
Section Editors
Qing Gu
IOE, UCL’s Faculty of Education and Society
University College London
London, UK
Moira Hulme
University of the West of Scotland
Ayr, Scotland
Meg Maguire
School of Education, Communication &
Society, Faculty of Social Science &
Public Policy
Centre for Public Policy Research, King’s College London
London, UK
xix
xx Section Editors
Margery McMahon
School of Education
University of Glasgow
Glasgow, Scotland
Nicole Mockler
Sydney School of Education and Social Work
University of Sydney
Sydney, Australia
Trevor Mutton
Department of Education
Oxford, UK
Tore Bernt Sorensen

Educational Governance
Hertie School
Berlin, Germany
Section Editors xxi
Maria Teresa Tatto

Mary Lou Fulton Teachers College
Arizona State University
Tempe, AZ, USA
Honorary Research Fellow
Oxford, UK
Emma Towers
School of Education, Communication and Society
King’s College London
London, UK
Contributors
Motoko Akiba Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies, Florida

State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
Melissa Au The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
Beatrice Ávalos-Bevan Center for Advanced Research in Education, Institute of
Education, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
Elena Aydarova Department of Educational Foundations, Leadership, and Tech-
nology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
Tatiana Baklashova Institute of Psychology and Education, Kazan Federal Uni-
versity, Kazan, Russia
Jeff Bale Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto, Toronto,
ON, Canada
Ana Daniela Ballesteros Universidad Iberoamericana Mexico City, Mexico City,
Mexico
Melissa Barnes Faculty of Education, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC,
Australia
Poonam Batra Formerly with the Central Institute of Education, University of
Delhi, Delhi, India
Douwe Beijaard Eindhoven School of Education, Eindhoven University of Tech-
nology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
Linda Bell University of the West of Scotland, Ayr, Scotland
Amanda Berry Faculty of Education, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
Lauren Boath School of Education, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
Lisbeth M. Brevik University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
Richard Brock King’s College London, London, UK
Clare Brooks UCL Institute of Education, London, UK
xxiii
xxiv Contributors
Rebecca Buchanan University of Maine, Orono, ME, USA

Katharine Burn Department of Education, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Monaliza M. Chian The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
Suzanne S. Choo National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological Univer-
sity, Singapore, Singapore
Darlene Ciuffetelli Parker Faculty of Education, Brock University, Toronto, ON,
Canada
Christopher M. Clark University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
Michael Connelly OISE, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
Artemio Arturo Cortez Ochoa Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge,
Cambridge, UK
Cheryl J. Craig Department of Teaching, Learning and Culture, Texas A&M
University, TX, USA
Russell Cross Melbourne Graduate School of Education, The University of Mel-
bourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Caroline Daly Institute of Education, UCL’s Faculty of Education and Society,
London, UK
Helen Damon Counselling Psychologist in Independent Practice, London, UK
Thi Kim Anh Dang Faculty of Education, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC,
Australia
Christopher Day University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
Enda Donlon Institute of Education, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland
Xavier Dumay Institute for the analysis of change in contemporary and historical
societies (IACS), UCLouvain, Ottignies-Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
Catarina Economou Faculty of Education and Society, Malmö universitet,
Malmö, Sweden
Caroline Elbra-Ramsay York St John University, York, UK
Jacob Elmore University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
Elin Ennerberg Faculty of Education and Society, Malmö universitet, Malmö,
Sweden
Tone M. Eriksen University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
Linda Evans Manchester Institute of Education, University of Manchester, Man-
chester, UK
Contributors xxv
Maria Assunção Flores Research Centre on Child Studies, University of Minho,

Braga, Portugal
Christine Forde University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
John Furlong University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Lisa Gaikhorst Research Institute of Child Development and Education, Univer-
sity of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Conor Galvin College of Social Sciences and Law, University College Dublin,
Dublin, Ireland
Panagiota Gkofa Sociology of Education, Greece, King’s College London, Lon-
don, UK
Qian Gong Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
A. Lin Goodwin Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
SAR, China
Lynch School of Education and Human Development, Boston College, Chestnut
Hill, USA
Stephen Gorard Durham Evidence Centre for Education, Durham University,
Durham, UK
Qing Gu UCL Institute of Education, University College London, London, UK
Karen Hammerness American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY, USA
Mark Hardman Institute of Education, UCL’s Faculty of Education and Society,
London, UK
Ian Hardy School of Education, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD,
Australia
Amanda Heffernan Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Jo B. Helgetun GIRSEF, Institute for the Analysis of Change in Contemporary and
Historical Societies, University of Louvain, Louvain la Neuve, Belgium
Christina Hewko University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
Andrew Pau Hoang The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
Jim Hordern Department of Education, University of Bath, Bath, UK
Moira Hulme University of the West of Scotland, Ayr, Scotland
Philly Iglehart Institute of Education, Plymouth Marjon University, Plymouth, UK
Sakiko Ikoma American Institutes for Research, Arlington, VA, USA
Inga Staal Jenset Department of Teacher Education and School Research, Univer-
sity of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
xxvi Contributors
Xiaonan Jiang Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies, Florida

Aydar M. Kalimullin Kazan Federal University, Kazan, Russia
Jenny Kassen Education, Western University, London, ON, Canada
Geert Kelchtermans Center for Innovation and the Development of Teacher and
School (CIDTS), KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
Aileen Kennedy School of Education, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow,
Scotland
Kathleen Kerrigan University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
Kyeongwon Kim Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies, Flor-
ida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
Kirsti Klette Department of Teacher Education and School Research, University of
Oslo, Oslo, Norway
Rupert Knight University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
Maaike Koopman HU University of Applied Sciences, Utrecht, The Netherlands
Marta Kowalczuk-Walędziak University of Białystok, Białystok, Poland
University of Daugavpils, Daugavpils, Latvia
Lisa Lackner Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto,
Toronto, ON, Canada
Audrey Lensmire Augsburg University, Minneapolis, MN, USA
Gerald K. LeTendre Penn State College of Education, The Pennsylvania State
University, State College, PA, USA
Wei Liao Beijing Normal University, Center for Teacher Education Research, Key
Research Institute of the Ministry of Education of China, Beijing, China
Per Lindquist Department of Education and Teachers’ Practice, Linnaeus Univer-
sity, Kalmar, Sweden
Bob Lingard (ACU & UQ) Australian Catholic University and University of
Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
Amélia Lopes University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
Meg Maguire King’s College London, London, UK
Alex Manning King’s College London, London, UK
Maria Inês Marcondes Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de
Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
Contributors xxvii
Cécile Mathou Institute of Social Sciences (ISS), University of Lausanne, Lau-

sanne, Switzerland
Kavita Kapadia Matsko Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
Diane Mayer Department of Education, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Uvanney Maylor Institute for Research in Education, University of Bedfordshire,
Bedford, UK
Noel McGinn Graduate School of Education of Harvard University, Swampscott,
MA, USA
Stephen McKinney School of Education, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
Margery McMahon School of Education, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
Juanjo Mena University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
Isabel Menezes University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
Ian Menter Department of Education, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Mirjamaija Mikkilä-Erdmann Department for Teacher Education, Center for
Research on Learning and Instruction (CERLI), University of Turku, Turku, Finland
Martin Mills (QUT & UCL) Queensland University of Technology, Australia and
University College London, Brisbane, Australia
Cristina Mio School of Education, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
Nicole Mockler The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Alex Moran Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies, Florida
Israel Moreno Salto Faculty of Human Sciences, Autonomous University de Baja
California, Mexicali, Mexico
Rebecca Morris Department for Education Studies, University of Warwick, Cov-
entry, UK
Trevor Mutton Department of Education, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Dong Nguyen School of Education, Durham University, Durham, UK
Ulla-Karin Nordänger Department of Education and Teachers’ Practice, Linnaeus
University, Kalmar, Sweden
Brad Olsen The Brookings Institution, Washington, DC, USA
Tanya Ovenden-Hope Institute of Education, Plymouth Marjon University, Plym-
outh, UK
Rowena Passy Plymouth Institute of Education, University of Plymouth, Plym-
outh, UK
xxviii Contributors
Elizabeth Redpath The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia

Elena Revyakina College of Social Sciences and Law, University College Dublin,
Dublin, Ireland
Elvira G. Rincon-Flores IFE, Tecnologico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Mexico
Susan L. Robertson Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge, Cambridge,
UK
Ana Angelita Rocha State University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Victor Salinas-Silva Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Valparaíso,
Chile
Marc A. C. Sarazin Moray House School of Education and Sport, University of
Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
Gonny Schellings Eindhoven School of Education, Eindhoven University of Tech-
nology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
Ernesto Schiefelbein Univesidad Autonoma, Santiago, Chile
Sylvia Schmelkes Universidad Iberoamericana Mexico City, Mexico City, Mexico
Michele Schweisfurth School of Education, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
Beng Huat See Durham Evidence Centre for Education, Durham University,
Durham, UK
Charlaine Simpson School of Education, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen,
Scotland
Tore Bernt Sorensen Taube Centre for Advanced Studies in the Social Sciences,
Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
Groupe interdisciplinaire de Recherche sur la Socialisation, l’Education et la For-
mation (GIRSEF), UC Louvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
Pauline Stephen General Teaching Council Scotland, Edinburgh, Scotland
David Stroupe Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
Maria Teresa Tatto Division of Leadership and Innovation, Mary Lou Fulton
Teachers College, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
Nick Taylor JET Education Services, Johannesburg, South Africa
Becky Taylor Institute of Education, UCL’s Faculty of Education and Society,
London, UK
Ian Thompson University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
Deirdre Torrance School of Education, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
Emma Towers King’s College London, London, UK
Contributors xxix
Tom Are Trippestad Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, Bergen,

Norway
Roza A. Valeeva Institute of Psychology and Education, Kazan Federal University,
Kazan, Russia
Rachel van Aswegen University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
Ourania Ventista Durham Evidence Centre for Education, Durham University,
Durham, UK
Kara Mitchell Viesca University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA
Annelise Voisin Center for Advanced Research in Education, Institute of Educa-
tion, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
Monique L. L. Volman Research Institute of Child Development and Education,
University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Anu Warinowski Faculty of Education, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
Yi Wei Peking University, China Institute for Educational Finance Research, Bei-
jing, China
Stephanie Wescott Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Simone White School of Education, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology,
Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Shijing Xu University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada
Peter Youngs University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
Sawako Yufu Graduate School of Teacher Education, Waseda University, Tokyo,
Japan
Part I
Introduction
Teacher Education Research in the Twenty-
First Century 1
Ian Menter
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Precept 1: “By Their Teacher Education ye Shall Know Them” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Precept 2: Context Matters – History, Culture, and Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Precept 3: In Tension – Research, Policy, and Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
The Significance of Teacher Education Research in the Twenty-First Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Relationships Between Teacher Education and Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Key Themes in Teacher Education Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Methodologies in Teacher Education Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
The Structure of this Handbook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to offer a rationale for both the contents and
structure of The Palgrave Handbook of Teacher Education Research. Firstly,
three “precepts” underlying teacher education research are set out. In combina-
tion, these precepts create an argument for adopting an anthropological approach
to the study of teacher education. The chapter then turns to a discussion of the
significance of teacher education as a field of research and the reasons for the
substantial expansion of activity within the field over recent decades. Three
relationships between teacher education and research are then outlined, followed
by the identification of a number of key themes within the field. A discussion of
the most commonly deployed methodologies ensues, illustrated by reference to
chapters in the handbook. An explanation of the structure of the handbook is then
offered with a brief account of what is covered in each section. Drawing on what
has preceded, the conclusion affirms the value of adopting an anthropological
I. Menter (*)
Department of Education, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
e-mail: ian.menter@education.ox.ac.uk
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 3

I. Menter (ed.), The Palgrave Handbook of Teacher Education Research,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16193-3_85
4 I. Menter
perspective in the undertaking of teacher education research, a perspective that is

all too frequently underplayed in the field.
Keywords
Teacher education · Research · Methodologies · Anthropology
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to offer a rationale for both the contents and structure
of The Palgrave Handbook of Teacher Education Research (Parts of this chapter
draw on and update earlier publications by the author including Menter, 2017a, b).
This introduction first sets out three “precepts” underlying teacher education
research, which together amount to a call for taking an anthropological approach
to the study of teacher education. The case for such an approach is developed at
various points in the chapter. Following the introduction the chapter turns to a
discussion of the significance of teacher education as a field of research and the
reasons for the substantial expansion of activity within the field over recent decades.
Three relationships between teacher education and research are then outlined,
followed by the identification of a number of key themes within the field. A
discussion of the most commonly deployed methodologies ensues, illustrated by
reference to chapters in the handbook. Before the conclusion of the chapter, an
explanation of the structure of the handbook is offered and a recognition of a degree
of serendipity is acknowledged in the ways in which some chapters have found their
way into one section rather than another. Drawing on what has preceded, the
conclusion asserts the enormous value of adopting an anthropological perspective
in the undertaking of teacher education research, a perspective that is all too
frequently underplayed in the field. Such a perspective can greatly enrich our
understanding of the social and cultural significance of teacher education. It can
also serve as a reminder of how much of the Anglophone research on teacher
education has a western and/or northern orientation.
Those who undertake teacher education research may benefit from reflecting on
three precepts that help us to make sense not only of matters of policy and process in
the field but also of the wider social significance of teacher education.
Precept 1: “By Their Teacher Education ye Shall Know Them”
Most teacher education is organized at the level of the state, sometimes the nation-
state and sometimes a state within a federation of states. This no doubt largely
reflects the level at which schooling systems are organized, and it is usually assumed
that teachers should be educated for the particular system within which they are
intending to work. At a time of increasing globalization of our national economies
and cultures, education and teacher education continue to be mainly organized at the
1 Teacher Education Research in the Twenty-First Century 5
national and/or state level – although that of course is not to deny the significant
influence of global forces within these national systems (Green, 1997; Rizvi &
Lingard, 2010). So, through reviewing and analyzing a nation’s teacher education
system we are appraising what it is that teachers should know, what they should be
able to do, and how they should be disposed, in order to help in the formation of the
future adult citizens of that society, in perhaps 10 to 20 years’ time. Teacher
education may be taken to be highly symbolic of how a society sees its future and
is therefore strongly indicative of its underlying values. Perhaps it is a realization of
this that has turned teacher education into such a center of political interest in the past
20 to 30 years in many countries.
However, these values and commitments are not necessarily simply implemented
within the society. There may well be considerable resistances, adaptations, and
“accommodations” that are made as policy processes are played out. Indeed, these
contestations themselves are significant sociologically and are frequently indicative
of deep underlying conflicts within the society. It is for reasons such as this that the
study of teacher education policy is of enormous interest not only to educationalists
but also to anthropologists, sociologists, and political scientists.
Precept 2: Context Matters – History, Culture, and Politics
We come to understand the nature of any teacher education system through exam-
ining the history, culture, and politics of that system and of the society (Fig. 1). Such
a perspective provides a sound methodological underpinning in seeking to make
meaning of teacher education in particular contexts. The particular educational
traditions in any setting may be identified within the teacher education system and
will reflect the relative influences of, for example, Western European thought,
Eastern philosophies, religious teachings, and political ideologies. We do need
help from historians and cultural theorists, also indeed from anthropologists, in
order to understand fully how and why our own contemporary approaches in teacher
education are as they are.
Fig. 1 Context matters
Politics History
Culture
6 I. Menter
Fig. 2 In tension
Research Policy
Practice
Precept 3: In Tension – Research, Policy, and Practice
The relationship between research, policy, and practice in teacher education is far
from straightforward, it is complex and dynamic but is a very important aspect of
what it is that teacher education practitioners and policymakers are all interested
in. As was found in the twelve-nation study carried out by Tatto and Menter (2019),
there are often significant tensions between these fields, and the processes of
influence are far from the virtuous cycle depicted in Fig. 2, as many chapters
included in this handbook illustrate. Examples of these tensions are apparent in
England for example in the very language used, with politicians referring to “teacher
training,” while most practitioners refer to “teacher education.” In the USS, depart-
ments of education in universities have long struggled to maintain their status as
being on equal terms with other departments (Labaree, 2004).
When these three precepts are combined, it may be proposed that they amount to
an anthropological perspective. We are seeking to make sense of teacher education
policy and practice in various contexts, in particular to understand processes of
cultural transmission through the processes of teacher education over time and space.
While the “sociological imagination” (Mills, 1959) offers deep understanding of the
relations between individuals and society, an “anthropological imagination” may
offer a perspective that is spatially broader and temporally longer. Anderson-Levitt
describes anthropology as “the holistic study of human beings” (Anderson-Levitt,
2012: 5). In assembling a major work such as the present Handbook, we may aspire
to such ambitions in our collected analyses of teacher education.
The Significance of Teacher Education Research in the Twenty-

First Century
In light of the three precepts outlined and looking now at the past development of
teacher education research, we can say that there is no single history of the field
around the world. There are notable differences between continents as well as within
continents (e.g., in England and Wales, see Dent, 1977). Until the nineteenth century
however, it would be a reasonable generalization, at least in the northern hemisphere,

to suggest that the teaching profession was closely associated with universities and
with religious organizations. It was the emergence of state provision for schooling in
many countries from the late nineteenth century onwards that led to the rapid
expansion of systematic approaches to the preparation of teachers in diverse loca-
tions. In particular the establishment of “normal schools” was a feature in Europe as
well as in north and south America (see Tatto et al.; Voisin and Avalos-Bevan). These
schools not only provided education for children but were the sites for an appren-
ticeship style of training for prospective teachers. As state education systems
expanded, colleges of education began to emerge, enabling the creation of larger
classes of study for trainee teachers and sometimes the provision of experimental
classrooms or schools where groups of trainees could observe teaching and be
evaluated by others in their own teaching (Cruickshank, 1970; Gosden, 1972).
The twentieth century saw the rise of social science disciplines including psy-
chology and sociology and the contribution that these subjects might make to the
education of teachers was recognized. So we began to see the steady
“academisation” of teacher education, the introduction of a body of specialized
professional knowledge that was judged to be important. As this process continued,
so the direct involvement of universities in teacher preparation increased (see
Alexander et al., 1984). This in turn was associated with an increasing “pro-
fessionalisation”Professionalisation of teaching and thus, for example, in England
we saw, by the early 1970s, the call for teaching to become an “all-graduate”
profession (James, 1972). So, while many secondary school teachers had a first
degree before they entered teacher training, many of those working with younger
children had entered teaching with some form of certificate that had not led to a
degree as such. At the same time as this was happening, the large number of Colleges
of Education were being amalgamated in a program of “rationalisation”Rationa-
lisation and then were being incorporated into universities or polytechnics. The UK
polytechnics themselves were converted into universities late in the twentieth cen-
tury, so that by the end of the twentieth century, teacher education – especially initial
or preservice teacher education – may be seen to have gone through a process of
“universitisation”Universitisation (Menter et al., 2006; Burn & Menter, forthcom-
ing). Similar patterns of development were happening in many other countries, or
took place later, as in Australia, although each system had a distinctive trajectory, as
reflected in many chapters in this handbook (e.g., see: Helgetun). In many countries
in the southern hemisphere, the colleges of education continue to be the main
providers of teacher education.
While the move toward the academy as a key contributor to the education of
teachers was a common trend in most parts of the world, the late twentieth century
saw some quite significant disruption of this trajectory. In the USA and in England in
particular there was a surge in the introduction of “alternative” routes into teaching.
Sometimes these have arisen in the context of teacher shortages, that is the supply of
teachers failing to meet the numbers required by the schools, but quite often these
innovations have been associated with ideological critiques of the nature of
university-led teacher education (Thomas et al., 2021).
8 I. Menter
The political focus on teacher education has been intensified by the publication of
a number of transnational reports on teaching and pupil attainment. The PISA
(Programme for International Student Assessment) studies published by the OECD
(Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development) have heightened
policymakers’ concerns about the attainment of young people in core subjects across
the world. The OECD also commenced an ongoing international survey TALIS
(Teaching and Learning International Survey) which has offered comparisons of the
experiences and needs of teachers across many nations (OECD, 2009, 2014, 2018).
Research from the school improvement and school effectiveness movement has
indicated that the quality of teaching is a key factor in raising school-level attain-
ment. Several transnational reviews, especially those carried out by the McKinsey
corporation (McKinsey and Co., 2007; Barber & Mourshed, 2007), have suggested
that the quality of teaching is one avenue through which politicians and
policymakers may have a real impact on the quality of their schools.
In parallel to these developments in policy and their effects on the practices of
teaching, how has the field of education as an academic subject been developing?
And, consequently, what have been the contributions of these developments to
teacher education research? As has already been indicated, the field of education
as a subject of study has been informed by a range of cultural traditions as well as by
a range of scholarly disciplines. Alexander’s major study of Culture and Pedagogy
(Alexander, 2000) explored these matters in relation to primary/elementary school-
ing in England, France, India, Russia, and the USA. Focusing more directly on
teacher education and on education as a field of study, an important collection of
chapters by scholars from a diverse range of six countries (France, Germany, Latvia,
Australia, China and the USA), assembled by Whitty and Furlong (2017), shows
how cultural and academic traditions may interact to shape the approaches taken
within particular contexts. They conclude that:
Education as a field of study does face serious challenges as it tries to respond to the ever-
increasing demands made on it in the increasingly globalised, competitive world of school
and university systems. But despite these challenges, real though they are, what we have
come to recognise is the huge intellectual resources enshrined in the different traditions we
have identified. (Furlong & Whitty, 2017: 49)
Furlong (2013) had earlier followed the trajectory of education as a field of study
in the UK, noting some of the differences demonstrated across the four main
jurisdictions of England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales (see also, Teacher
Education Group, 2016). Furlong subtitled his book “Rescuing the university pro-
ject?”, expressing his concern that what he calls the discipline of education was
being severely weakened by attacks on the higher education contribution to teacher
education, most powerfully launched in England (see also Childs & Menter, 2013).
Such tensions, conflicts, and debates have been recognized in many recent collec-
tions of works on teacher education across a range of countries, including those by
Darling-Hammond and Lieberman (2012), Townsend (2011), and Tatto and Menter
(2019). Many of the issues are also discussed elsewhere in this handbook.
As recently as 2000, however, teacher education research appeared to be a

significantly underdeveloped component in the processes of reform and develop-
ment. With some notable exceptions, there was a severe paucity of rigorous, large-
scale, or well-theorized research, especially in relation to policy and practice. This
was as true in the USA (Zeichner, 2005) as it was in the UK (Menter et al., 2010b).
While many important studies of teaching and learning and studies in the philosophy
of education had influenced professional practice and indeed had influenced teacher
education per se during the twentieth century, there was a lack of interrogation of
organized teacher education and also a lack of accumulation of the knowledge
derived from such research as existed.
The present handbook is indicative of a growing global interest in teacher
education, with considerable evidence of a wide range of studies now being carried
out in many parts of the world. However, this particular expression of the potential
burgeoning of teacher education research is not the first of its kind. Earlier examples
from the USA include very large collections published in association with scholarly
organizations such as the Association of Teacher Educators (ATE) and the American
Educational Research Association (respectively Cochran-Smith et al., 2008 and
Cochran-Smith and Zeichner, 2005). The first edition of the ATE collection was
published as long ago as 1990. Other more recent collections not associated with
particular organizations but also demonstrating the enormous global rise in teacher
education research include those edited by Clandinin and Husu (2017), Peters,
Cowie and Menter (2017), Akiba and LeTendre (2018), and Mayer (2021).
Relationships Between Teacher Education and Research
As is demonstrated in many of the publications referred to above, much of the

teacher education research that has been and continues to be undertaken is carried
out by people working as practitioners within the field. That is not the only form of
teacher education research however. It is proposed here (following Menter, 2017b)
that there are three main forms that teacher education research may take. In addition
to research in teacher education, we may also identify research on teacher education,
carried out by external researchers. A third form may be described as research
around teacher education, that is research that has a wider purview, connecting
with other disciplines and/or other arenas of social activity. In this section consid-
eration is given to what may be meant by each of these terms and how the topics
adumbrated in the previous section may be approached under each heading.
Although all three approaches may broadly be seen as educational research falling
under the wider umbrella of social sciences, they may nevertheless have different
disciplinary bases, as we shall see.
Research in teacher education: This, the most common approach to teacher
education research remains very important. If we see teaching itself as an enquiry-
based profession, then it is important that teacher educators model an enquiry
approach in their own work. In a major inquiry into the relationship between teacher
education and research carried out in 2013–14 by the British Educational Research
10 I. Menter
Association (BERA) in partnership with the Royal Society for the Arts (RSA) the
model of teaching and teacher education that emerged as most productive is one that
is enquiry-based. The inquiry report (BERA-RSA, 2014) called for all teachers to be
“research literate” – that is, all teachers are entitled to be equipped with the
appropriate skills to evaluate educational research, but also with the capacity to
engage in enquiry themselves. An implication of this is that all teacher education
programs should seek to provide trained teachers with these qualities. The idea of
“teacher as researcher” has a long tradition, not least in the UK, where that phrase
was coined by Lawrence Stenhouse (see Stenhouse, 1975), who saw teachers as
being, in their very essence, curriculum researchers. Stenhouse, however, like many
of those who have followed in that tradition believed that teacher research must be
rigorous. One of the common criticisms of much teacher research is that it is not only
small-scale but also that it can tend to be unsystematic and therefore of poor quality.
In developing the idea of the teacher as a researcher in the USA, Cochran-Smith,
Lytle, and their collaborators endorse the importance of rigor and also introduce the
idea of teacher inquiry as stance, that is adopting an explicit values position
(Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2009).
Research on teacher education: Research which steps back from the practice
and seeks to analyze and understand teacher education in a more “detached” way is
still all too scarce. Very often such research is carried out by policy researchers who
are interested in how programs are developed and in their effects. This approach to
research often overlaps with effectiveness models that were mentioned above, but
can also be very revealing of motives and values and may well challenge assump-
tions. The best example of such research in the UK is still – albeit, more than
20 years old – the Modes of Teacher Education (“MOTE”) work carried out during
the 1990s by Furlong and a number of colleagues (Furlong et al., 2000). The study
was independently funded (in contrast with some of the other research on teacher
education that has been funded by the government and its agencies) and sought to
ascertain how reforms of teacher education in England during the early 1990s were
“transforming teacher professionalism.”
There is a need for more of this kind of research to be undertaken, it should be
theoretically informed and should include work that is large-scale and longitudinal
and that uses a full range of methods. One recent example is the SETE (“Studying
the Effectiveness of Teacher Education”) study carried out in Australia by a large
consortium of researchers from several different institutions (Mayer et al., 2015).
This is an important and recent example of research on teacher education – although
having been carried out by a team of teacher education practitioners, it also has
elements of research in teacher education. Similarly, although carried out by a sole
researcher, Brooks’ study of Initial Teacher Education at Scale (Brooks, 2021 see
also ▶ Chap. 17, “The Uses and Abuses of “Quality” in Teacher Education Policy
Making,” by Brooks) adopts a strong theoretical framework (drawn largely from
geography) to identify a number of “quality conundrums” that shape policy and
practice in the field.
Some comparative education studies of teacher education also may be seen as
good examples of research on teacher education (see ▶ Part VIII, “Comparative
Studies in Teacher Education,” of this handbook). The IEA Teacher Education and
Development Study in Mathematics (TEDS-M) is the largest and more methodo-
logically rigorous international comparative study of the policies and opportunities
to learn that impact the outcomes of initial teacher education on the knowledge,
pedagogy, and beliefs of future primary and secondary teachers in seventeen coun-
tries including Botswana, Canada, Chile, Chinese Taipei, Germany, Georgia, Malay-
sia, Norway, Oman, Philippines, Poland, Russia, Singapore, Spain, Switzerland,
Thailand, and the USA. The study which used national representative samples of
teacher education programs was implemented by a team of educationists in every
country and has important implications for policy and practice, not only for math-
ematics education but also more broadly (Tatto et al., 2018b).
The “home international” study of teacher education policy and practice in the
UK and Ireland is another example (Teacher Education Group, 2016). It is very
valuable to contrast and compare approaches – not least in neighboring jurisdictions
– to identify how different values and understandings of teaching may lead to very
different approaches to teacher education. What has not been attempted to a great
degree, however, are efforts to ascertain the effects of such different approaches on
outcomes. Indeed, in England, where there is now an enormous variety of entry
routes into teaching (see Murray & Mutton, 2016), there have been some attempts to
make sense of this, but some have not been fully independent, with funding coming
from government sources (e.g., Hobson et al., 2006). Some more recent studies have
attempted to identify the different effects of approaches to ITE that are school-led
and those which are partnership based (Whiting et al., 2018; Brown, 2018; Tatto
et al., 2018a).
Research around teacher education: If research on teacher education is rela-
tively scarce, then research around teacher education is even scarcer. If it is agreed
that approaches to teacher education have a deep symbolic significance culturally
and sociologically in any social system (as was argued in the introduction to this
chapter), then this dearth of theoretically well-informed and often interdisciplinary
work is not only surprising, it is a matter of concern. The term “research around
teacher education” refers to research that seeks to understand teacher education in a
broader context, for example taking historical, anthropological, political science, or
social theory perspectives. This is work that is likely to be essentially interdisciplin-
ary and is designed to explore the relationship between teacher education and the
wider society.
In the UK, two examples may be cited. The first is a study that seeks to draw
explicitly on sociology, psychology, and philosophy in developing a deeper under-
standing of how teacher education might be reformulated in the twenty-first century,
through the application of these disciplines. Edwards, Gilroy, and Hartley (2002)
offer a stimulating challenge to contemporary teacher educators through their mul-
tiple disciplinary lens. Furlong’s study, referred to earlier (Furlong, 2013), while less
explicitly interdisciplinary in nature (being mainly sociological) nevertheless steps
well outside the usual constraints of the study of teacher education, by looking at the
institutional and societal setting of teacher education during the twentieth century
and into the twenty-first century. This creates a set of significantly deeper insights
12 I. Menter
than are achieved in much teacher education research, that simply takes teacher
education as a self-contained system.
An example of more broadly based analysis of teacher education within a
European context emerges from a study of “Teachers Careers” in Belgium, England,
and France. Drawing on sociological explorations of the changing nature of work
and employment in the twenty-first century, Dumay and colleagues are able to
examine the links between teacher education policy and practice on the one hand
and the segmentation of the teaching workforce on the other. The work is also
notable for its strong historical element and indeed goes well beyond the bounds
of Europe (Dumay & Burn, forthcoming). For further examples of work which seeks
a wider theorization in this volume, see ▶ Chaps. 72, “Globalizing Teacher Educa-
tion Through English as a Medium of Instruction: A Vygotskian Perspective,” Dang
and Cross, and ▶ 69, “From Global to Local: Policy Vernacularization as Assem-
blage, Refoulement, and Meld,” Revyakina and Galvin.
There remains a great dearth of serious anthropological work on teacher educa-
tion. Given the arguments made earlier about the symbolic significance of teacher
education, this must be an area for urgent attention, most likely to be undertaken by
anthropologists and educationists working in partnership. There has certainly been
valuable work in the anthropology of education, especially in the USA (e.g.,
Spindler, 1974; Anderson-Levitt, 2003, 2012), although very little of it has focused
on teacher education. The central “method” of anthropology, namely ethnography,
has however had a very significant impact on education research, although again
little of it has focused directly on teacher education (see Mills & Morton, 2013).
Some comparative study has sought to link the practices of teaching with wider
cultures, among the most eminent of these is Alexander’s five-nation study, referred
to above (Alexander, 2000). Alexander does discuss the processes of teacher edu-
cation for primary/elementary school teachers in considerable detail, and this work
remains an excellent example of an attempt to make these wider linkages.
The three relationships: As we have seen, one characteristic of teacher educa-
tion research is that much of it is conducted by those who are also its practitioners,
whether as teacher educators or as managers. The history of research in teacher
education is complemented by research on teacher education and intricately related
to the trajectory over time of teacher educators as an ill-defined, under-researched,
and sometimes beleaguered occupational group within Higher Education (Labaree,
2004; Ellis & McNicholl, 2015). But it is to be hoped that the wider significance of
teacher education in contemporary societies can be explored through an increasing
range of activity in research around teacher education.
Histories of particular teacher education institutions and biographies of early
teacher educators (e.g., Grier, 1937; Heward, 1993; Simon, 1998; Aldrich, 2002;
Thompson, B., 2017) reveal that some research was undertaken throughout the
twentieth century, but, on the whole, the focus was on curriculum development
and, to a lesser extent, on learning and teaching or practices of teacher education.
Only a few well-researched accounts of the development of teacher education were
produced, although during the second half of the twentieth century, important
empirical work on the nature of teaching was starting to be carried out in many parts
of the world (e.g., Galton et al., 1980; Hattie, 2008).
Teacher research, practitioner research, and action research have all been influ-
ential in teacher education, although perhaps less consistently than might be
expected. During the 1970s and 1980s further attempts were made to learn about
effective practices in teaching through empirical classroom-based work. Policy
developments in the 1980s and then upheavals in the 1990s gave rise to a new
wave of policy-related research, although again very little of this was focused on
teacher education per se.
It should also be noted that a number of important journals, creating opportunities
to publish teacher education research, were established in the second half of the
twentieth century, including, Teaching and Teacher Education, The Journal of
Teacher Education, The Journal of Education for Teaching, Teachers and Teaching:
Theory and Practice, The European Journal of Teacher Education, The Asia-Pacific
Journal of Teacher Education, Teaching Education, and Professional Development
in Education. While some of these have a distinct geographical base, they do all have
an international scope.
Professional and research bodies that have been important in supporting teacher
education research include in the UK: UCET, the Universities’ Council for the
Education of Teachers and BERA, the British Educational Research Association,
in Europe, the Association of Teacher Educators in Europe (ATEE), the European
Educational Research Association (which has had a network on teacher education
research from a very early stage). In the USA the equivalent bodies include AERA,
The American Educational Research Association, as well as the Association of
Teacher Educators (ATE). In India, there is the Indian Association of Teacher
Educators (IATE). In Australia, we have ATEA, the Australian Teacher Education
Association as well as the Australian Association for Research in Education
(AARE), and in Japan, The Japanese Society for the Study of Teacher Education.
All of these organizations normally hold conferences on a regular annual basis.
In summary then, it is clear that there is now a tradition of research in and on
teacher education in many parts of the world, which has generated several significant
studies and a supportive infrastructure of journals, conferences, and networks. But it
may be reiterated that there remains scope for significant development and expan-
sion of research around teacher education.
Key Themes in Teacher Education Research
The way in which this handbook has been structured is discussed more fully in a
subsequent section of this chapter. However, there are several distinctive themes in
teacher education research that may be seen as “cross-cutting” or transversal and in
this part of the chapter a number of these are identified. These are themes that are
relevant to most or all of the Handbook sections and reflect concerns arising in the
communities of teacher education policy and practice. Furthermore, it is the case that
all of these themes are significantly interconnected.
14 I. Menter
The quality of teachers and teaching: What kinds of people make the best
teachers? There has been a widespread assumption that those people with the best
knowledge and understanding of their subject will make the best teachers, but there
is little hard evidence of this. It may be just as important that potential teachers have
a range of social skills and an intellectual curiosity about learning. In most settings,
early years and elementary or primary school teachers are required to teach across a
wide curriculum range and thus their “subject knowledge” has a different connota-
tion from that term applied to secondary or high school teachers. Good levels of
literacy and numeracy are also judged to be important for all teachers and have in
some settings led to specific entrance requirements relating to these matters. Aspects
of recruitment and employment are most explicitly focused on in ▶ Part II, “The
Supply, Recruitment, and Retention of Teachers,” of the Handbook, but aspects of
“teaching quality” – what this term means and its contested nature – emerge in all
sections of the Handbook (e.g., Voisin and Avalos-Bevan).
In recent years, teaching quality has increasingly been cast in terms of
“performativity.” There have been growing trends to identify correlations between
“inputs” to teacher education and the results achieved in students’ assessments. The
complexity of the processes occurring between “inputs” and “outputs” in teaching is
considerable and while policymakers and politicians tend to seek simple cause-and-
effect explanations for what makes “a good teacher,” the reality is that there are so
many factors influencing these processes and relationships that it can be very
difficult to provide the “easy answers” that are being looked for. Nevertheless,
given the cost of providing teacher education programs from public funds, it is
more than legitimate that there should be efforts made to ensure that the best “value
for money” is achieved.
Concerns such as these are frequently amplified by the continuing evidence of
correlations between socioeconomic and ethnic background of children and their
school attainment. Issues of equity and the prevalence of such correlations can lead
to efforts toward “closing the gap” between the educational outcomes of children
from the richest and poorest families. The persistence of educational inequalities is
most marked in some of the wealthiest countries (Wilkinson & Pickett, 2009;
Dorling, 2015) and does not lend itself to a “quick fix” or indeed any easy solutions
(Childs & Menter, 2018; Menter, 2021). Nevertheless there is some teacher educa-
tion research that seeks to address these issues and offer some policy and practice
proposals to address them (Zeichner, 2009; Cochran-Smith, 2004; Thompson, I.,
2017).
The nature of professional knowledge: What is it that an aspiring teacher needs
to know? Again, this is a subject that has been much discussed and researched over
many years. While a simple view would have it that a teacher needs to know their
subject and “how to teach,” recent work following the influence of Lee Shulman
(1987) has suggested a typology of aspects of necessary professional knowledge,
including not only subject knowledge but also pedagogical subject knowledge,
general pedagogical knowledge as well as classroom management and communica-
tion skills (see Philpott, 2014). The twelve-nation study led by Tatto and Menter
(2019) sought to identify the particular forms of knowledge prioritized within
teacher education programs within each country and found great diversity in the
ways in which this knowledge was constructed. The TEDS-M study led by Tatto
(2013) in 17 countries explored the nature of the professional knowledge needed to
teach mathematics. Taking a different approach Whitty and Furlong (2017) showed
the influence of longstanding cultural traditions around the nature of knowledge on
teacher education systems.
Theory and practice: Closely related to questions of professional knowledge are
understandings of the relationship between theory and practice and the relative
importance of each in the processes of teacher learning. The “academisation”Aca-
demisation of teaching has been noted in many countries, but also in the recent past a
return to former “practice-based” approaches to teacher learning, for example
through employment-based routes of entry into teaching has emerged (Thomas
et al., 2021). On some occasions this debate about the nature of professional
knowledge for teachers gets translated into a debate about the relative significance
of educational theory and teaching practice. While most contemporary scholars
suggest that this is an unhelpful and misleading dichotomy, it does nevertheless
tend to be one that appeals to some politicians who deride educational theory as
variously distracting, misleading, or even subversive (see Murray & Mutton, 2016).
Much contemporary scholarship refers to the importance of an integrated approach
to professional learning, as a way in which to dissolve this binaried way of thinking.
The concept of “practical theorizing”Practical theorising was developed in the UK
by McIntyre (Hagger & McIntyre, 2006; Burn et al., 2022) and has influenced a
number of recent developments, some of which promote the idea of “clinical
practice” (Burn & Mutton, 2014). Such integrated approaches emphasize the need
for experiential learning that is informed by careful, systematic, and research-
informed analysis.
Sites of learning: This debate in turn leads to another key element in teacher
education research – the relative importance of the main sites of learning. The history
of teacher education across the world demonstrates how the role of higher education
has become increasingly important during the twentieth century. From early prac-
tices which very much emphasized the idea of the teacher trainee as an apprentice,
learning mostly in the classroom from observing and modeling their own actions on
those of experienced teachers, the recognition of the need for beginning teachers to
understand the processes of teaching and learning and, for example, the influence of
social situations on student learning have been linked to the growth of educational
sciences. So it was that increasingly, teacher education programs became some form
of dual provision between school settings and higher education settings. Where this
duality was seen as providing two distinctive experiences for the learner teacher, it
often reinforced the distinction between theory and practice and more recent devel-
opments have emphasized the importance of genuine collaboration between schools
and higher education institutions in developing integrated approaches to student
teacher learning and their sites. A comparative study of policy and practice in
England and the USA is a good example of an investigation of these issues (Tatto
et al., 2018a).
16 I. Menter
Contributions of the school and of the university: What then are the distinctive
roles of the school and the university if they are to work collaboratively? A major
contribution to this discussion was provided by Furlong (2013) in his analysis of “the
university project” in teacher education (see also ▶ Chap. 13, “Universities,
Research, and Initial Teacher Education in England and Wales: Taking the Long
View,” by Furlong in this handbook). Through exploring the university contribution
to teacher education, mainly within the UK, he demonstrated how, if teaching is seen
as a complex and morally based activity, then the key role of the university is in
pursuing what he calls “the maximisation of reason” (p. 176). This pursuit is not of
course unique to teacher education. He suggests that that is the overall distinctive
contribution of the university in advanced societies and draws on the great traditions
of higher education to demonstrate this. Within teacher education however, that
maximization of reason is exemplified most visibly through the provision of
research-based approaches in teacher education, including ensuring that beginning
teachers have ready access to the best educational research and also that they develop
the skills not only to evaluate and, where appropriate, to utilize that research, but also
to engage in enquiry-oriented practice themselves.
Curriculum and assessment within teacher education: What then do student
teachers need to learn and experience and how should they be assessed? The
particular combination of school experience and of academic study that can lead to
the best learning experience for the beginning teacher is a topic that has taxed teacher
educators as well as policymakers (Menter, 2016). The pattern of sites of learning
(between school and university) is only a part of the issue. For integrated approaches
to teacher education there are many questions about what is best learned where and
from whom? What input should be made by university staff? What should be the
role/s of school-based staff? Most integrated programs have a clear and explicit
division of responsibilities that involve a range of roles. Often the university pro-
vides a professional tutor and a subject tutor, while the school provides a general
professional tutor and a subject mentor. But the learning experiences may take place
in university classrooms and school settings. Sometimes professional seminars are
held in school settings while much of the detailed subject planning work and
assessment of pupil learning is discussed on a one-to-one basis between student
and subject mentor.
The assessment of student teachers is commonly done partly at least on the basis
of criteria that are elaborated as “standards” for the beginning teacher. But who is to
assess the achievement of these standards and how? Again the most advanced
collaborative partnership schemes set out a very clear set of responsibilities for
those involved, but the assessment of student performance is often done jointly by
school and university staff.
Social justice and teacher education: An area of growing interest in teacher
education research has been around issues of social justice. While, following
Bernstein (1970), teacher education “cannot compensate for society,” any more
than schooling can, the continuing inequalities in societies all around the world
persist and are closely connected to educational outcomes. The situation in devel-
oping countries can be very challenging (see Bashiruddin, 2018). There has been
much interest in seeking to promote teacher education that may lead to great equity
and to improved social justice (Tickly & Barrett, 2013; ▶ Chaps. 46, “Policy and
Practice in Increasing BME Teachers’ Access to ITE and a Leadership Career in the
Teaching Profession in England,” and ▶ 47, “Teacher Education in India: Virtual
Capture of the “Public””). Examples include work looking at teachers themselves
(Maylor, 2016; Moreau, 2019), teacher education programs (Cochran-Smith, 2004;
Zeichner, 2009; Thompson, B., 2017), and modes of assessment of preservice
teachers (Hextall et al., 2001). Many of these inequalities appear to have been
exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic, not least through the impact of the “digital
divide” on learners, as digital technologies have taken a more prominent role in
pedagogy, both in schools and in teacher education (see Trippestad et al).
The continuum of professional learning: It is now widely agreed that teacher
education and professional development should be seen as a continuum. What then
is the relationship between preservice teacher education and ongoing professional
learning? It may be assumed that there are some fundamentals that need to be
achieved before a new teacher can be judged to be qualified – or in the words of
the Australian government report, become a “classroom-ready teacher” (TEMAG,
2014). These fundamentals are frequently defended as the standards for initial entry
into the profession (Kennedy, 2016). What then do new teachers need to develop
subsequent to entering the classroom for the first time? Many new teachers talk about
classroom management, planning, and assessment as the biggest challenges of their
early days in school. These topics are often the focus for continuing training and
support during what is often referred to as the induction phase of teaching. Once the
early career teacher has gained some further confidence in these areas, it may be that
their ongoing learning may focus on the further enhancement of their subject
knowledge and understanding or they may choose to develop specialist expertise
for example in teaching children with special educational needs or teaching children
for whom the language of instruction is an additional language to their own first
language. Or more broadly, a number of teachers choose to develop their expertise in
educational leadership, perhaps with a view to becoming a subject leader (head of
department or faculty) or a school leader (assistant or deputy principal for example).
All of these further undertakings may be part of an accredited award, such as a
master’s program or a professional doctorate, or they may be pursued in a more
independent way, depending on what is available and on the disposition of the
teacher concerned.
Professional identity – teachers and teacher educators: The relationship
between teacher education and professional identity is one that has attracted interest
over many years (see Huberman, 1993; Day & Gu, 2010) and has led to life history
research that seeks to follow the trajectory of teachers’ development from their
preservice education through their professional lives (Goodson & Sikes, 2001).
More recently, there has been an awakening of equivalent interest in the professional
identities of teacher educators and the transitions that may be made as teachers move
from the school setting into a higher education setting (Lunenberg et al., 2014,
review some of this literature; see also Murray & Kosnick, 2013). The interest in
professional identity arises from concerns about how teachers and teacher educators
18 I. Menter
understand their work, their roles and responsibilities, and what are the factors that
influence these. Furthermore it is assumed that these matters will also relate to their
“performance” and “effectiveness.” A review of literature on teacher education
carried out for the Scottish Government in 2010 (Menter et al., 2010a) suggested
that four paradigms of teacher professionalism could be identified, as follows:
• the effective teacher;

• the reflective teacher;
• the enquiring teacher;
• the transformative teacher.
These four paradigms could be seen as lying on a continuum between more

restricted and more extended forms of teacher professionalism (Hoyle, 1974).
The governance of teacher education: The tendency for teacher education
systems to be managed at the level of the state was noted earlier. However, the
meaning of “the state” can vary considerably and there is an underlying research
question concerning the best level of government that should be responsible for
teacher education. In the USA, for many years it was the responsibility of each
individual state to make arrangements for the certification of teachers and for their
preparation, training, and development (Tatto & Clark, 2019). In the UK, that
responsibility now falls to each of the four main constituent nations (Teacher
Education Group, 2016). In Australia, each state has some responsibility but as in
the USA, the federal government has been taking an increasing interest in teacher
education (Mayer, 2019). In India, variations between states are further complicated
by the involvement of private sector organizations (see Batra). Many issues relating
to governance arise in ▶ Part VII, “Policy Studies in Teacher Education,” of this
handbook, focusing on policy studies (see also Furlong et al., 2009), and also in
▶ Part IX, “Globalization and Teacher Education,” on globalization.
There is a further important question of the balance of responsibility for particular
aspects of the provision between politicians, policymakers, and professionals
(teachers and teacher educators). In both developed and developing nations there
have been examples of quite strong tensions between the policy community and the
communities of practice (e.g., see Helgetun or Tatto & Parra-Gaete, 2019). As
suggested earlier, teaching and teacher education have become matters of consider-
able political significance and the knowledge, experience, and expertise of teachers
and teacher educators have sometimes been overridden by the efforts of politicians to
popularize their efforts to “improve” the profession. Teacher education has become
tangled up in the politics of populism (Eatwell & Goodwin, 2018; Mockler, 2022).
The role of teacher trade unions and other professional organizations has also
been very important in some settings (Compton & Weiner, 2008). While unions have
often tended to be most concerned with matters of pay and working conditions, they
have also exerted some influence over the nature of teacher education. In the case of
Scotland where a professional body, The General Teaching Council, was established
as long ago as 1965 (Matheson, 2015), the dominant teacher union was well
represented in this body and shaped policy and practice in teacher education to a
significant extent.
The COVID-19 pandemic has also revealed a range of relationships between
politicians and professionals as governments have attempted to respond to the
challenges of maintaining educational provision – including within teacher educa-
tion – at the same time as schools, colleges and universities were closed down for
lengthy periods (see Trippestad et al). The use of digital technologies as media for
learning and communicating escalated rapidly during these experiences. In his
chapter in this volume, LeTendre focuses on ICT as a globalizing force and its
impact on teachers’ work and professionalism.
The topics discussed in this section represent at least a major part of the range that
face teacher education researchers as they strive to improve our understanding of
policy and practice in the field. In the next section we turn to consider something
more about how teacher education research is undertaken and with what methodo-
logical approaches.
Methodologies in Teacher Education Research
Teacher education research may be seen as a subset of educational research and

many of the same issues that arise within teacher education also exist in that broader
field. Much of what takes place under the name of educational research is seen to be
within the wide scope of the social sciences. Furlong argues that educational
research:
. . .has gone through a number of stages of development, but, actually, the truth is more
complex. Over the past 130 years, dominant discourses of educational research have
certainly changed, but rather than one approach being succeeded by another, with old
traditions withering away, the reality is that new ones have simply been added to previous
traditions. As a result, today educational research is multivocal, embracing a range of
different traditions each of which might claim different historical roots. (Furlong, 2013:
21–22).
So, while educational research may now appear to have social science at its core,
nevertheless there may still be a clear overlap with the humanities. For example,
much historical and philosophical research in education can be seen as falling under
that umbrella (McCulloch & Richardson, 2000; Higgins, 2011) and educational
work within cultural and media studies may be seen also to be better described in
this way (e.g., Hansen, 2011; Menter, 2022).
Quantitative versus qualitative approaches: If however, educational research
now tends to be seen as predominantly a social science, what kind of methodological
approaches may be taken? In the USA, in the latter part of the twentieth century,
there were major tensions between quantitative and qualitative approaches, some-
times referred to as “paradigm wars.” To some extent, these tensions reflected a
struggle between positivism and interpretivism (St Clair, 2009). Major research
funders – particularly government sources and large corporate organizations –
20 I. Menter
have tended to favor the former, especially since the latter part of the twentieth
century. There was also an influence from the media, with journalists strongly
favoring stories in which numbers could be included. Something of the same
“warfare” has been experienced in the UK more recently, as again government
sources have been seen to strongly favor a particular form of quantitative research
in education, the randomized controlled trial, the RCT (Gorard et al., 2017). In
drawing comparisons with medical science, it has been argued that the comparison
of the experiences of intervention and control groups, analogous to one group
receiving a new drug and another group being given a placebo, will obviously
lead to greater efficiency in education research (Goldacre, 2013; see also Torgerson
& Torgerson, 2009).
Action research: In promoting these quantitative approaches, some scorn has
been applied to small-scale qualitative research (by Goldacre, 2013, for example).
Yet, as was suggested earlier, there is a very important tradition within education of
what has variously been called action research (Elliot, 1991) or practitioner research
(Campbell et al., 2004). Indeed the idea of “teacher as researcher” was developed
very significantly in the UK by Lawrence Stenhouse (1975) in his groundbreaking
work, drawing not least on ideas from John Dewey. Stenhouse argued that the best
researchers of education were teachers themselves. He saw teachers as curriculum
researchers in particular, being in the best place to make decisions, based on
evidence, about what should be taught – as well as how.
The idea is that of an educational science in which each classroom is a laboratory, each
teacher a member of the scientific community. (Stenhouse, 1975: 142)
Randomized controlled trials: It is curious that the resurgence of interest in

“evidence-based teaching” in the UK (Thomas & Pring, 2004), as well as elsewhere,
seems often to ignore these important developments and to emphasize so exclusively
one particular methodology, the randomized controlled trial (RCT). It is not that
RCTs do not make an important contribution as one of a wide repertoire of
approaches. However, large-scale RCTs in education are very difficult to implement
(Gale, 2018) and small-scale RCTs are only likely to have wider significance if they
can be closely associated with each other – as some current moves within the
Teaching Schools movement in England seek to do (Childs & Menter, 2018).
Meta-analysis and systematic review: The importance of accumulating evi-
dence in education research is one reason that systematic review and meta-analysis
have become such important elements of the field (Gough et al., 2012; Hattie, 2008).
Analyses of published research were a key element in the national studies reported in
Tatto and Menter (2019). Many reviews of literature have been carried out in the
USA, including a survey covering a period of 80 years by Cochran-Smith and Fries
(2008). A literature review carried out for the Scottish government considered
international literature, including policy documents as well as research (Menter
et al., 2010a).
Theoretical perspectives: Revisiting the three relationships between teacher
education and research that were discussed in an earlier section of the chapter, it is
no surprise that, given the prevalence of research in teacher education, there is much
use made of various forms of practitioner research. In light of the balance of teacher
education research toward small-scale self-study approaches it is also not surprising
that the field has been somewhat lacking in the development of theory. The devel-
opment of theory in educational sociology and psychology during the twentieth
century, as applied to students and schools was very significant (see for example
Halsey et al., 1997) but relatively little of this work (with some honorable excep-
tions) derived from teacher education. However, in the twenty-first century, there
have been more serious efforts both to apply theory and to develop theory within the
field of teacher education. Thus, for example, we have seen the application of
various forms of sociocultural theory in teacher education. Building on the work
of Vygotsky, cultural-historical activity theory has been used to examine the nature
of relationships and the processes of learning within teacher education (Ellis et al.,
2010; see also ▶ Chap. 72, “Globalizing Teacher Education Through English as a
Medium of Instruction: A Vygotskian Perspective,” by Dang and Cross in this
volume). Other sociocultural concepts such as “communities of practice” have
become influential (Wenger, 1998) and increasing use is being made of “complexity
theory” (e.g., Hardman, 2019). The rapid development of policy sociology in
education from the 1980s onwards has also influenced teacher education research,
as many of the chapters in this handbook demonstrate, especially in the sections on
policy studies, comparative studies, and globalization (6, 7, and 8). Critical theory
and critical pedagogy, derived in part from Habermas (1987) and Freire (1971),
respectively, have also been influential, not least in the USA (e.g., Apple, 1996;
Giroux, 1983).
Postmodernism has been a significant element within social theory for several
decades and the influence of post-structural linguistics and Foucauldian theory has
been clear (Ball, 2013). A range of educational research has been influenced by these
developments, but again these trends are less apparent in teacher education research
(but see ▶ Chap. 73, “Shadow Elite of Transnational Policy Networks: Intermediary
Organizations and the Production of Teacher Education Policies,” by Aydarova in
this volume). Some exceptions include Phelan’s text which links developments in
curriculum theory with teacher education, under the heading of “complicating
conjunctions” (Phelan, 2015) or Fenwick’s and Edwards’s (2010) exploration of
actor-network theory, although this relates more particularly to ongoing professional
learning for teachers.
Feminism and anti-racism have also had an influence in teacher education
research. The longstanding issues deriving from the “feminisation” of the teaching
profession, in many contexts, have led to studies about gender issues in teaching and
teacher education (for example Moreau, 2019; Skelton, 2007). Similarly, the ethnic
imbalance of the teaching profession, again in many contexts has led to enquiries
into teacher recruitment practices as well as studies of the impact of racism on
teachers from minority ethnic groups (▶ Chap. 46, “Policy and Practice in Increasing
BME Teachers’ Access to ITE and a Leadership Career in the Teaching Profession in
England,” Maylor, in this volume).
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Fig. 86. The Bawley.
No modification of the cutter rig in England is so thoroughly Dutch

as the bawley (Fig. 86). Not even the least observant of passengers
on the Margate steamer can have failed to notice these little ships off
the Nore or cruising somewhere up and down the Thames estuary.
Off Southend and Whitstable they are as common as flies in
summer, and bigger children of the same family are to be seen
brought up in the Stour abreast of Harwich. The bawley inherits the
Dutch ancient mainsail, with brails that can speedily shorten canvas,
and without a boom to be kicking about from side to side as the ship
rolls in the trough of the nasty seas that can get up off the entrance
to our great waterway. With their transom stern and easily brailed
and triced mainsail these bawleys are excellent bad-weather boats.
Some of the finest cutters in the country are the Brixham Mumble
Bees, trawlers of about 27 tons. They have their mast stepped well
aft, so that they are able to set an enormous foresail. Here especially
the long bowsprit has survived, and without a bobstay to support it.
The Plymouth hooker, with her mast stepped well amidships, with
her square stern, no boom to her mainsail, and pole-mast, cannot be
said altogether to have escaped Dutch influence, although it is said
that the Devonshire men in Elizabeth’s time possessed cutters of
their own.
The illustration in Plan 1 shows the sail and rigging plan of the
Gjöa. The vessel is shown here because in combining much that is
old and new she is one of the most interesting cutters afloat. Her
tonnage is 70, length over all 69 feet, beam 20·66 feet, depth 8·75
feet, draught 7·5 feet. In June 1903 she set out from Christiania, and
three and a half years later she had navigated the North-West
Passage and reached San Francisco. Obviously built for the hard
service of the Arctic regions, her hull is bluff and strong. The
bowsprit is more that of an old-fashioned full-rigged ship than of a
modern cutter, and the squaresail, whose yard and braces will be
noticed, has come back from the times of the old Dutchmen, being,
as already mentioned, of inestimable value for running across vast
expanses of ocean. But in spite of her old-fashioned bow and stern
and rigging she is fitted with a heavy-oil motor, as will be seen from
Plan 2. This was found very useful, giving the ship a speed of 4
knots per hour; and it was the first time a motor-propelled ship had
been so far north. Plan 3 gives an adequate idea of Gjöa’s deck
arrangement.
Pass we now to trace the progress of the schooner. It is a common
error to suppose that this rig was derived direct from the cutter by
merely adding another mast and sail of the same shape as the
mainsail. Such a statement is pure guess-work, and entirely contrary
to fact. The schooner originated quite independently of the cutter and
much later, though the shape of her mainsail and foresail was
obtained from the former. About the beginning of the seventeenth
century a craft far from uncommon among the Dutch was the sloop.
Now in order to clear the ground, let us carefully separate the three
distinct kinds of craft to which this name belonged at that time. The
word sloop, or more properly sloepe, was applied less to the rig than
to the size of the craft, denoting a somewhat small tonnage. Thus it
was primarily applied to a ship’s big boat, such as was used to run
out the kedge anchor and for fetching provisions and water from the
shore. The same name was also given to the Dutch vessels of about
55 feet long and 12½ feet beam which sailed to the Cape Verde
Islands. More familiar to us was the custom of applying it to the early
cutter-like craft which carried a triangular foresail yet no jib. But not
one of these is the sloop we are looking for. This is found in that kind
of sailing craft which was about 42 feet overall and with 9 feet beam.
She was rigged with two pole masts, the mainmast being 24 feet
long. On each she had just such a sail as we see in Fig. 83 of a
modern schuyt, with loose foot and with both gaff and boom, but the
most important fact is that she had neither bowsprit nor headsails of
any kind, while her foremast was stepped right as far forward as it
could get. There are plenty of contemporary prints and paintings in
existence to show such a vessel, which usually had an enormous
sheer coming up from bow to stern. This, then, was not a schooner
but a sloop, and you may search high and low in all the seventeenth
century dictionaries, marine and otherwise, but you will not find such
a word as “schooner” in existence. We come, then, to the early part
of the eighteenth century, and we cross to North America. When in
1664 the British, during the war with Holland, seized the Dutch
colony of the New Netherlands and changed the name of New
Amsterdam to New York in honour of Charles II.’s brother, most of
the Dutch settlers who had come out from Europe remained. So, like
those early people who trekked westwards across the Syrian desert
to Egypt, the Dutch had also brought with them their ideas and
practical knowledge of shipbuilding, included in which was that of
making sloops. It was at Gloucester, Massachusetts, still to-day
famous for the finest schooners and the very finest schooner-sailors
that ever tasted brine on their lips, that in 1713 the first genuine
schooner with a triangular headsail was built. To add the latter to the
two-masted sloop was but the easiest transition. Not till the first
vessel of this now enormous class was actually making its first
contact with water was the name schooner bestowed on it. As she
was leaving the stocks some one remarked “Oh, how she scoons.”
“Very well, then,” answered her proud builder, “a scooner let her be.”
And so she has remained ever since.
For the next century and a half Gloucester went ahead building
these beautiful creatures, more stately than a cutter, less ponderous
than a full-rigged ship, until 1852, when the famous America still
perpetuated in the America Cup came across to the English waters
and so wiped the slate that every rich owner of yachts desired to turn
them into the same rig as this Yankee. We will say no more about
her at present as we shall presently make her acquaintance anew
when we come to deal entirely with yachts.
Fig. 87. The Schooner “Pinkie” (1800-50).

Fig. 88. The “Fredonia.” Built in 1891.
But to return to the more commercial schooner; for whatever else

Gloucester, Massachusetts, may yet become famous, it will always
be associated with that wonderful fleet of fishing schooners which
those who have read Kipling’s “Captains Courageous,” and Mr. J. B.
Connolly’s “The Seiners,” already know. The origin of this wonderful
Gloucester breed may be traced to the Dutch fly-boat, or flibot, of the
eighteenth century. The next step in the evolution of the Gloucester
schooner is seen in Fig. 87, the Pinkie, engaged in the fishery
industry between 1800 and 1850. Although the sail plan belongs to a
smaller boat than the one just indicated, yet we see the first step in
the introduction of the single headsail to the old two-masted “sloepe,”
with the foremast even now stepped very far forward. Impelled by
the demands for a ship that would be able to carry its fish to market
with the utmost despatch, but which would be able to endure being
caught in the terrible seas off the Newfoundland Banks; and
subsequently encouraged to progress through the popularity which
such craft were obtaining among the American pilots who used to
come out enormous distances into the Atlantic in those days to meet
the incoming liners, the builders and designers went on improving
the design and rig, giving them fine hollow lines, adding jibs and
standing bowsprits, greater draught and speed, larger spars with a
vast square measurement of canvas. The Fredonia, seen in Fig. 88,
was one of the famous schooners of the ’nineties and is so still. She
was designed by W. Burgess in 1891, and with her cut-away fore-
foot and finer lines is a great improvement on the old Dutch models.
This vessel measures 114 feet 2 inches long, with 25 feet beam,
drawing 12 feet 8 inches. Her displacement is 188 tons, and her sail
area is the enormous extent of 7542 square feet. Fig. 89 represents
one of the earliest of the twentieth-century productions, and is
designed by the famous Crowinshield. Her fore-foot is cut away
more like that of a Solent racing schooner-yacht. Indeed, many of
these Gloucester schooners are far more entitled to be called yachts
than any other name. I have watched them turning up the Hudson in
the winter, threading their way through the ice-blocks and the crowd
of fussy tugs and mammoth liners in New York harbour with the
handiness of a small rater. The most modern example of this ideal
ship is that seen in Fig. 90. She is only a 53-tonner with an overall
length of under 70 feet, and is fitted with a 25-horse-power motor.
But in many cases the internal combustion engine has been adopted
by the American sailing ships only to be rejected as not worth while.
Fig. 89. Gloucester Schooner, a.d. 1901.
Fig. 90. Gloucester Schooner, a.d. 1906.
The coasting trade of the United States of America is not done in

the ketches and topsail schooners and barquentines that we use. It
is done exclusively, where sailing ships are used, in fore-and-aft
schooners which have arisen directly or indirectly from Gloucester.
Two masts have become three, three have become five, and even
as many as seven have been used. Perhaps the most notable of
these was the seven-masted Thomas W. Lawson, which foundered
off the Scillies on December 14, 1907. Remarkable for the ease with
which it can be handled, a three-masted schooner of about 400 tons
requires only a dozen hands aboard. In tacking, a couple of hands
work the head-sheets, and these with a man at the wheel can work
her in and out of narrow channels, for which the rig is more suited
than any modification of the squaresail. For labour-saving “gadgets”
the American schooner has reached the furthest limit. Thus the
anchor and sails are raised by steam force; there is steam steering
gear as well as steam capstan, and the biggest ships of all have
been fitted even with electric light. The illustration in Fig. 91 of a four-
master will give one some idea of the extent to which the American
schooner has developed.
Fig. 91. An American Four-masted Schooner.
Coming back to European waters, besides the pure fore-and-aft

schooner we have also the topsail schooner and the two-topsail
schooner. No better instance of the former could be found than in the
illustration in Fig. 116 of Lord Brassey’s famous auxiliary yacht the
Sunbeam, of which we shall give further details on a later page,
among the yachts. But we may now call attention to the square fore-
topsail and smaller t’gallant sail on this ship. Sometimes, too, one
finds a royal added also to the foremast. The braces, clew-garnet,
lifts, and other rigging are so well shown in this photograph as to
require no further comment. A two-topsail schooner carries a square
topsail and t’gallant sail at the main as well as the fore. The topsail
schooner is perhaps the best known of our coasting types. Most of
our trading schooners are “butter-rigged,” that is to say, that whereas
the topsail schooner has a standing t’gallant yard set up with lifts, the
butter-rigged sets her t’gallants’l flying by hoisting the yard every
time.
Fig. 92. A Barquentine off the South Foreland.
Fig. 93. Barquentine with Stuns’ls.

The illustrations in Figs. 92 and 93 represent barquentines,
although one of them is seen with the now obsolete stun’s’ls. A
barquentine is square-rigged on the foremasts, but fore-and-aft
rigged on the main and mizzen. The difference between the
barquentine and the three-masted schooner is that the former has a
regular brigantine’s foremast. The three-masted schooner does not
carry a fore-course, but in place of it a large squaresail, only used
when running free in moderate weather, only differing from the fore-
course in that it is not bent to the yard.
Fig. 94. The “Fantôme,” 18-ton Brig. Launched 1838.
The illustration shown in Fig. 94 represents the 18-ton brig

Fantôme. She was designed by Sir W. Symonds and launched about
1838. Her armament consisted of eighteen 32-pounders, and her
complement was 148 officers and men. Her tonnage was 726, her
breadth 37·7 feet, length 120 feet, and depth of hold 18 feet. This is
from a photograph of the model in the South Kensington Museum.
Fig. 95 is a photograph of the training brig Martin, actually afloat. The
brig was the last sailing ship to disappear from the British Navy, and
her final abolition is so recent that her picturesqueness still lingers in
the imagination of Solent yachtsmen and others. The Martin was
launched in 1836. As will be seen from the photograph, which
obtains even greater interest when compared with the model just
mentioned, she carried single topsails, t’gallants and royals.
Stun’sails will be noticed on the foresail, fore-topsail, fore-topgallant
sail as well as on her main topgallant sail. As we shall never see
these sailing brigs again, the photograph is of more than ordinary
interest.
Fig. 95. H.M.S. “Martin,” Training Brig. Launched 1836.
In olden days the brig was a favourite rig for small coasters. In the
marine paintings of Turner and the early part of the nineteenth
century one sees them frequently. In the eighteenth century, and
even as late as the nineteenth, the brig was used for the coal-
carrying trade. The nineteenth-century brigs often carried, besides
the sails seen in the two illustrations, an enormous fore-topgallant
staysail. But both the handiness of schooners and ketches began to
oust her, and the coming of the steam collier finally did for her in the
mercantile marine as, at a later date, she was abolished from the
Royal Navy.
Fig. 96. A Hermaphrodite Brig, commonly but erroneously called

a Brigantine.
I have intentionally introduced the brig at this point,

notwithstanding that she is essentially a square-rigged ship, in order
that we may compare her the more easily with that compromise
between the square rig and fore-and-aft vessel, the brigantine.
Strictly speaking, the brigantine is square-rigged at her foremast, but
differs from the Hermaphrodite brig in carrying small squaresails aloft
at the main. She differs also from the full-rigged brig in having no top
at the mainmast and in carrying a fore-and-aft mainsail and
sometimes a main-staysail instead of a square mainsail and try-sail.
(The fore-and-aft sail at a brig’s mainmast is called a try-sail.) The
illustration in Fig. 96 represents a Hermaphrodite brig, commonly
and erroneously called a brigantine. The Hermaphrodite brig, or brig-
schooner, is square-rigged at her foremast like a brig, but without a
top forward, and carrying only a fore-and-aft mainsail and gaff topsail
on the mainmast. And here it may not be out of place to mention
another subtlety: while a barque has three masts, being square-
rigged at her fore and main like a ship, and differing from a ship-
rigged vessel in having no top at her mizzen, but carrying a fore-and-
aft spanker and gaff topsail, yet what is known among sailormen as
the “Jackass” barque resembles a barque proper, but has no
crosstrees, does not spread lower courses and has no tops. (Tops
are the platforms placed over the heads of the lower masts, while the
crosstrees are at the topmast heads, being used for giving a wider
spread to the standing rigging).
The illustration seen in Fig. 97 shows one of the smallest
schooner-rigged craft that ever sailed the ocean. This is the famous
Tillikum, adapted from a “dug-out,” in which Captain J. C. Voss,
F.R.G.S., sailed round the world to England. The sketch which we
give here of this odd ship was made in November 1906, while she
lay off the Houses of Parliament. She has since changed ownership
and been fitted with a motor, and in her green paint is a familiar sight
to those who bring up in the Orwell off Pin Mill.
The origin of the ketch is also Dutch, although the word is in old
French quaiche and in Spanish queche. We frequently find the
influence of the bomb-ketch in old pictures and engravings, in which
the mizzen is close up against the mainmast, and the latter is
stepped well abaft of amidships, so as to allow the shot fired to clear
the rigging, leaving a large fore-triangle. (See Fig. 62, the galiote à
bombe.) This influence is felt even as late as the second half of the
eighteenth century. The ketch is descended from the Dutch galliot,
which, besides having a gaff mizzen, had a sprit mainsail like the
barge, and with no boom, but three brails and one row of reef-points.
The usual vangs led down aft from the peak, and she also had lee-
runners. But, besides her
triangular headsails,
consisting of a
fore(stay)sail and a couple
of jibs, she carried also a
small t’gallant sail, with big
topsail below, and often a
large lower course below
that—all these last three
being square, as on a full-
rigged ship, and to this day
many Baltic ketches
continue to be rigged in
like manner. At the close of
Charles II.’s reign we find
that among the 173 ships
in the British Royal Navy
there were three ketches,
but before this date, in his
“Seamen’s Dictionary” of
1644, Sir Henry
Fig. 97. The “Tillikum,” Schooner-rigged
“Dug-out,” which sailed round the World.
Manwayring defines them
simply as “a small boate
such as uses to come to
Belinsgate with mackrell, oisters, &c.” From the time of Charles I. the
Dutch have had the privilege of mooring three of their fish-carrying
craft off Billingsgate in recognition of “their straightforward dealings
with us,” and any day the reader likes to go down in the vicinity of
London Bridge he will see two or three Dutch schuyts swinging to
their moorings. In an eighteenth century work on naval architecture it
is curious to see the galliot also called a galleasse. In this case the
mainsail has discarded the sprit and taken on a small gaff with boom
and loose foot. Two rows of reef-points are also added, and the
squaresails are still there. An old English engraving also shows a
close similarity to the former bomb-ketch. But in the course of time
all the squaresails were abolished, the mainmast brought further
forward, and the mizzen sail enlarged so as to be not much smaller
than the mainsail. Nowadays nowhere is the modern ketch rig so
prominent as on the east coast of England, from as far north as
Whitby to as far south as Ramsgate, and even Brixham. The billy-
boy, with her long raking bowsprit, setting almost as many jibs as a
full-rigged ship, and whose general design bears the most
remarkable likeness to the ship in the seal of Dam in Fig. 40, is the
Yorkshire adaptation of the old Dutch galliot, and, with her leeboards
and ketch rig, is well known in the North Sea. In the ’seventies our
East Coast fishermen were almost all rigged with the lug-sail, but
now some of the finest ketches will be found in the fishing fleets of
Yarmouth, Lowestoft, and Ramsgate. For powerful, seaworthy craft,
able to heave-to comfortably, and with the capacity of riding out
gales that few modern yachts with their cut-away bows could
survive, there is nothing on the sea, size for size, to beat these
ketches. In Fig. 98 we give an illustration of a Lowestoft “drifter.” With
her boomless mainsail and raking mizzen, setting a jackyard topsail
over both main and mizzen, she sets also in light winds a large
reaching jib.
Fig. 98. Lowestoft Drifter.

Fig. 99. Thames Barge.
We come next to the yawl. Correctly speaking this word has

reference not to rig but to shape. The Scandinavian yol was a light
vessel, clinker-built and double-ended, like the Viking shape. The
Yarmouth yawls that we shall consider presently, were correctly
called yawls with their bow and stern alike. But the word has now
come to refer to a later adaptation of the ketch, in which the mainsail
has grown bigger and the mizzen smaller. In a ketch the mizzen
mast is stepped forward of the rudder-head; in the yawl the mizzen
mast is abaft the rudder-head. The Jullanar, for instance, in Fig. 117,
is a yawl. But to the Londoner no more familiar example could be
found of a yawl than the Thames barge, of which the illustration in
Fig. 99 is a fair specimen. Still inheriting her Dutch-like spritsail and
brailing arrangement, she has also the vangs that were first attached
to the peak in the sixteenth century. The old-fashioned topsail is a
cross between a modern jackyarder and the old Dutch square
topsail. Aft she carries another small spritsail on the diminutive
mizzen. Smaller types of barge, called “stumpies,” have only pole-
masts and neither bowsprit nor jib nor topsail. But the larger type of
barge, carrying topmast and setting a big jib-headed topsail, known
as topsail barges, with their red-ochred canvas and the untanned jib,
always known by bargemen as the “spinnaker,” have grown to such
sizes that they go right down to the west end of the English Channel.
Yet these are rather ketches than yawls. But even in the Thames
barges developments have not ceased. Obviously Dutch, as they
strike one in a moment, the old Dutch bluff bows have been replaced
by the straight bow as seen in the sketch. A whole book could be
written about the barge and her ways, her history, her leeboards, her
lengthy topmast, and the wooden horse on which the staysail works;
but we must pass on.
Fig. 100. Norfolk Wherry.

Curiously Dutch-like, too, is the Norfolk wherry seen in Fig. 100,
with her one enormous sail, her mast fitted in a tabernacle for ease
in lowering, unsupported by shrouds or rigging of any sort other than
the forestay by which the mast is eased down. Only one halyard is
required for both peak and throat, which are raised by means of a
winch forward of the mast. She has no leeboards, nevertheless she
draws under three feet of water: although I have heard her
sweepingly condemned as defying all existing rules, yet the way she
can sail right close into the wind is incredible to those who have not
seen her. In running with her bonnet off and her sail close reefed she
gripes badly and is a veritable handful as she comes sailing into
Great Yarmouth from across Breydon Water or tearing through the
rushes of Barton Broad and down the tortuous and narrow Ant.
Within recent years, now that the Norfolk and Suffolk waterways
have become a tourist resort, the wherry has changed her face a
little and become smarter, and the tanned sail is often allowed to
remain white, while the hatches have been taken away and a cabin
roof, allowing plenty of head-room with ladies’ saloons, pianos and
other luxuries, have come in. But all the time the wherry remains as
a useful cargo boat for bringing coals and timber from the ports of
Lowestoft and Yarmouth inland to Norwich and the East Anglian
villages, returning with eels, or marsh hay for thatching. Sometimes
one notices them, in settled weather, with a fair wind steal quietly out
from Lowestoft harbour and make a sea passage round to Yarmouth,
but as Mr. Warington Smyth well says in his “Mast and Sail,” “in the
smallest wind and sea the wherry loses her head entirely and
develops a suicidal tendency to bury herself and crew.”
Fig. 101. Dhow-rigged Yacht.

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The Palgrave Handbook of Teacher

Education Research Ian Menter

The Palgrave Handbook of Global Citizenship and

The Palgrave Handbook of Paralympic Studies 1st Edition

The Palgrave Handbook of Operations Research Saïd Salhi

The Palgrave Handbook of Imposter Syndrome in Higher

The Palgrave Handbook of Ethics in Critical Research

The Palgrave Handbook of Citizenship and Education 1st

Cambridge Handbook of Engineering Education Research –

The Palgrave Handbook of Media and Communication

The Palgrave Handbook of

With 46 Figures and 73 Tables

ISBN 978-3-031-16192-6 ISBN 978-3-031-16193-3 (eBook)

The Significance of Teacher Education

The Development of Teacher Education Research

The Impact of the Global Pandemic

Peace and Security

We should also acknowledge the incredible fortitude of those teacher educators,

researchers play in maintaining quality – as well as equity and justice – in the

Oxford, UK Ian Menter

Part I Introduction ....................................... 1

1 Teacher Education Research in the Twenty-First Century ...... 3

Part II The Supply, Recruitment, and Retention of Teachers ..... 33

2 The Supply, Recruitment, and Retention of Teachers .......... 35

9 Reshaping the Teaching Profession: Patterns of Flexibilization,

Part III Pre-service Teacher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

10 Initial Teacher Education: The Opportunities and Problems

11 Developing a “Research Literacy Way of Thinking” in Initial

12 School-Based Teacher Educators: Understanding Their Identity,

13 Universities, Research, and Initial Teacher Education in

14 Specialized Educational Knowledge and Its Role in Teacher

15 Towards Internationally Shared Principles of Quality Teacher

16 Assessment in HE Initial Teacher Education: Competing

17 The Uses and Abuses of “Quality” in Teacher Education

18 Student Response Systems in Initial Teacher Education:

19 The Many Meanings of Practice-Based Teacher Education:

Part IV Continuing Professional Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429

20 From Benign Neglect to Performative Accountability:

Part V Teacher Education for Leadership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599

27 Teacher Leadership in the Classroom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601

32 External Change Agents in Professional Learning:

Part VI Teacher Identity and Professionalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743

33 Anchoring Teacher Professional Learning and Development in

Part VII Policy Studies in Teacher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 891

40 Policy Problems: Policy Approaches to Teacher Education

41 Trans-inclusive Policy and Opportunities for Trans-afﬁrming

42 Shoring Up “Teacher Quality”: Media Discourses of Teacher

43 Critiquing Teacher Well-Being Policy in England: Developing

44 Policy, Teacher Education, and Covid-19: An International

45 Initial Teacher Education and Social Justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013

46 Policy and Practice in Increasing BME Teachers’ Access to

47 Teacher Education in India: Virtual Capture of the “Public” . . . . 1061

48 Standards and Stories: Educational Policy and White

49 Preparing and Supporting Beginning Teachers for the

Part VIII Comparative Studies in Teacher Education . . . . . . . . . . . 1109

50 The Need for Comparative Studies in Teacher Education . . . . . . . 1111

51 A Cross-National Analysis of Organizational Support for

52 Centering Multilingual Learners and Countering Racism in

53 Spatial Perspectives: A Missing Link for Comparative Teacher