ABE 14

AB Products Processing and Storage

Lecture 2

Postharvest Operations and Losses

 Crop Spoilage & Postharvest Losses

▪ Agricultural products suffer losses in quantity and

quality between harvest and consumption. Agricultural
commodities, such as grains, fruits, and vegetables, are
living biological organisms. Their tissues are subject to
continuous change because of metabolic processes that
cannot be stopped.
▪ Agricultural products continue to respire even
after harvest.
▪ Respiration is the processes wherein plants take
in oxygen and release carbon dioxide as by-
product.
 Crop Spoilage & Postharvest Losses

▪ Farmers and food sellers have been concerned

about losses since agriculture began.

▪ Cutting postharvest losses could, presumably,

add a sizable quantity to the global food supply,
thus reducing the need to intensify production in
the future.
 Crop Spoilage & Postharvest Losses

▪ Food losses (FL) and waste (FW) are the result of

ineffective functioning of food systems. Post-
harvest losses (PHL) refer to the quantitative and
qualitative loss of food in various post-harvest
operations.

▪ This system comprises interconnected activities

from the time of harvest through crop
processing, marketing and food preparation, to
the final decision by the consumer to eat or
discard the food.
 Crop Spoilage & Postharvest Losses

▪ “Food loss” or FL is defined too as food available

for human consumption, but not consumed.

▪ FL also refers to the decrease in edible food

mass (dry matter) or nutritional value (quality)
of food that was originally intended for human
consumption, while

▪ Food waste refers to food appropriate for human

consumption being discarded, whether after it is
kept beyond its expiry date or left to spoil. FW
occurs at the food chain (retail and final consumption).
 Crop Spoilage & Postharvest Losses

▪ Therefore, FL or FW is measured only for

products that are directed to human
consumption, excluding feed and parts of
products which are not edible. As defined by
Hodges et al. (2011), “food waste is the
subset of food loss that is potentially
recoverable for human consumption”.
 Quality Losses & Postharvest Losses

▪ Meanwhile, postharvest loss can be defined as

the degradation in both quantity and quality of a
food production from harvest to consumption.

▪ Quality losses include those that affect the

nutrient/caloric composition, the acceptability,
and the edibility of a given product.
 Food Damage vs. Food Loss

▪ Loss should not be confused with damage,

which is the visible sign of deterioration, for
example, chewed grain and can only be
partial.

▪ Damage restricts the use of a product,

whereas loss makes its use impossible.
Losses of quantity (weight or volume) and
quality (altered physical condition or
characteristics) can occur at any stage in the
postharvest chain.
 Food Damage vs. Food Loss

Estimated losses (weight and quality) from the postharvest

chain for rice in south Asia (After Hodges et al. 2011)
Causes of Quality & Postharvest
Losses
Causes of Quality & Postharvest
Losses
Characteristics of AB Products
Factors Contributing to Postharvest
Losses

Harvesting

▪ The time of harvesting is determined by the degree of

maturity. With cereals and pulses, a distinction should be
made between maturity of stalks (straw), ears or
seedpods and seeds, for all that affects successive
operations, particularly storage and preservation.

▪ Developing countries – done manually using hand tools

such as sickle, knife, and scythe
▪ Developed countries - crop is harvested using combine
harvester.
Factors Contributing to Postharvest
Losses

Harvesting ▪ Time and methods of harvest (mechanical or manual)

are two critical factors determining the losses during
harvesting operations.

▪ Many losses occur before or during the harvesting

operation if it is not carried out at adequate maturation
and moisture content.

▪ Too early harvest of high moisture content increases the

cost of drying, making it susceptible to mold growth,
invading insects, and causing a large amount of broken
grains and low grinding efficiency (Baloch 2010).
 Factors Contributing to Postharvest
Losses

Maturity Moisture Content of AB Products

Factors Contributing to Postharvest
Losses

Harvesting ▪ On the other hand, maturation and ripening of fruits and

vegetables are influences by the respiration rate and
ethylene production during maturity and ripening.

▪ Maturity and ripeness in the case of perishables (fruits

and vegetables) often merge and overlap. Maturity has
two aspects physiological and commercial.

▪ Physiological maturity refers to the stage when the development of the crop
is completed, and ripening can occur even if it is harvested from the plant. It
should be noted that harvesting fruits before its physiological maturity may
affect its ability to ripen.

▪ Commercial maturity refers to the stage when the fruit or vegetable is

required by the market in relation to consumer preference.
 Factors Contributing to Postharvest
Losses

Threshing & Cleaning

▪ The purpose of the threshing process is peeling

the grain from the panicles. This process is
achieved by rubbing, removing the cover,
impact, or combination of these activities.

▪ Delay in threshing after harvesting results in a

significant loss of the quantity and quality of the
crop, because the plant is exposed to
atmospheric and biotic factors.
 Factors Contributing to Postharvest
Losses

Threshing & Cleaning

▪ Lack of mechanization is the main

cause of this delay, which causes
significant losses.

▪ High accumulation of moisture in

crops in the field can even lead to the
onset of mold growth in the field.
 Factors Contributing to Postharvest
Losses

Threshing & Cleaning

▪ The cleaning process is carried out after

threshing to separate whole grains from
broken ones and other foreign materials,
such as straw, stones, sand, chaff, and
weed seeds.

▪ Screening is the most common cleaning

method in developing countries which
can be done manually or mechanically.
 Factors Contributing to Postharvest
Losses

Threshing & Cleaning

▪ Improperly cleaned grains can increase the insect

invasion and mold growth during storage, add
undesirable taste and color, and damage
processing equipment.

▪ A large amount of grain is lost as a leak during

this operation, and grain losses during screening
can amount to as much as 4% of total production
(Bala et al. 2010)
Factors Contributing to Postharvest
Losses

Drying, Transport & Distribution

▪ The purpose of the threshing process is peeling

the grain from the panicles. This process is
achieved by rubbing, removing the cover,
impact, or combination of these activities.

▪ Delay in threshing after harvesting results in a

significant loss of the quantity and quality of the
crop, because the plant is exposed to
atmospheric and biotic factors.
Factors Contributing to Postharvest
Losses

Drying, Transport & Distribution

▪ Inadequate drying can lead to mold growth and large

losses during storage and grinding. Therefore, drying is an
important element of post-harvest work to maintain high
crop quality, minimize storage losses, and reduce
transport costs.

▪ Solar drying requires a large manpower, is slow, depends

on the weather, and causes large losses.

▪ Rain or adverse weather conditions can limit proper

drying, and yields are stored in high humidity, which leads
to large losses caused by the growth of mold.
Factors Contributing to Postharvest
Losses

Drying, Transport & Distribution

▪ Approximately 3.5–4.5% of losses are recorded

during drying of maize on raised platforms.

▪ Some farmers use mats or plastic sieves to sift

the grain, which reduces dust pollution and
facilitates drying of cereals.

https://www.alvanblanchgroup.com/
 Factors Contributing to Postharvest
Losses

Storage

▪ Storage is the art of keeping the quality of agricultural

materials and preventing them from deterioration for
specific period of time, beyond their normal shelf life.

▪ After determining the prescribed use for the crop, timing

for harvest and storage is of important consideration.

▪ There are a wide range of storage structures used

throughout the world to successfully store horticultural
produce. In general, the structure needs to be kept cool
(refrigerated, or at least ventilated and shaded) and the
produce put into storage must be of high initial quality.
 Factors Contributing to Postharvest
Losses

Storage

▪ Local storage structures are made of locally

available materials (grass, wood, clay, etc.) and
cannot guarantee the crop protection against
pests for a long time.

▪ Costa (2014) estimates a loss of up to 59.5% in

maize grain after storage for 90 days in
traditional storage structures
(grain/polypropylene bags).
 Factors Contributing to Postharvest
Losses

Storage

▪ Storage is essential for the following reasons:

• Perishable nature of AB materials
• Provision of food materials all year round
• Pilling/ provision for large scale processing
• Preservation of nutritional quality
• Price control and regulation
• Optimization of farmers‟ gain/financial empowerment
of farmers
• Opportunity for export market, etc.
 Factors Contributing to Postharvest
Losses

Processing

▪ Excessive hulling or threshing can also result in

grain losses, particularly in the case of rice
(hulling) which can suffer cracks and lesions.
The grain is then not only worth less, but also
becomes vulnerable to insects such as the rice
moth (Corcyra cephalonica).

▪ Process losses; contamination in process

causing loss of quality.
 Factors Contributing to Postharvest
Losses

Processing

▪ Grinding the seeds containing foreign materials

causes a large amount of cracked and broken
grains and can also damage the machine.

▪ Inadequately maintained grinding machines

cause a high number of broken grains and low
grinding efficiency.

▪ High humidity and inadequately cleaned fore

crops deepen the situation and reduce the
yields.
 Factors Contributing to Postharvest
Losses

Product Evaluation and Quality Control

▪ Biological causes of deterioration include

respiration rate, ethylene production and action,
rates of compositional changes (associated with
color, texture, flavor, and nutritive value),
mechanical injuries, water stress, sprouting and
rooting, physiological disorders, and pathological
breakdown.
 Factors Contributing to Postharvest
Losses

Product Evaluation and Quality Control

▪ The rate of biological deterioration depends on

several environmental factors, including temperature,
relative humidity, air velocity, and atmospheric
composition (concentration of oxygen, carbon
dioxide, and ethylene), and sanitation procedures.

▪ Micro-organisms cause damage to stored foods (e.g.,

fungi and bacteria). Usually, micro-organisms affect
directly small amount of the food, but they damage
the food to the point that it becomes unacceptable.
 Factors Contributing to Postharvest
Losses

Packaging
▪ After harvest, fresh fruits and vegetables are
generally transported from the farm to either a
packing house or distribution center.

▪ Farmers sell their produce in fresh markets or in

wholesale markets. At the retail level, fresh
produce is sold in an unpackaged form or is tied
in bundles.

▪ This type of market handling of fresh produce

greatly reduces its shelf life if it is not sold
quickly.
 Factors Contributing to Postharvest
Losses

Marketing, Selling & Distribution

▪ Minimizing losses during transport necessitates

special attention to vehicles, equipment,
infrastructure, and handling.

▪ Load and unload transport vehicles carefully.

Use clean, well-ventilated vehicle covered at the
top for transportation.
 Factors Contributing to Postharvest
Losses

Marketing, Selling & Distribution

▪ Transport crops during the cool part of the day

by driving carefully over smooth roads to
minimize damage to crop.

▪ Fresh produce must not be watered prior to

loading, as this will lead to decay, rotting, and
extensive losses. Major causes of losses are
improper handling during loading and unloading.
Postharvest Technologies for
Reducing Losses

Engr. Neil Caesar M. Tado. (2023). Chapter II. Postharvest Operations

and Losses. Lecture Material in ABE 112: AB Products Processing &
Storage.
Postharvest Technologies for
Reducing Losses

Engr. Neil Caesar M. Tado. (2023). Chapter II. Postharvest Operations

and Losses. Lecture Material in ABE 112: AB Products Processing &
Storage.
Postharvest Technologies for
Reducing Losses

Engr. Neil Caesar M. Tado. (2023). Chapter II. Postharvest Operations

and Losses. Lecture Material in ABE 112: AB Products Processing &
Storage.
Postharvest Technologies for
Reducing Losses

Engr. Neil Caesar M. Tado. (2023). Chapter II. Postharvest Operations

and Losses. Lecture Material in ABE 112: AB Products Processing &
Storage.
Postharvest Technologies for
Reducing Losses

Engr. Neil Caesar M. Tado. (2023). Chapter II. Postharvest Operations

and Losses. Lecture Material in ABE 112: AB Products Processing &
Storage.
Postharvest Technologies for
Reducing Losses

Engr. Neil Caesar M. Tado. (2023). Chapter II. Postharvest Operations

and Losses. Lecture Material in ABE 112: AB Products Processing &
Storage.
 Acknowledgments

(1) Engr. Neil Caesar M. Tado. (2023). Chapter II. Postharvest Operations and
Losses. Lecture Material in ABE 112: AB Products Processing & Storage.

(2) Barbara Sawicka. (2019). Post-harvest Losses of Agricultural Produce. Article

in Sustainable Development.

(3) Victor Kiaya. (2014). Post-harvest Losses and Strategies to Reduce them.
Technical paper on Post-Harvest Losses. Action Contre la Faim (ACF), member
of ACF International.