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CLASSROOM
MANUAL
For Automotive Engine Repair & Rebuilding
SIXTH EDITION
CLASSROOM
MANUAL
For Automotive Engine Repair & Rebuilding
SIXTH EDITION
Chris Hadfield
Director, Minnesota Transportation Center of Excellence
Randy Nussler
South Puget Sound Community College & New Market Skills Center
Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States
Today’s Technician: Automotive Engine © 2018, 2014 Cengage Learning
Repair & Rebuilding, Sixth Edition
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein
Chris Hadfield
may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, except as
Randy Nussler permitted by U.S. copyright law, without the prior written permission of the
SVP, GM Skills & Global Product Management: copyright owner.
Jonathan Lau
Product Director: Matthew Seeley For product information and technology assistance, contact us at
Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706
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Senior Content Developer: Mary Clyne Library of Congress Control Number: 2017930371
Product Assistant: Mara Ciacelli Classroom Manual ISBN: 978-1-305-95811-1
Vice President, Marketing Services: Package ISBN: 978-1-305-95813-5
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Notice to the Reader

Publisher does not warrant or guarantee any of the products described herein or perform any independent
analysis in connection with any of the product information contained herein. Publisher does not assume,
and expressly disclaims, any obligation to obtain and include information other than that provided to it by
the manufacturer. The reader is expressly warned to consider and adopt all safety precautions that might be
indicated by the activities described herein and to avoid all potential hazards. By following the instructions
contained herein, the reader willingly assumes all risks in connection with such instructions. The publisher
makes no representations or warranties of any kind, including but not limited to, the warranties of fitness for
particular purpose or merchantability, nor are any such representations implied with respect to the material set
forth herein, and the publisher takes no responsibility with respect to such material. The publisher shall not be
liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or part, from the readers’ use of,
or reliance upon, this material.
Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2017
CONTENTS
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
CHAPTER 1 Automotive Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Terms to Know 1 • Introduction 1 • Basic Engine Operation 2 • Cooling System 6
• Lubrication System 6 • Engine Breathing 6 • Engine Performance 7 • Cylinder
Head 9 • Timing Mechanism 10 • Engine Block 11 • Summary 12 • Review
Questions 13
CHAPTER 2 Engine Repair and Rebuilding Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Terms to Know 15 • Introduction 15 • Full-Service Repair Facilities 15
• Machine Shop and Engine Rebuild Facilities 17 • Engine Repair and Replacement
Specialty Facilities 18 • Engine and Component Remanufacturing Facilities 19
• Summary 20 • Review Questions 20
CHAPTER 3 Theory of Engine Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Terms to Know 22 • Introduction 23 • Major Engine Components 23 • Engine
Operating Principles 27 • Behavior of Liquids and Gases 30 • Pressure and
Vacuum 30 • Boyle’s Law 31 • Engine Operation 31 • Engine Classifications 34
• Engine Vibration 38 • Engine Displacement 40 • Direction of Crankshaft
Rotation 42 • Engine Measurements 42 • Other Engine Designs 49 • Engine
Identification 52 • Summary 56 • Review Questions 56
CHAPTER 4 Engine Operating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Terms to Know 59 • Introduction 60 • The Starting System 60 • Lubrication
Systems 65 • Cooling Systems 76 • Cooling Fans 88 • Lubrication and Cooling
Warning Systems and Indicators 90 • Fuel System 94 • Automotive Fuels 98
CHAPTER 5 Factors Affecting Engine Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Terms to Know 105 • Introduction 105 • Spark Plugs 106 • Combustion Chamber
Sealing 107 • Fuel and Combustion 111 • Engine Noises 115 • Summary 116
• Review Questions 116
CHAPTER 6 Engine Materials, Fasteners, Gaskets, and Seals . . . . . 118

Terms to Know 118 • Introduction 118 • Engine Materials 119 • Manufacturing
Processes 122 • Fasteners 126 • Gaskets, Seals, Sealants, and Adhesives 131
CHAPTER 7 Intake and Exhaust Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

Terms to Know 141 • Introduction 141 • Air Induction System 142 • Air Intake
Ductwork 143 • Air Cleaner/Filter 143 • Intake Manifold 146 • Intake Manifold
Tuning 147 • Vacuum Basics 149 • Vacuum Controls 149 • Turbochargers 150
• Superchargers 155 • Exhaust System Components 159 • Mufflers 163
v
vi
CHAPTER 8 Engine Configurations, Mounts,

and Remanufactured Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Terms to Know 168 • Introduction 168 • Engine Configurations 168
• Engine Mounts 170 • Remanufactured Engines 172 • Summary 175 • Review
Questions 175
CHAPTER 9 Cylinder Heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Terms to Know 177 • Introduction 177 • Cylinder Heads 178 • Cylinder
Head Component Relationships 189 • Combustion Chamber Designs 190
• The Combustion Process 194 • Multivalve Engines 197 • Summary 198
CHAPTER 10 Camshafts and Valvetrains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

Terms to Know 200 • Introduction 200 • Summary 214 • Review Questions 215
CHAPTER 11 Timing Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

Terms to Know 217 • Introduction 217 • Valve Timing Systems 217 •
Chain-Driven Systems 220 • Belt-Driven Systems 221 • Gear-Driven Systems 223
• Variable Valve Timing Systems 224 • Variable Valve Lift (Cam-Shifting) 226
• Variable Valve Timing and Lift Systems 226 • Summary 231 • Review Questions 231
CHAPTER 12 Engine Block Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

Terms to Know 233 • Introduction 233 • Block Construction 235 • Crankshaft 240
• Camshaft 245 • Lifter Bores 245 • Harmonic Balancing 245 • Flywheel 246
• Short Blocks, Long Blocks, and Crate Engines 247 • Summary 248
CHAPTER 13 Pistons, Rings, Connecting Rods, and Bearings . . . . . 250

Terms to Know 250 • Introduction 250 • Bearings 250 • Camshaft and Balance
Shaft Bearings 257 • Balance Shafts 257 • Pistons 257 • Piston Designs and
Construction 263 • Piston Rings 266 • Connecting Rods 268 • Summary 270
CHAPTER 14 Alternative Fuel and Advanced

Technology Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Terms to Know 272 • Introduction 272 • Alternative Fuel Vehicle Use 273
• Propane Vehicles 273 • E85 and Flexible Fuel Vehicles 276 • Compressed
Natural Gas Vehicles 278 • The Honda Civic GX CNG Vehicle 283 • Electric
Vehicles 284 • Hybrid Electric Vehicles 286 • Hev Operation 287 • Plug-In Hybrid
Electric Vehicles 294 • Fuel Cell Vehicles 295 • Summary 295 • Review Questions 296
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
PREFACE
Thanks to the support the Today’s TechnicianTM series has received from those who teach
automotive technology, Cengage Learning, the leader in automotive-related textbooks, is
able to live up to its promise to provide new editions of the series every few years. By
revising this series on a regular basis, we can respond to changes in the industry, changes
in technology, changes in the certification process, and to the ever-changing needs of
those who teach automotive technology.
The Today’s TechnicianTM series features textbooks and digital learning solutions that
cover all mechanical and electrical systems of automobiles and light trucks. The individual
titles correspond to the ASE (National Institute for Automotive Service Excellence) certi-
fication areas and are specifically correlated to the 2016 standards for Automotive Service
Technicians (AST), Master Automotive Service Technicians (MAST), and Maintenance
and Light Repair (MLR).
Additional titles include remedial skills and theories common to all of the certification
areas and advanced or specific subject areas that reflect the latest technological trends,
such as this updated title on engine repair.
Today’s Technician: Automotive Engine Repair and Rebuilding, 6th edition, is designed
to give students a chance to develop the same skills and gain the same knowledge that
today’s successful technicians have. This edition also reflects the changes in the guidelines
established by the National Automotive Technicians Education Foundation (NATEF).
The purpose of NATEF is to evaluate technician training programs against standards
developed by the automotive industry and recommend qualifying programs for certifica-
tion (accreditation) by ASE. Programs can earn ASE certification upon NATEF’s recom-
mendation. NATEF’s national standards reflect the skills that students must master. ASE
certification through NATEF evaluation ensures that certified training programs meet or
exceed industry-recognized, uniform standards of excellence.
The technician of today and for the future must know the underlying theory of all
automotive systems and be able to service and maintain those systems. Dividing the mate-
rial into two volumes, a Classroom Manual and a Shop Manual, provides the reader with
the information needed to begin a successful career as an automotive technician without
interrupting the learning process by mixing cognitive and performance learning objec-
tives into one volume.
The design of Cengage’s Today’s TechnicianTM series was based on features that are
known to promote improved student learning. The design was further enhanced by a
careful study of survey results, in which the respondents were asked to value particular
features. Some of these features can be found in other textbooks, while others are unique
to this series.
Each Classroom Manual contains the principles of operation for each system and
subsystem. The Classroom Manual also contains discussions on design variations of key
components used by the different vehicle manufacturers. It also looks into emerging
technologies that will be standard or optional features in the near future. This volume is
organized to build upon basic facts and theories. The primary objective of this volume is
to allow the reader to gain an understanding of how each system and subsystem operates.
This understanding is necessary to diagnose the complex automobiles of today and tomor-
row. Although the basics contained in the Classroom Manual provide the knowledge
needed for diagnostics, diagnostic procedures appear only in the Shop Manual. An
vii
viii
understanding of the underlying theories is also a requirement for competence in the

skill areas covered in the Shop Manual.
A spiral-bound Shop Manual delivers hands-on learning experiences with step-by-
step instructions for diagnostic and repair procedures. Photo Sequences are used to illus-
trate some of the common service procedures. Other common procedures are listed and
are accompanied with fine line drawings and photos that allow the reader to visualize and
conceptualize the finest details of the procedure. This volume also contains the reasons
for performing the procedures, as well as when that particular service is appropriate.
The two volumes are designed to be used together and are arranged in corresponding
chapters. Not only are the chapters in the volumes linked together, the contents of the
chapters are also linked. The linked content is indicated by marginal callouts that refer
the reader to the chapter and page where the same topic is addressed in the companion
volume. This valuable feature saves users the time and trouble of searching the index or
table of contents to locate supporting information in the other volume. Instructors will
find this feature especially helpful when planning the presentation of material and when
making reading assignments.
Both volumes contain clear and thoughtfully selected illustrations, many of which are
original drawings or photos specially prepared for inclusion in this series. This means that
the art is a vital part of each textbook and not merely inserted to increase the number of
illustrations.
The layout of Automotive Engine Repair & Rebuilding, 6th edition, is easy to follow
and consistent with the Today’s TechnicianTM series. Complex systems are broken into
easier-to-understand explanations. Industry standardized terms and vernacular are used
and explained in the text.
Jack Erjavec
HIGHLIGHTS OF THE NEW EDITION—CLASSROOM

MANUAL
The Classroom Manual for this edition of Today’s Technician: Automotive Engine Repair
and Rebuilding includes updated coverage of the NATEF AST, MAST, and MLR tasks
for engine repair and rebuilding. In addition to updated coverage of industry trends, new
information has been added on the following:
■ 0w16 oil
■ Engine design changes for gas direct injection (GDI)
■ EPDM belts
■ Stretch belts
■ Wet timing belts
■ Flat plane crankshafts
■ Cam-phaser design, operation, and service
■ Variable valve timing
■ Variable lift
■ Active fuel management
■ Variable cylinder displacement
HIGHLIGHTS OF THE NEW EDITION—SHOP MANUAL

Like all textbooks in the Today’s TechnicianTM series, the understanding acquired by read-
ing the Classroom Manual is required for competence in the skill areas covered in the
Shop Manual. Service information related to the topics covered in the Classroom Manual
ix
is included in this manual. In addition, several photo sequences are used to highlight
typical service procedures and provide the student the opportunity to get a realistic idea
of a procedure. The purpose of these detailed photo sequences is to show students what
to expect when they perform the same procedure. They can also provide a student with
familiarity of a system or type of equipment they may not be able to perform at their
school.
To stress the importance of safe work habits, Chapter 1 covers safety issues and has
been updated to include hybrid vehicle high-voltage safety. Included in this chapter are
common shop hazards, safe shop practices, safety equipment, and the legislation concern-
ing and the safe handling of hazardous materials and wastes.
Chapter 2 covers special tools and procedures. Procedures include the use of engine
condition and diagnostic test equipment, precision engine measuring tools and specialty
measuring tools, along with engine reconditioning tools and equipment.
The subsequent Shop Manual chapters synch up with those in the Classroom Manual,
and the related content of each manual’s chapters is linked by use of page references in the
margins. This allows the student to quickly cross-reference the theory with the practical.
Redundancy between the Classroom Manual and the Shop Manual has been kept to a
minimum; the only time theory is discussed again is if it is necessary to explain the diag-
nostic results or as an explanation of the symptom. Currently accepted service procedures
are used as examples throughout the text. These procedures also served as the basis for the
job sheets that are included in the textbook at the end of each chapter. Updated coverage
in the Shop Manual addresses:
■ Engine pre-oiling
■ Engine break-in
■ 500-mile service for newly rebuilt engines
■ HEV service and safety
■ Concerns related to improper oil service on hydraulically controlled systems
x
CLASSROOM MANUAL
Features of the Classroom Manual include the following:
CH AP TE R
3
THEORY O
F ENGINE
OPERATIO
N
Cognitive Objectives
Upon comple
tion and review
of this chapte
These objectives outline the chapter’s contents ■
■
Major engine
Basic engine
component
s.
r, you should
understand
and be able
to describe:
operation. compressio
and identify what students should know and ■ Basic
laws of phy
engine ope
ration.
sics involved
wit h
horsepower
los ses
n ratio, eng
and torque,
, mechanic
ine efficiency
horsepower
,
■ Eng the al efficiency
be able to do upon completion of the chapter. ine classific
the number
cylinders, cyli
ations accord
of cycles, the ing to
number of
■ The
rmal efficie
relationship
ncy.
between com
, and
ratio and eng

nder arrange ine power out pression
Each topic is divided into small units to and valvetra
■ The
in type.
four-stroke
ment, ■ Mecha
nical, volum
efficiencies,
put.
etric, and the
cycle theory and factors rmal
.
promote easier understanding and learning. ■ The
different cyli
and the adv nde
antages of
r arrangeme
nts
each.
■ The
basic operati
that affect
■ The each. engine des on of alterna

different valv igns, includ tive
modern eng etrains used diesel, and ing two-stroke
ines. in stratified cha ,
■ Eng
ine measurem ■ The rge.
internal com
bore and stro ent terms suc engine and ponents of
ke, displacem h as how they diff a diesel
ent, of a gas eng er from tho
ine. se
Terms To Kn
Terms to Know List

ow
Autoignition
temperature
Bore Engine bea
rings
Bottom dea Friction Potential ene
A list of key terms appears immediately Boyle’s law
d center (BD
C) Fuel injectio
n
Preignition
rgy
Brake horsep Glow plugs Reciprocating

after the Objectives. Students will see Coil
ower
Gross horsep
Horsepower
ower
Reed valve
Rotary valv
Compressio e
n-ignition (CI)
these terms discussed in the chapter. engines
Compressio
Hybrid electri
(HEV)
c vehicle
Spark-ignition
Stroke
(SI) engine
n ratio
Definitions can also be found in the Connecting
Crankshaft
rods
Indicated hor
Internal com
sepower
bustion eng
Thermal effi
Thermodyn
ciency
ine amics
Kinetic ene
Glossary at the end of the manual. Cycle
Detonation Law of con
rgy
servation of
Top dead cen
Torque
ter (TDC)
Displacement energy Transmission

Dual overhe Me cha nical efficie
ad cam ncy Transverse-m
Net horsep ounted eng
(DOHC) ower Vacuum ine
Engine Overhead cam
(OHC) Valve overlap
256 Chapter 13 Efficiency Oving
Part erhface
ead valve (OH Volumetric
V) efficiency (VE
Piston rings )
22 Wrist pin
11_ch03_hr_02
2-058.indd
22
Bearing
crown
Cross-References to
at the top
A multiple- e clearances ied.
Figure 13-10 ing. maintains clos
Bearing crown re most of the loads are appl
piece thrust bear Figure 13-11
the bearing, whe
and bottom of
the Shop Manual within the ran

ge of 0.0008
inch (0.0203
ck the manuf
mm) to 0.002 ons
acturer’s spe
inch
cificati
bea rin g clearances fall ical clearances; always che

oil typ haft or
These are just g on. t the cranks
References to the appropriate page (0.0508 mm).
for the engine
you are workin They are designed to wea to contaminated oil. Wh
wea r item . exp osure
r and protec
cam bea
en the
rings.
a e and , and
Bearings are after high mil
eag main, rod is
in the Shop Manual appear whenever camshaft. The
is disa
y do wear out
ssembled for
rep airs , it
you
is customary
wil
to replace the rance to ensure that it
l have to che
ck the clea
in Ch apter 13 of
the Shop
eng ine gs, ure
new bearin s this proced
necessary. Although the chapters of the Wh en
within the spe
fitt ing
cified range.
We wil l dis cus
Shop Manual
e 588 Manual.
two manuals are synchronized, material Chapter 13, pag
and Ov ers ize Bearings
to be usable
, bearings tha
t are 0.001 and
air serious
Undersize worn lightly
and polished ground to rep
haft has been generally available in
nks
covered in other chapters of the Shop When a cra nks haf
ers
t
ize
is
are often availab
le. If the
fitt
cra
ed. Th
0.002 inch und ersize bearings can be tric undersized bearings of the bearings is
ese bearings
are
ma y inc lud e 0.050,
und Me meter
journal wear, h undersize. the inside dia
Manual may be fundamental to the Undersize bear
ings
e outside 0.0 10, 0.0 20, and 0.030 inc
. Un der size
and 0.750 mm meter of the crankshaft
means that
journa ls. an oversized
have the sam dard
0.250, 0.500, line bored to
diameter as stan bear- the reduced
dia ck has been 40 inch.
0.030, and 0.0 These
topic discussed in the Classroom bearings, but
the
thick
ing material is crank-
er to smaller, to fit
Oversize bea rin gs may be used
when the blo
often ava ilab le in 0.010, 0.020,
0.750, and 1.0 00 mm.
e
bearings are ly 0.250, 0.500, ring. The use of oversiz
Manual. fit an undersize
shaft journ al. dia me ter. Oversize
Available me
rin gs hav
tric oversiz
e a larger out
ed bea rin gs are typical
sed dra
than the stan
side diameter tically as component rep
ma
dar d bea
. Som e
lacement has
bea
become
rings are stam
ped
in
Author’s Note
bea decrea ons rently
ings are bearings has chining operati g that is cur
Oversize bear dard and undersize ive than many complex ma ck the size of the bearin on it. Some
thicker than stan ide
outs
to increase the bear- more cost-ef
fect
that allows the
technician to
che
from the fac
tor y with the
size correlation size bear-
cian indicate
what
This feature includes
diameter of the size with a code e stam ped the tec hni this type of
rings com t helps talled in
ing to fit an over inside
bearing bore.
The use. New bea
have a stampin
engine blocks engine originally. If diff
g on them tha
erent sized bea it.
rings are ins simple explanations,
Margin Notes
same as or remove
diameter is the . e on the this ma rk
standard bear
ings ing cam change
engine, the tec
hnician should
ting rod and
main stories, or examples of
most connec en
erience that rication. Oft
The most important terms to know are AU TH OR ’S NOTE It has
s are caused by
been my exp
con tam ina ted engine oil
the oil pan,
or lack of lub
the coo lan t-co ntaminated
failure if it
complex topics. These
g fail ure slud ge in se of the
bearin r by the the cau y
highlighted and defined in the margin. the cause of
failure is clea
of oil in the
to determine
crankcase. Try life of the engine; these
the
days, that ma
e to discuss
the are included to help
oil, or the lack st bearings should last 0 km). Be sur
Mo 02 to 321,87
Common trade jargon also appears is premature.
reach 150,00
0 to 200,000
mil es (24 1,4
and filter cha
nges with you
r cus tom ers .
students understand
of regular oil
importance
in the margin and gives some of the difficult concepts.
common terms used for components. 4/3/17 8:29
PM
This helps students understand and 71.indd 256

h13 hr 250-2
speak the language of the trade,

especially when conversing with an
experienced technician.
xi
110
Chapte
r5
Figure 5-8
cause the A pitted valve fac
valve to bu e allows
rn. leakage tha
t will eventually
Misadj
tightly, it usted valves can
will be he also caus
perform ld open e valve lea
an lo kage and
strokes. ce through poor nger than it was burning.
In se designed If a valve
sive tem extreme cases, it aling of the co to. This is adjuste
perature can also m ca d
s. cause th bustion chambe n cause a reduct too
e valves r during io
to burn
if they ar the appr n in
e expose opriate
A Bit of History d to exce

s-
A BIT O
As recently FH ISTORY
This feature gives the student as early as as the mid-1980s
,
today’s en 60,000 or 75,00 it was not uncomm
gines can 0 mi on for en
run at lea les. Now due to
a sense of the evolution of the st 150,000 adva
gines to req
e requiring
uir
miles befor nces in materials e valve recondition
and ing
valve servi machining, most
automobile. This feature not Head G
aske
ce. of
t Damag
When a e
only contains nice-to-know context
of
head ga
sket leaks
, it can
adjoinin combustion ch pr
g cylinde amber se esent a whole
information, but also should significan
tly
rs. This
will
aling , a
also leak . This will caus lower the com re usually resu
failu
host of
different
sym
ou e pression lts in a lea ptoms. In the
to release t into the cool rough running
spark some interest in the coolant
pressure ing syste
m k
an
and a lac d combustion k between two
leaking in and coolant. Th . This can caus of power. Combu both cylinders
of
ket failu to the co e most co e the co stion ga
subject matter. re
th
situations the oil, and it
m
mixing wi is the presence of bustion chambe mon symptom
coolant
in the oi
m
r. Anothe
r
oling sy
of a blow
stem pr
n
ses can
essure ca
p
, a compl will look l. The oi common sympt head gasket is
of white ete engin fo amy and l dipstick om of head
, sweet-s wi
There is melling e rebuild may be brownish, like a ll show signs of gas-
a signific ex haust re qu ire co ffe em co ol ant
problem
s ex ant diffe to exit the tailpip d. This burning co ilkshake. In thes
sible caus ist with combu rence in e
cost, lab (Figure 5-9). olant caus
es cloud
e
es of low sti
with a re perform on chamber seali or, and techni s
alistic es ance, in ng . It wi qu e, de pending
timate. order to
offer the ll be your job to on what
customer reco
responsib gnize the pos-
le repair
options
58111_
ch05_h
r_105-117
.indd 110
116 Chapter 5
2/13/17
Figure 5-17
these created
The bearings
engine knocking
worn down to
on the left are om end.
from the bott
the copper underlayer;
Summary
be used in the
winter Each chapter concludes with
ity fuel should l should be
SUMMARY ■ Higher volatil
d starts; lower
volatility fue
HC emis- summary statements that
s that the ass ist col t excess ive
mance require t its support to mer to preven
■ Proper
engine perfor nd and tha used in the sum lock. es
chanically sou are three typ
engine is me
systems are
functio nin g as des igned.
perly sealed
sions and vap
■ Misfire,
or
preignition,
and detonation se serious
that can cau
contain the important topics
er must be pro combustion
bustion chamb formance. of abnormal
■ The com
to provide goo
d engine per
gs, and head gas
ket seal
.
engine damage ling or lubrication system defects.
in the coo
s can
ine
of the chapter. These are
or serious eng abnor-
Review Questions
g, rin ■ Failures
es, spark plu al combustion
■ The valv
the com bus tion chamber.
gasoline des
crib es its ability to
the greater
cause abnorm
■ Normal
engine wea r wil l eventually
formance.
lead to
designed to help the reader
■ The oct
ane rating of the number, reduced per
ng; the higher mal noises and
Short-answer essays, resist knocki
the resistance
to kno cki ng. review the contents.
fill-in-the-blanks, and multiple-
ESTIONS lanks
REVIEW QU Fill-in-the-B ket can cause
choice questions follow each er Essays 1. A leak pas
t the ______
_________ gas
mance.
Short-Answ er? engine perfor
bustion chamb compro ed mis
chapter. These questions are 1. What com
ponents sea
l the com
ur from imp
roper _________ ___
___ ___
2. The ______ ___ _______________, and plug
______,
blems can occ ____________ rk

2. What pro ition to the spa mber.
designed to accurately assess combustion
cha mb er sealing?
ned valve hav
e on engine
___ in add
____________ l seal the combustion cha
wal
ct will a bur and cylinder system and
3. What effe ____________
the student’s competence in the performance
?
octane rating describe?
ns in the ___
3. Malfunctio ______ system can cause
engine
s a gasoline’s the _________
4. What doe problems.
stated objectives at the beginning 5. What pro ble ms can occur wh
en fuel with
d?
an
mechanical
es of abnorm
al com bus tion are
volatility is use 4. Three typ ______, and
inappropriate ___,_________ occurs when a
of the chapter. 6. Define pre
ignition. ____________
____________
___. Preignitio
n
_________ the
spark.
star ts ___ ___
onation. flame front
7. Define det combustion
. hole in the top
of abnormal is like ly to burn a
some causes 5. _________
___ ___
8. Describe lead to?
pro ble ms can detonation of the piston.
ine
9. What eng ?
engine noises
ses abnormal
10. What cau
PM
2/13/17 12:11
7.indd 116
_hr_105-11
58111 ch05
xii
SHOP MANUAL
To stress the importance of safe work habits, the Shop Manual dedicates one full chapter to safety. Other important features
of this manual include:
CHA PTE R 10
VALVETRAIN SERVIC
E
Performance-Based
Objectives Upon completion and
review of this chapter,
you should understand
and be able to describ Basic Tools Lists
■ How to inspect the camsh e:
aft for ■ How to recond
These objectives define the ■
straightness.
replace studs.
ition rocker arms and Basic Tools
How to measure the camsh
and journals and determ
aft lobes ■ How to evaluate and measu
re valve
Basic mechanic’s
tool set Each chapter begins with
contents of the chapter and what repairs.
ine needed
springs. Service manual
■ How to inspec
t solid and hydraulic
■ How to adjust
the valvetrain during
installation of hydraulic
a list of the basic tools
the student should have learned lifters and determine neede
d repairs.
■
lifters.
■ How to perfor
m the leak-down test
hydraulic lifters and accura on
How to adjust valve cleara
engines using mechanical
nces on needed to perform the
upon completion of the chapter. the results.
tely interpret
■ How to prope
lifters.
rly reassemble the
■ How to inspec
t the pushrods and
determine needed repairs
cylind er head.
■ How to install
tasks included in the
. a cylinder head.
■ How to descri
be the methods used ■ How to replac
chapter.
Terms to Know List to e valve seals with the
correct rocker arm geom cylinder head installed
etry. on the engine.
322 Chapt er 7
that
Terms To Know that there are no DTCs and
harging system, be sure intake air tempera-
On a PCM-controlled turboc properly. A fault in the
Terms in this list are also defined Base circle
Camshaft
n systems are functioning
Lobe lift
the fuel and ignitio PCM to limitreboost pressu
example, could cause the Seat pressu
re. Repair all related
ture sensor, for
Nose harger .
mning the turboc
in the Glossary at the end of the Duration
Heel
malfunctions before conde
Open pressure
Overlap
Spring free length
Spring shims
Leak-down Turbocharg er Removal Spring squareness engine; for example,
manual. Lifter
Pushro
The turbocharg erdsremoval procedure
varies depending on the
facturer recommends the
engine be
some
Rocker arm
cars, such as a Nissan 300 ZX, the manu ations , the turbocharger may
on other applic
to the turbocharger. On removal proce-
removed to gain access vehicl e. Alway s follow the turbocharger
in the l turbocharger
INTRODUCTIO removed with the engine
be N The following is a typica
facturer’s service manual.
dure in the vehicle manu
The valvetrain works to al procedure:
remov open and close the valves
run, the components of at the propeand Asthe
drain
r time. cooling system.
the valvet rainthe
nnect negati
wear batter y cable,
andvestretch
the engine is
altered. 1. Disco , causin the valve harger .
pipe from thegturboc openin gand
This chapter discus2.sesDisconnect the exhaust to the
be engine block.
the metho rt bracke t between the turbocharger
semble the cylinder head,3. Remo ve the suppo
ds used to inspect and repair housin g on the turbocharger.
adjust thevalves
bolts from the oil drain back the valvetrain, reas- remove
worn valve stem seals on4. Removethe , diagno se a failed thead
coolan inlet tube
gasket nut
, andat the block outlet, and
the car.nnect harger replac e
as camshafts and lifters,5. Disco Remem turboc
theber, before deciding to rebuild compo
nents such
the cost of rebuil
uppor t bracke
ding compo t. related components.
of replacing them. These the tube-s nents must bracke t,
r box,red to the cost
be compa and
components air usuallcleaneyrbe eleme nt, air cleane m
rebuilding; however, there 6. Remove thecan purchased new at bodyexpen
le less electri cal connector, and vacuu
may be instan whenrator
cesaccele
the linkage, thrott se than
7. Disconnect rebuilding is a viable option
. e the three
hoses.
urboc harger inlet hose clamps, and remov
y-to-t
8. Loosen the throttle-bod s. Remove the throttle body.
manifold attaching screw
throttle-body-to-intake on the compressor wheel
harger discharge hose clamp
9. Loosen the lower turboc
screw. Remove
housing.
take-m anifold screws and the fuel line bracket 441
10. Remove the fuel-rail-to-in pull the fuel rail and injec-
shield-retaining clips, and
the two fuel-rail-bracket-to-heat- n with a piece of wire.
Special
58128_ch10_hr_441-494.indd
441 Tie the fuel rail in this positio
tors upward out of the way. housin g.
line from the turbocharger
11. Disconnect the oil supply heat shield.
old
12. Remove the intake manif harger and the water box.
Tools Lists 256 Chapter 13 13. Disconnect the coolant
Remove the line-support
return line from the turboc
bracket from the cylind
er head and remove the
to the exhaust manifold, and
line.
Special Tools retaining the turbocharger turbocharger down-

14. Remove the four nuts the manifold studs. Move the
from out of
Whenever a special tool Pressure gauge
Hand pressure pump
remove the turboc
ward toward the passen
harger
ger side of the vehicle, and then lift the
Parting face
unit up and
t.
Dial indicator the engine compartmen
is required to complete
ers after a turbocharger
returning vehicles to custom e with them. Remind
a task, it is listed in CUSTOMER CARE When
replacement, be sure to
discuss proper care and
wind
maintenanc
down before shutting the vehicle
the turbo to
them that they should allow idle for a minute after driv-
the margin next to the off. This simply means that
g the
they should let the engine
ignitio n off. You should also remind
them that regular oil
customer
Figureing before
13-10 turnin
A multip can help ensure that the
le-
turbocharger life. They
procedure. changes g. essential to
piece thrust bearinare
won’t be back anytime soon

for turbocharger service. Bearing
Figure 13-11 Bearin crown
g crown maintains close
and bottom of the bearin clearances at the top
g, where most of the
loads are applied.
oil bearingcharg er sCom ponent Inspection s
Turbo clearance fall within the rang s turbocharger disassembly, inspect the wheel
(0.0508 mm). Thes factur er recommend e of 0.0008 inch (0.02 with con-
If the vehicle emanu
for the
are just typic al clearances; alwaed.
remov
03 or
Lack of lubricant mm) to ation
lubric 0.002 inch gs.
engine you ending
thework
and shaft afterare housings are ys check the the end housin
Bear on. g failure, which leads to man ufact
wheel rub ons spec
urer’ ifications
ings areoil
a wear s in .bearin
resultitem
taminated
camshaft. They are designed
They do wear out after to wear and prote
engine is disassemb high mileage and expo ct the crankshaft
led for repairs, it is sure to contaminated or
Shop Manual When fitting new customary to repla oil. When the
bearings, you will ce the main, rod, and
Chapter 13, page 588 within the specified have to check the cam bearings.
range. We will discu clearance to ensure 4/4/17 6:18
Manual. ss this procedure that it is
in Chapter 13 of
the Shop
Undersize and Ove
Margin Note Undersize bearings
When a cranksha
0.002 inch undersize
rsize Bearings
ft is worn lightly and
are often available.
polished to be usab
le, bearings that are
have the same outsid journal wear, unde If the crankshaft has 0.001 and
rsize bearings can been ground to repa
The most important terms diameter as standard
bearings, but the bear-
e
0.010, 0.020, and
0.030 inch undersize
0.250, 0.500, and 0.750
be fitted. These bear
. Metric undersize
ings are generally
d bearings
ir serious
available in
ing material is thicke mm. Undersize mean
r to smaller, to fit the redu s that the inside diam may include 0.050,
to know are highlighted and fit an undersize crank-
shaft journal. Oversize bearings
diameter. Oversize
ced diameter of the
may be used when
crankshaft journals. eter of the bear ings is
the block has been
bearings are often line bored to an over
defined in the margin. Common Oversize bearings are
thicker than standard
Available metric over
bearings have a large
sized bearings are
available in 0.010
typically 0.250, 0.500
, 0.020 , 0.030, and 0.040
, 0.750, and 1.000 mm.
sized
inch.
r outside diameter
to increase the outsid and undersize bear than the standard These
trade jargon also appears in diameter of the bear-
ing to fit an oversize
e
more cost-effective
ings has decreased
than
dram atically as compone
bearing. The use
nt replacement has
of over size
bearing bore. The inside with a code that allow many complex machining operation become
s the technician to s. Some bearings are
the margins and gives some diameter is the same
standard bearings.
as
use. New bearings
engine blocks have
come stamped from
a stam
check the size of the
the factory with the
bearing that is curre
size correlation on
stamped
ntly in
ing came on the engin ping on them that helps the technicia it. Some
of the common terms used for engine, the technicia
e originally. If diffe
n should change this
rent sized bearings
n indicate what size
are installed in this
bear-
mark or remove it. type of
components. This feature helps AUTHOR’S NOT
E It has been my
experience that most
Author’s Note
students understand and speak bearing failures are
the cause of failure
caused by contamin
ated engine oil or
connecting rod and
main
oil, or the lack of oil
is clear by the sludg
e in the oil pan, the
lack of lubrication.
Often This feature includes simple
the language of the trade, is premature. Mos
in the crankcase. Try
t bear
coolant-contaminate
to determine the caus d
e of the failure if it
reach 150,000 to 200,0 ings should last the life of the engin
00 miles (241,402 e; these days, that explanations, stories, or examples
especially when conversing with importance of regu to
lar oil and filter chan 321,870 km). Be sure to discuss the
ges with your custo
may
mers.
of complex topics. These are
an experienced technician.
included to help students
58111_ch13_hr_250-2
71.indd 256
understand difficult concepts.
xiii
Photo Sequences
14 Chapter 1
PHOTO SEQUENCE
2
Typical Procedure for
Many procedures are illustrated in Lifting a Vehicle on a
Drive-On Hoist
detailed Photo Sequences. These

photographs show the students
what to expect when they perform
particular procedures. They also P2-1 Drive the vehicle onto
the
sure your wheels are centered hoist. Make P2-2 Place a wheel chock
behind the other
, and drive slow. end of the vehicle to ensure P2-3 Raise the vehicle to
If needed, stick your head
familiarize students with a system have an assistant help guide
out of the window or
in front of a moving vehicle.
you. Never stand
being lifted.
it doesn’t roll when a comfortable height.
or type of equipment that the

school might not have.
P2-4 Make sure that the locks

are set and the P2-5 Position the rolling jacks
hoist is level. Always rest the on a suitable
hoist on the locks. location. Check the service P2-6 Once the axle is to a
Most drive-on lifts are hydrauli manual for correct height
their locks are air operated
cally lifted, but locations. lower it and rest it on the locks.s you151
want it,
. era
Opair
jacks are ting System Most rolling
vicing Engine
operated and have manual locks.
and Ser
Diagnosing
NTINUED)
UENCE 5 (CO
PHOTO SEQ
References to the
Classroom Manual
battery.
P5-11 Verify
that the new
starter operates
without excess
properly and a few times.
noise by cran
king References to the appropriate
t the
P5-10 Reconnec the engine over
page in the Classroom Manual
Figure 1-11 Typical hydrauli
c floor jack.
rs is exc 1-12the
essive,
Figure
duce a high-
starter will pro the starter
too small,
Typical jack stands. Classroom Man
ual
e 60
appear whenever necessary.
the two gea clearance is rned Chapter 4, pag
ce between cranked. If the n switch is retu
If the clearan
pitched whine
while the eng
ine is bei ng
r the engine
starts and the ign itio
Although the chapters of the
hig h-p itch ed whine afte
will make a
to the RUN
position. two manuals are synchronized,
Service Tips 58128_ch01_hr_001-038.indd
14 se of drive hou
The major cau g gears. It is always bet
is too small
sing breakage have a little
ter to
a
material covered in other

SERVICE TIP pin ion and rin
wee n the ce.
Whenever a shortcut clearance bet than too small a clearan
more clearan
ce chapters of the Classroom
or special procedure is D SERVICE
Manual may be fundamental
TESTING AN
ION SYSTEM
appropriate, it is described in LUBRICAT
ent upon oil
clearances Bearings are
used to to the topic discussed in the
Testing re is depend es exces- s created
Oil Pressure life. Oil pressu ring becom carr y the load
the text. Generally, these tips Proper oil pre the
ial to engine
ssure is essent rance between a journa
clea ons
l and the bea
, how eve r, are the res
ult of bearin
p wea
g
r.
by rotational
forces.
Shop Manual.
and proper
deliver y. If low oil pre ssure conditi er oil gra de, and oil pum pera-
is lost. Not all level, improp tem
describe common procedures sive, pressure ses include improper oil
632
wear. OtherChapt
cau er 13
low oil pressu
re is thinnin
g oil as a result
of excessive
el will
mon cause of Too low a lev due
the oil level.
used by experienced Another com tion.
tures or gas
dilu
ssure is suspec
ted, begin by
che cki ng
e. If the oil
level is too hig
h, it ma y be
n misfire,
If low oil pre to aerate and lose volum age d fue l pump, ignitio y, check 5
technicians. cause the oil
pump
ering the cra
nkcase as a
to gasoline ent or engine flooding. If the
result of a dam condition are satisfactor 3
oil level and 1
Oil pressure
testing is
t from the 4 rmin
used 6to dete
e the
r, re 7sending uni gauge to
2 8 -
leaking injecto oil pre ssure gauge. the oil pressu re condition of the
bear
oil pressure
using an
pre ssu re test, remove rs, con nec t the oil pressu tch the ings and other inter
nal
To perform
an oil
the cor rec t size adapte as the eng ine idles. Wa the engi ne components.
e 4-20). Usi
ng
erve the gau
ge Increase
engine (Figur Start the engine, and obs
Pulley temperature.
sag e. exc ess ive drops due to res ults wit h the manu-
the oil pas s to note any are the test h the
engine warm gauge. Comp cifications wit
gauge as the observing the provide oil pressure spe After
to 2,000 while rs y warmed up. Bolt
engine rpm Manufacture be sure the engine is full confirm
cifications. re; engine, and
facturers’ spe l operating temperatu sending uni
t, sta rt the
at nor ma oil pre ssu re
Water
engine ll the
plete, reinsta pump
the test is com Intake
manifold
PM
4/4/17 4:49
Timing
cover
indd 151
r_135-226.
58128_ch04_h
Front cover
gasket
Cylinder
block
Figure 13-77 Water pump,

pulley, and timing cover installation.
Figure 13-78 Intake manifold
and typical torque sequence.
(Figure 13-79). Most gasket

s are marked to indicate
After testing the fit, remov proper direction for install
e the intake gasket. Apply ation.
the service manual. On sealer at any locations direct
V-type engines, the four ed in
and the engine block usuall intersection points of the
Caution y require sealer. On V-typ cylinder heads
end seals onto the block e engines, locate the front
Do not install the . In addition, the intake and rear
damper by striking it tabs that must fit into the manifold gasket may have
head gasket for proper alignment
with a hammer. The The studs will hold the gasket installation (Figure 13-80
).
Warnings and Cautions engines. On V-type engine in place while the manif
damper or crankshaft old is installed on most
s, the gasket may slip as in-line
may be damaged. prevent this, use an adhes the manifold is lowered
ive to hold the gasket in into place. To
position. Then install the place. Carefully lower the manif
fasteners and torque to old into
specifications.
Cautions appear throughout the WARNING If the cylind
intake manifold must be
er heads on a V-type engin
machined accordingly e have been machined,
the
text to alert readers to potentially manifold before reasse
well as reduced performan
mbly may cause oil and
so. Failure to machine
coolant leaks or consu
the intake
mption as
ce. Refer to Chapter 9
for more information.
hazardous materials or unsafe On fuel-injected engines,
install the fuel rail and the
the fasteners to the specif intake plenum and gasket
ied value. Next, install the . Torque
conditions. Warnings advise the Make sure to replace
camshaft-driven high-p
the high-pressure (2,000
throttle body assembly (Figur
psi) fuel lines when instal
e 13-81).
ressure pump onto the ling the
cylinder head of GDI (gasol
student of things that can go wrong if injection) systems.
Next, install the exhaust
manifold and gasket. Replac
ine direct
with the exhaust manifold. e all mounting hardware
instructions are not followed or if an The old fasteners may have
been weakened as a result
used
of the
incorrect part or tool is used.

58128_ch13_hr_587-658.indd
632
xiv
Case Studies 570 Chapter 12
CASE STUDY dam-

r was excessively scuffed and
Each chapter ends with a Inspection of a V8 engine
block indicated that one cylinde
hed the options available
and discussed them with the
customer.
to bore each cylinder
aged. The technician researc not feasibl e and having
of a new block was most
Case Study describing a It was decided that the cost
would require the purchase
of new pistons. In this instanc
g the block was the installa
e, it was decided that the
tion of a sleeve. After comple
ting
to turn
cost-effective method of repairin ons on the engine block, the technician was ready
particular vehicle problem all the required machin ing
her attention to the cranks
operati
haft. The inspec tion notes taken indicated that
one of
finish. All other main-bearing
the main-
journal s
grinding to restore its surface ian
bearing journals required fail in this manner, the technic
and the logical steps a were good. Realizing it is unusua
l to have only one bearing
very closely and discove red that the origina l bearing was undersize
noise
inspected the old bearing attempted to remove an engine
not ground. Someone had the journal
technician might use to solve even though the journal was
by simply installing a thicker
bearing to take up clearan
cranks
ce. The extra friction caused
haft position in the block,
all main-bearing journals were
ces were
in proper clearan
ASE-Style Review
to score. To mainta were installed, and oil
rd undersize, new bearings
the problem. These studies ground to the next standa
checked. By taking the time
to find what is in the best
interest of the customer, your
reputation
grow.
as an honest technician will
focus on system diagnosis Questions
skills and help students gain QUESTIONS
ASE-STYLE REVIEW the pistons should come Each chapter contains
4. Technician A says that
familiarity with the process. 1. Technician A says to revers cylinder head.
e the tightening
out the top of the block.
sequence when loosen ing the
the main caps starting
Technician B says to drive on the edge of the
to remove the pistons.
ASE-Style Review Questions
Technician B says to loosen piston skirt with a punch
and moving toward the
at the front of the engine
rear.
Who is correc t?
C. Both A and B
that reflect the performance
A. A only
Who is correct?
C. Both A and B B. B only
D. Neither A nor B
objectives listed at the
A. A only removed for inspection.
D. Neither A nor B 5. The crankshaft has been
B. B only
you can pry most
Technician A says the area aroun d the fillet is a
cracks.
beginning of the chapter.
2. Technician A says that common location for stress
harmonic balancers off
with two big pry bars.
can damage the
Techn ician B says a crack near
piston connecting-rod journa
the number 1
l may indicate a
These questions can be used
Technician B says that you
protect the threads while faulty vibration damper.
crankshaft if you do not
using a puller. Who is correct?
to review the chapter as well
Who is correct? C. Both A and B
A. A only
C. Both A and B
A. A only
B. B only
D. Neither A nor B as to prepare for the ASE
D. Neither A nor B
ready for inspection.
B. B only
the engine to
6. The cylinder block is
Technician A says that deck
warpage can be checked
certification exam.
3. Technician A says to rotate ing the timing and feeler gauge.
TDC number 1 before remov using a precision straightedge
bearing saddle
mechanism. Techn ician B says that the main
B says to make a menta l or written ent can be check ed with a precision
Technician . alignm
Name n of the timing marks and a feeler gauge .
note ____locatio
of the ________ straightedge
________ Who is correct?
Who is correct? ________
PERFORM C. Both A and ____B____
__ only C. Both A and B
A. A only ING AN A. ADa
er A nor B
Upon comp OILD. AN Neith A
DerFILTER
nor B te ______
________ D. Neith
B. B only letion of B. B only ____
change. this job sh CH AN
NATEF Co
This job
rrelation
eet, you sh
ould be ab
le to prope
G E
rly perform
an oil and 20
JO B SH EE
T Job Sheets
sheet addre filter
sses the fol
D.10.
This job
Perform
engine oil
lowing AS
T/ MAST tas
k for Engin
2/15/17 8:41 PM
Located at the end of
sheet addre and filter e Repair:
change.
D.5.
Perform
sses the fol
engine oil
lowing M
LR task for
Engine Re
each chapter, the Job
Tools an and filter pair:
• Technic
d Materia
ian’s tool
ls
change.
Sheets provide a format
• Shop rag set
• Correct
type of en
gine oil
for students to perform
• Service
• Oil filt
• Used oil
manual
er wrench procedures covered in the
container
• Torqu
e wrench chapter. A reference to the
Describe
the vehic
le being NATEF Tasks addressed by
ASE Challenge
Year ____ worked on
________ : Systems 189
________ ing Engine Operating
VIN ____ _ Make __ Diagnosing and Servic
________
________
________
________
________
___ Mod the procedure is included
Questions
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SUPPLEMENTS
Instructor Resources
The Today’s TechnicianTM series offers a robust set of instructor resources, available online
at Cengage’s Instructor Resource Center and on DVD. The following tools have been
provided to meet any instructor’s classroom preparation needs:
■ An Instructor’s Guide including lecture outlines, teaching tips, and complete answers
to end-of-chapter questions.
■ PowerPoint presentations with images and animations that coincide with each
chapter’s content coverage.
■ Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero® provides hundreds of test questions
in a flexible, online system. You can choose to author, edit, and manage Test Bank
content from multiple Cengage Learning solutions and deliver tests from your LMS,
or you can simply download editable Word documents from the DVD or Instructor
Resource Center.
■ An Image Gallery includes photos and illustrations from the text.
■ The Job Sheets from the Shop Manual are provided in Word format.
■ End-of-chapter Review Questions are provided in Word format, with a separate set
of text rejoinders available for instructors’ reference.
■ To complete this powerful suite of planning tools, correlation guides are provided to
the NATEF tasks and to the previous edition.
REVIEWERS
The author and publisher would like to extend special thanks to the following instructors
for reviewing this material:
Matthew Bockenfeld Todd Mikonis

Vatterott College—Joplin Joplin, MO Manchester Community College
Manchester, NH
David Chavez
Austin Community College Austin, TX Vincenzo Rigaglia
Bronx Community College Bronx, NY
Joseph Cortez
Reynolds Community College Richmond, Ronald Strzalkowski
VA Baker College of Flint Flint, MI
Jason S. Grice Michael White

Black Hawk College Galva, IL The University of Northwestern Ohio
Lima, OH
CHAPTER 1
AUTOMOTIVE ENGINES
Upon completion and review of this chapter, you should understand and be able to describe:
■ The purpose of the automotive engine. ■ The basics of the cylinder head and its
■ The basic operation of the internal related components.
combustion four-stroke engine. ■ The engine block and its related
■ The basic function of the cooling and components.
lubrication systems. ■ Many of the major components of the
■ The basic function of the intake and engine.
exhaust systems.
Terms To Know
Camshaft Intake manifold Powertrain
Combustion Internal combustion engine Powertrain control module
Combustion chamber (ICE) (PCM)
Cylinder Journals Pushrod
Cylinder head Overhead camshaft (OHC) Thermostat
engine Valve timing
Engine block
Piston Valvetrain
Exhaust manifold
INTRODUCTION
The automotive engine is the power source that drives the automobile. Today’s engines Internal combustion
are capable of providing good performance and smooth operation in a variety of ambi- engine (ICE) burns its
ent pressures and temperatures while accelerating, decelerating, cruising at high fuels within the engine.
The power that is used
speeds, or at idle. They also achieve good fuel economy and low toxic emissions. as a result of burning
While the basic operation of the four-stroke gasoline internal combustion engine that fuel is also devel-
(ICE) has not changed in more than 100 years, efficiency and power ratings have oped inside the engine.
In comparison, in an
increased more than 1,000 percent. Henry Ford’s Model T sported a 2.7-L engine external combustion
producing about 20 horsepower (hp). Today we commonly see more than 300 hp out engine the burning of
of the same size engine. fuel occurs in an external
source, or tank. The heat
Refinements to the base engine and its support systems have allowed the gains in is then transferred to a
performance, control of fuel consumption, and emissions. Lighter materials within the separate component
engine have allowed weight reductions. The precision and accuracy of the manufacturing where it can be used to
process of modern engines have increased, allowing tighter engine internal clearances. power the engine and
move parts. Examples of
The durability of engines has increased also due to improvements in the process of manu- external combustion
facturing materials and metals. With proper maintenance, most engines should provide engines would be steam
more than 150,000 miles of trouble-free service. Improved parts, new component designs, locomotives and the
Stirling engine.
advanced fluids, and electronic controls have allowed for fewer maintenance
1
2 Chapter 1
Figure 1-1 Today’s smaller engines can produce some hefty horsepower.
A powertrain includes
the engine and all the
components that deliver
that force to the road, requirements. Powertrains are now more than 95 percent cleaner in terms of toxic emis-
including the transmissions than those of the 1960s, while the number of vehicles on the road has more than
sion and axles. doubled.
This text will focus on the operation and service of these powerful and efficient new
The combustion cham- gasoline engines (Figure 1-1). You must thoroughly understand the operation of the
ber is a sealed area in engine and the functions of its components to become a skilled automotive diagnostic
the engine where the
burning (combustion) of
and repair technician. To provide good customer service and ensure proper engine per-
the air and fuel mixture formance, you must accurately diagnose faults and perform precise repairs of the engine
takes place. and its supporting systems. This chapter will highlight the contents of the classroom and
shop manuals. Each chapter in the classroom manual will explain the theory and operation
The piston is a round- of a system. The corresponding shop manual chapter will describe the diagnostic and
shaped part that is repair procedures and strategies for those systems.
driven up and down in
the engine cylinder bore.
An engine cylinder is a
BASIC ENGINE OPERATION
round hole bored into
the cylinder block. The The gas engine is often described as an air pump because it uses a tremendous amount
pistons are housed in of air. But to make power, it also uses a small percentage of gasoline. The engine pulls air
the cylinders. into a sealed combustion chamber through the intake system. The combustion chamber
is sealed on the bottom by the piston and its rings (Figure 1-2) and on the top by the
The powertrain control combustion chamber formed in the cylinder head (Figure 1-3).
module (PCM) is an Air enters into the cylinders as the pistons move downward. This creates a difference
onboard computer that in pressure between the cylinder and the atmosphere. The lower pressure area is in the
controls functions
related to the pow- cylinder. When the intake valve opens, the atmospheric pressurized (fresh) air rushes into
ertrain, such as fuel the cylinder via the intake manifold. Fuel is injected into the airstream near (or sometimes
delivery, spark timing, in) the combustion chambers. The timing and quantity of fuel delivery are precisely con-
temperature, and shift
points.
trolled by the powertrain control module (PCM).
The air and fuel mixture is then compressed to make it more combustible as the piston
moves toward the top of its travel. At the optimum instant, the PCM initiates ignition that
Combustion is the con- will deliver a spark to the spark plug. When the spark jumps across the gap of the spark
trolled burn created by
the spark igniting the plug, the air and fuel mixture is ignited and burns rapidly, and the engine harnesses some
hot, compressed air and of the heat energy available in the fuel. This rapid, but controlled, burning is called
fuel mixture in the com- combustion. The power of the expanding gases pushes down with a force comparable to
bustion chamber.
an elephant standing on top of the piston. The piston is connected to the crankshaft by a
Automotive Engines 3
Figure 1-3 The bottom of this cylinder head (shown) shows the four combustion
chambers sealed by the valves.
Figure 1-2 This piston and rings, with the connecting

rod attached, fit closely in the engine cylinder to seal
the bottom of the combustion chamber.
connecting rod (Figure 1-4). The crankshaft causes the engine to turn. Then the spent The crankshaft and
gases are allowed to exit the combustion chamber through the exhaust system. This pro- connecting rod work
cess is repeated in each of the engine cylinders to keep the crankshaft spinning. together to change
The engine valves allow airflow into and out of the combustion chamber. There are the reciprocating and
typically one or two intake valves per cylinder and one or two exhaust valves per cylinder linear motion of the
(Figure 1-5). Refer to Figure 1-3 to see the heads of the valves within the combustion piston into the rotary
chamber. The valves are opened by the camshaft (Figure 1-6). The camshaft is a gear, motion of the
crankshaft.
belt, or chain driven by the crankshaft. The relationship between the camshaft and crank-
shaft rotation creates the proper valve timing. It is carefully timed to ensure that the
valves open at the correct time. The camshaft has egg-shaped (or cam-shaped) lobes on The camshaft is a shaft
with eccentrically
it to force the opening of the valves. Valve springs close the valves. shaped lobes on it to
force the opening of the
valves.
Valve timing refers to

Connecting rod the relationship between
the rotation of the
crankshaft and
camshaft. That correct
relationship ensures
that the valves open at
the correct time.
Figure 1-4 The connecting rod connects the piston to the crankshaft. Figure 1-5 An engine valve.
4 Chapter 1
Figure 1-6 The camshaft has large, round journals that fit into bearings in the block and small, eccentrically shaped
lobes that open and close the valves.
Figure 1-7 This transversely mounted engine sits sideways in the engine compartment
with the transaxle bolted on its end.
Engine Location
Most engines are installed in the front of the vehicle. They may be installed longitudinally,
with the front of the engine toward the bumper and the rear toward the passenger
compartment, or transversely, with the engine placed in the engine compartment side-
ways. Trucks and rear-wheel drive (RWD) vehicles most commonly use a longitudinally
mounted engine. Many passenger vehicles and most front-wheel drive (FWD) vehicles
use a transversely mounted engine (Figure 1-7). This design allows a shorter hood line,
desired in today’s vehicles to provide greater passenger space. A few vehicles use a
mid-engine design, where the engine is placed between the rear axle and the driver. Often,
this well-balanced configuration is associated with modern sports cars.
Engines are held in place by motor mounts. These are attaching pieces with a flexible
rubber portion that isolates much of the engine vibration from the automobile frame and
passenger compartment. The mounts connect the engine to the vehicle chassis (Figure 1-8).
Engine Function
The engine is attached to the transmission through the flywheel and clutch on a
manual transmission (Figure 1-9) or through the flexplate and torque converter on
an automatic transmission. The engine delivers rotational speed and a twisting force
Rubber bushing
Engine mount
Figure 1-8 The engine mount has a rubber bushing to isolate the vibration of the engine
from the chassis.
Figure 1-9 The flywheel bolts to the crankshaft and is attached to

the transmission through the clutch on a manual transmission.
to spin the transmission components. The twisting force is called torque, and the
speed that develops is called horsepower. The transmission uses this torque and
horsepower and manipulates them to provide the appropriate level of torque and
speed to drive the wheels and propel the vehicle. The transmission multiplies the
torque of the engine through gear sets in the transmission and differential to allow
for good acceleration. In higher gear(s), torque is reduced and speed is increased to
improve fuel economy.
6 Chapter 1
Figure 1-11 The head gasket seals between the block and the cylinder head.
Figure 1-10 A thermostat.
COOLING SYSTEM
Combustion develops a tremendous amount of heat in the engine. The expansion of gases
from the heat pushes the piston down, but some of the heat is absorbed in the engine com-
ponents. A liquid cooling system is used on all current gas automobile engines to remove
excess heat from the engine. An engine belt or gear drives a water pump that circulates
coolant throughout the engine to keep all areas at an acceptable temperature, around
A thermostat is a 200°F (110°C). When the coolant reaches a certain temperature, a thermostat (Figure 1-10)
mechanical component opens to allow coolant to flow through the radiator to cool it down. Air flowing across the
that blocks or allows
coolant flow to the radiator lowers the temperature of the coolant; then the water pump pulls the coolant back
radiator. into the engine and recirculates it. The cooling system must retain heat to speed the warm-
up period to enhance combustion and lower emissions after cold starts. It must also main-
tain an even engine operating temperature for better engine efficiency. To prevent the
meltdown of components, the cooling system must remove excess heat.
Cooling system problems can cause very serious damage to an engine. Heat expan-
sion of parts can cause the engine to seize. When an engine overheats, it is likely to blow
the seal between the cylinder head and the cylinder block. That seal is the head gasket,
and replacement can cost several hundred dollars or more and many hours of work
(Figure 1-11).
LUBRICATION SYSTEM
The lubrication system is critical to reduce the tremendous friction created between the
moving components in the engine. This also reduces engine heat and wear. The oil pump
is mounted on the bottom of the engine or on the crankshaft to circulate engine oil under
pressure to all friction areas in the engine (Figure 1-12). The oil is then filtered to remove
particles of metal or debris that could damage finely machined engine components. The
oil travels through oil passages drilled throughout the engine to reach the crankshaft, the
camshaft, the cylinder walls, and other key friction areas. Just a few minutes of engine
operation without adequate lubrication can turn an engine into irreparable scrap metal.
Proper lubrication system maintenance is essential to the longevity of any engine.
The intake manifold ENGINE BREATHING

connects the air inlet
tubes to the cylinder Engine power is dependent on how well the engine can breathe. The intake and exhaust
head ports to equally systems provide the breathing tubes for the engine. The intake manifold connects the
distribute air to each air intake ductwork to the cylinder head (Figure 1-13). The intake manifold distributes
cylinder.
an equal amount of air to each cylinder. Ports into the combustion chamber allow fresh
Figure 1-12 This oil pump is driven off of the front of the crankshaft.
Figure 1-13 The intake manifold distributes air equally to the cylinders. Note that
this is for an eight-cylinder engine.
air to flow past the intake valves when they are open. The exhaust manifold connects The exhaust manifold
the exhaust ports on the cylinder head to the rest of the exhaust system. To a major degree, connects to the cylinder
the more air an engine can take in, the more power it can put out. The intake and exhaust head and acts as a
chamber to let exhaust
systems must flow freely to allow good airflow. Turbocharging and supercharging are gases exit the engine in
systems that increase airflow by forcing air under pressure into the intake. These systems an efficient and safe
dramatically increase engine power (Figure 1-14). manner.
Problems with the engine’s ability to breathe significantly affect engine performance.
Something as simple as a restricted air filter can cause the engine to barely run or even to
not start. You will learn simple maintenance procedures for the intake and exhaust
systems, as well as more sophisticated tests to diagnose tricky problems.
ENGINE PERFORMANCE
An engine has many required conditions to function as designed and deliver good perfor-
mance. An engine needs to have the combustion chamber well sealed to develop compres-
sion of the air and fuel mixture. The engine and intake system must be large enough to
8 Chapter 1
Figure 1-14 This supercharger creates powerful boost and acceleration.
accommodate and sealed tightly enough to maintain the low pressure needed for the
exchange of exhaust gases and fresh air in each cylinder for the engine’s given displace-
ment. The lubrication and cooling systems must be operating properly. Each engine
component must be within its operating tolerance to allow the engine as a whole to hold
together and run well (Figure 1-15). Problems in how the engine performs will keep you
busy as an engine technician.
To recommend repairs, you will need to learn how to evaluate the engine’s
mechanical condition. Vacuum tests and compression tests as well as listening and
smelling will be some of the weapons in your arsenal to correctly diagnose the cause
of engine problems (Figure 1-16). You must test and cross-check before you recom-
mend major engine repairs, trying to gather as much information as possible. You’ll
need a detailed diagnosis to be able to offer the customer an accurate estimate and to
Figure 1-15 This severely worn lifter would

cause poor engine performance. Figure 1-16 You will learn many different ways to analyze the engine.
be sure you correct the problem on the first try. Engine repairs can become very A cylinder head is the
costly; therefore, it is crucial that the diagnosis and repairs are performed with care large object that houses
and attention to detail. most of the valve train
and covers the combus-
tion chamber.
CYLINDER HEAD
If a cylinder head
The cylinder head houses the valves and often the camshaft. In this case it is called an contains the camshaft,
overhead camshaft (OHC) engine (Figure 1-17). In cases where the camshaft is in the it is called an overhead
camshaft (OHC)
block, the cylinder head still holds many of the valvetrain components. The pushrods, engine. The camshaft
lifters, rocker arms, and springs are all parts of the valvetrain because they work to open can also be located in
and close the valves. When the camshaft is in the block, as the high point of the camshaft the cylinder block.
lobe comes up, it pushes on a lifter, which acts like a plunger, to move the pushrod. The
pushrod is a simple, hollow rod that transfers the motion from the lifter to the rocker arm. The valvetrain is made
The rocker arm rides on a pivot. When the pushrod raises one end of the rocker, the other up of the components
end pushes down on the tip of the valve to open it, much like a typical first-class lever that open and close the
valves.
(Figure 1-18). In later chapters you will discover there are many different combinations
that the camshaft can be used in.
Problems within the cylinder head and valvetrain can be quite serious. A valve that is A pushrod is a long
not adjusted properly, for example, can cause that cylinder to drop in performance, tube that connects that
camshaft to the valve
become noisy, and cause the engine to run rough. During an engine overhaul, it is typical train components in the
to perform a valve job. This involves refinishing all the valves and their seats and replacing cylinder head. This is
the valve seals. This requires complete disassembly of the cylinder head and some preci- typically not used on an
OHC engine.
sion machining and repair (Figure 1-19).
Fulcrum (Pivot point)
Rocker
arm
Valve
spring
Valve
guide
Valve
Pushrod
Lifter
Camshaft
Rocker arms
Figure 1-18 The valvetrain components open
Figure 1-17 This OHC engine uses rocker arms to open the valves. the valve in response to the camshaft lobe.
10 Chapter 1
Figure 1-19 You will learn to use specialized equipment used in engine overhauling,
such as this valve grinder.
TIMING MECHANISM
As discussed earlier, proper valve timing is necessary to keep the valves opening and clos-
ing at the correct times. This is achieved by the timing mechanism. A sprocket or gear on
the crankshaft is attached by a gear, belt, or chain to a sprocket or gear on the camshaft
(Figure 1-20). Timing belts require periodic maintenance. When that is neglected, the
timing belt can snap, and serious engine damage can result. In some cases, the valves
contact the top of the pistons and bend, and a new set of valves is required (Figure 1-21).
Figure 1-20 The lower crankshaft gear turns at twice

the speed of the larger camshaft gear. Figure 1-21 Valve timing failures can be catastrophic.
In the worst cases, those valves damage the piston tops, and the whole engine needs to be
overhauled. Timing chains also wear out over time, and replacing them requires skill and
attention to detail. Variable valve timing systems increase performance and minimize
emissions. More and more vehicles employ these systems to vary the times when the
valves can be opened. This makes timing mechanism theory and service a new and more
complex challenge.
ENGINE BLOCK
The engine block is the main supporting structure of the engine (Figure 1-22). It holds The engine block is the
the pistons, connecting rods, crankshaft, and sometimes the camshaft. The cylinder main structure of the
engine that forms the
head bolts to the top of the block. The block is bored (drilled) to create cylinders. An combustion chamber
eight-cylinder engine has eight-cylinder bores (Figure 1-23). The pistons are pushed and houses the pistons,
up and down in the cylinders by the crankshaft. On the power stroke, the piston is actu- crankshaft, and con-
necting rods.
ally pushed down by the force of combustion to turn the crankshaft. Rings on the pistons
seal the small clearance between the cylinder walls. This prevents the hot, expanding
gases from combustion within the combustion chamber, which lets all the force act to
push the piston down. The rings also scrape excess oil from the cylinder walls so the oil
does not burn inside the combustion chamber. When oil is allowed to burn during
combustion, it forms blue smoke that exits the tailpipe. The block also holds the crank-
shaft in its main bore. The soft main bearings are placed within the main bore to provide
a place for the finely machined crankshaft journals to ride. The journals are the Main journals are round
machined round areas of the crankshaft that allow the bearings and bearing caps to bolt machined portions on
the centerline of the
around them and hold the crankshaft in the engine block. The clearance between the crankshaft where the
journals and the bearings must be just right: enough to allow adequate oil, but not so crankshaft is held in the
much that precious oil pressure leaks through excessive clearances. Crankshaft bearings main bore.
of the friction type are softer than the metal they support. Bearings protect the crank-
shaft from damage, but they also wear. When they wear excessively, they cause low oil
pressure and engine knocking.
Figure 1-23 The cylinder bores are finely finished to provide a good
Figure 1-22 An eight-cylinder engine block. sealing surface for the rings.
12 Chapter 1
Figure 1-24 This carriage is powered by one of Daimler’s first engines.
A BIT OF HISTORY
Jean-Joseph Lenoir created the first workable internal combustion engine in 1860. Nicholas Otto
was credited with creating the first four-stroke internal combustion engine back in 1876.
All previous internal combustion engines did not compress the air-fuel mixture. They attempted
to draw the air-fuel mixture in during a downward movement of the piston and then ignite the mixture.
The expansion of gases would force the piston down the rest of its travel. This design was used to
make the piston forceful on each downward stroke. The four-stroke engine, however, proved much
more efficient and powerful. Gottlieb Daimler received the first patent for the internal combustion
engine in 1885. The basic operation of today’s engines is still similar to those first four-stroke engines.
Figure 1-24 shows an early working model from Daimler’s workshop, which is now a museum.
An engine overhaul involves rebuilding the engine to nearly new condition. Each step
of engine repair requires careful inspection, measurement, and judgment. Together the
Today’s Technician Engine Repair & Rebuilding Classroom and Shop Manuals provide the
information needed to learn about component theory, operation, diagnosis, and the repair
procedures of modern engines. The text covers information on principles, safety, the
engine repair industry, ancillary systems, diagnosis, measuring and testing, removal,
service, installation, along with alternative fuel vehicle operation and service.
SUMMARY
■ Today’s smaller engines make more power with ■ The power of combustion pushes down on the
longer life, fewer emissions, and better fuel econ- piston. The piston is connected to the crankshaft
omy than their older counterparts. by the connecting rod.
■ The powertrain control module controls the ■ The intake and exhaust systems allow the engine to
engine’s operation. take in and expel the great quantity of air that the
■ The engine ignites a compressed air and fuel mix- engine needs to make power.
ture in a confined chamber to harness the heat ■ The cooling system prevents the meltdown of
energy of expanding gases. engine components.
■ The lubrication system reduces temperature and ■ The cylinder block holds the pistons, connecting
friction in the engine. rods, and crankshaft and provides the main
■ The cylinder head houses the valvetrain that opens structure of the engine.
and closes the engine valves. ■ All of the engine systems and components must
■ The camshaft controls the operation and timing of work together as designed to create a smooth-
the valves. It can be used in different running engine that has sufficient power and
configurations. produces low emissions.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Short-Answer Essays 8. The _______________ and _______________ are

compressed in the combustion chamber.
1. Explain the benefits of today’s modern engines.
9. The _______________ both opens and closes the
2. Explain what the combustion chamber is. valves.
3. How does fresh air enter the cylinders? 10. The _______________ _______________ holds the
4. What controls fuel injection and spark timing? crankshaft in its main bore.
5. What is the function of the intake manifold? Multiple Choice

6. Where can an oil pump be mounted? 1. Today’s powertrains require:
7. How does a turbocharger create more power? A. more maintenance. C. more fuel.
B. bigger engine sizes. D. less fuel.
8. What is valve timing?
2. The engine is often described as a(n):
9. Name three components located in the engine
block. A. water pump. C. impeller.
B. air pump. D. gear driver.
10. What forces the crankshaft to turn?
3. Technician A says that the more air an engine can
take in, the more power it can put out.
Fill-in-the-Blanks
Technician B says that the exhaust can affect how
1. The _______________ of modern engines have well an engine can breathe.
decreased more than 90 percent from earlier Who is correct?
models. A. A only C. Both A and B
2. A difference in air pressure produces the B. B only D. Neither A nor B
movement of fresh air into the _______________
4. Technician A says that the piston is connected to
through the intake system.
the crankshaft by the rocker arm.
3. The PCM controls _______________, Technician B says that the connecting rod
_______________, and _______________, converts the reciprocating motion of the piston
_______________ among other functions. to the rotary motion of the crankshaft.
4. The _______________ _______________ Who is correct?
distributes air equally to each cylinder. A. A only C. Both A and B
5. The oil pump may be driven off the front of the B. B only D. Neither A nor B
_______________. 5. The cylinder head forms the top of the:
6. When the thermostat opens, coolant flows A. cylinder.
through the _______________. B. combustion chamber.
7. The _______________ _______________ connects C. intake manifold.
the cylinder head to the exhaust system. D. throttle bore.
14 Chapter 1
6. When a spark ignites the air and fuel mixture, 9. Which of the following is true?
_______________ occurs. A. The crankshaft rotates at the same speed as
A. an explosion C. conflagration the camshaft.
B. a blast D. combustion B. The camshaft rotates twice as fast as the
crankshaft.
7. The _______________ is the main supporting
structure of the engine. C. The camshaft rotates three times as fast as the
crankshaft.
A. motor C. cylinder head
D. The crankshaft rotates twice as fast as the
B. block D. main bore
camshaft.
8. Technician A says that the main bearings protect
10. Valve timing is:
the crankshaft journals.
Technician B says that the camshaft lobes lift the pistons. A. when the spark occurs.
Who is correct? B. when the pistons rotate.
A. A only C. Both A and B C. when the valves open and close.
B. B only D. Neither A nor B D. how long combustion takes.
CHAPTER 2
ENGINE REPAIR AND
REBUILDING INDUSTRY
■ What types of repair are performed at a ■ The skills needed for employment in
full-service repair facility. various settings.
■ The reasons for the existence of ■ How specialized repair facilities
specialty shops and repair facilities. operate.
■ What changes are occurring in the ■ The basic engine rebuilding process at
engine repair and rebuilding industry. a remanufacturing facility.
Terms To Know
Computer numerically controlled (CNC)
Core engine
INTRODUCTION
The engine repair and rebuilding industry has changed significantly in the past decade.
This chapter was designed to give you a brief introduction to the current industry and the
changes that have been made to machining equipment, repair facilities, and the daily
operations.
In the past, engines and vehicles were not built to the high standards they are now.
If an engine and vehicle drove past 100,000 miles without a major repair, you were con-
sidered lucky and running on borrowed time. Today, consumers expect their engines and
vehicles to give them reliable service for many more miles and years. The engines in the
past were not built to today’s high standards and repairs such as valve jobs and rebuilds
were common. Today, things have changed significantly. There are very few shops that
will rebuild an engine in-house.
When you are employed in the field, one of your jobs may be to help the customers
choose what option is best for them. The information in this book, your experiences, and
the shop you work in will all help you inform the customer as to what action should be
taken.
If repairing and rebuilding engines is what you have chosen to do as your career, you
will have to know what options you will have and what types of operations the particular
places of employment may do.
FULL-SERVICE REPAIR FACILITIES

There are a lot of full-service repair shops across the nation. The full-service repair shops
include independently owned, franchised, and new and used dealership facilities. The
majority of these shops are willing to work on anything that comes in the door. Full-service
15
16 Chapter 2
repair shops will typically perform oil changes and other small repairs at a lower advertised
cost to drive customers to their door. This technique is common and allows the customer
to become aware of the amount and type of work that is performed there. It also allows
the shop to inspect the vehicle and make the customer aware of any problems with the
vehicle. Once the customer’s trust is earned, there is a good chance that they will come
back for a different repair and become long-term customers.
The average full-service repair facility will have several bays and hoists to work with,
along with computer terminals to write repair orders and look up service information.
Rebuilding an engine in this type of repair facility is not nearly as common as it once was.
Many independent shops used to own their own machine equipment, such as valve
grinding machines. Since today’s engines need rebuilding less often, those same machines
collect more dust and the shop owner or manager has to consider whether it is worth
still keeping those machines around (and paying to maintain them) or to sell them
(Figure 2-1). The space that a machine takes up on a floor must be usable if a shop is to
remain profitable and stay open. New shops often do not purchase engine machining
equipment unless they plan on specializing in engine work. If a shop does specialize in
engine work, they often have a relationship with many neighboring repair facilities that
send engine work to them. When an extensive engine repair is determined to be the
course of action, many shops will subcontract the job to a specialist.
Today, most independent shops perform engine repairs instead of rebuilds. These
repairs may include, but are not limited to, head gaskets, engine seals, timing belts and
chains, and oil leaks. When a major engine repair is needed, they may often choose to
either install a crate engine or component, or send the engine parts out to an engine
machine shop to be machined and then put the engine back together at the independent
shop. One example is if an engine were to overheat, blow a cylinder head gasket, and crack
the cylinder head. If this were to happen, the full-service repair shop will estimate the
costs of replacing the head versus sending it out to a machine shop for machining and
head reassembly. The shop in turn will charge the customer for the sublet service.
Depending on the vehicle and engine, it may be more cost-effective to purchase crate
components, especially if it is a popular component where there is a lot of supply and the
cost is low.
Most shops now prefer to install remanufactured components and engines because
the company they purchase from is mostly responsible for the warranty of their product.
But their preferred installation choice may be limited by the customer choosing a lower
cost alternative.
Figure 2-1 This valve machine has not been used for the last few years.
Engine Repair and Rebuilding Industry 17
Engine repair work at a full-service shop does not usually require a technician to obtain
training beyond what this book provides, but some shops prefer to have the lead technician
or a specialized technician perform the work. Sometimes this technician is chosen because
of the technician’s interest, experience, background, or specialized training.
MACHINE SHOP AND ENGINE REBUILD FACILITIES

One-third of the full-service shops surveyed in the past few years indicate that they still own
engine machining equipment, but most of them are now planning on selling them. Machine
shops and engine rebuild facilities have been around for a long time. They exist as part of
another facility, independent, or connected to a parts supply store. Many high-performance
facilities will also perform repairs and rebuilding of normal engines. Most of these repair
facilities have not changed their type of business much over the years but have found them-
selves focusing on the changes in technology and how it affects their business model.
Machine shops will take in either complete engine repair and rebuilding or component
repairs and rebuilding. Most machine shops survive and exist because they have a relation-
ship with the local surrounding independent shops, franchises, and dealers. These sup-
porters will send work out to the machine shop. Often the vehicle will not be housed at
the machine shop, but there are a few exceptions.
Some of the most common repairs at a machine shop are cylinder head remanufactur-
ing and repairs, cylinder block remanufacturing, repairs and resizing, piston pressing, and
component assembly. The extent of these repairs will vary. Machine shops have a signifi-
cant advantage over purchasing crate engines. Both shipping costs and local support are
two things that machine shops offer to distinguish themselves from large nationwide
rebuilders.
Often, machine shops will come across a repair for an older, antique, or high-
performance engine. Each of these cases is handled separately, and the shop foreman or
manager usually talks directly with the customer. Some machine shops have started to
accept more high-performance work because of the instability of other work. Machine
shops used to rely on cylinder heads and internal components failing at high enough rates
to keep them in business. Modern engines have lower failure rates that keep them from
needing extensive service frequently.
Machine shops usually have a very costly inventory of machines and equipment A computer numerically
controlled (CNC)
(Figure 2-2). These machines not only have a high initial purchase, but also must be machine uses special
periodically maintained, calibrated, cleaned, and updated. Computer numerically computer software to
controlled (CNC) equipment is sometimes used in a machine shop (Figure 2-3). This machine close
tolerances.
type of equipment requires special training, as do many of the machines and equipment
Figure 2-2 This milling machine can be used to resurface

cylinder heads, block decks, or flywheels.
18 Chapter 2
Figure 2-3 A CNC machine is one of the many pieces of expensive Figure 2-4 Machinists need to be
equipment at a machine shop. able to understand and apply math.
in a machine shop. A CNC machine can cut and mill engine components to a smaller
tolerance (more accuracy) than most human-operated and controlled machines. This is
desirable because the smaller tolerances usually mean less comebacks and a higher-quality
product. Machine shop technicians are required to have a good working knowledge of
engine components, precision measuring tools, math, and the ability to locate resources
quickly (Figure 2-4). There are a few specialized schools across the United States that
specialize in teaching automotive machining.
ENGINE REPAIR AND REPLACEMENT

SPECIALTY FACILITIES
Engine repair and replacement has almost become a separate industry in itself. In the past,
the transmission repair and rebuilding industry had separated itself from the rest of the
industry by having shops offer complete transmission work at one facility. Transmissions
are very complicated and can require extensive testing and highly skilled technicians to
work on them. The growing complexity of modern engines requires similarly skilled tech-
nicians and extensive testing.
Today’s engines are designed with tighter clearances for more efficiency. Replacing or
rebuilding the engine in a modern vehicle requires a higher level of knowledge and skill.
Technicians must also be able to transfer that knowledge over to a different vehicle and a
different setup. The facility must be well-equipped if a profit is to be made.
The amount and cost of the equipment and technician training are significant factors
to consider when offering engine rebuilding and repair at a facility. It is for these reasons
that specialized shops exist. These shops offer engine and related work. They can usually
diagnose and repair the cause in-house, saving money for the customer and keeping the
profit in one place. Sometimes, a component replacement is all that is needed.
Specialized shops rely on a good source of parts and equipment to operate. If cost is
a strong customer consideration, then installing a good, used engine may be an option to
consider with the customer.
Some of the specialized shops offer and advertise high-performance and restoration
work. This may account for a significant amount of their business in some cases.
Specialized shops may also perform custom machining, cylinder porting, and engine
tuning.
ENGINE AND COMPONENT

REMANUFACTURING FACILITIES
As mentioned earlier, today’s engines are lasting longer, and repairs are less frequent.
Because the bodies and other mechanical components do not rust and wear out as fre-
quently either, many consumers are repairing their high-mileage engines that need
replacement, because it costs less than purchasing another vehicle.
For many years, manufacturers have been placing the same engine in several models.
For example, the Chevrolet 5.7 L (350 cubic inch displacement) engine was used in many
light truck and car applications for decades. Many of the components are interchangeable
from one to the next. Because of the volume and number of components out there, the
cost of the parts and crate components (and engines) is significantly lower than many
other engine families. This is because of the volume of parts and components produced
for this engine. Many manufacturers beside General Motors have adapted this strategy.
Many domestic vehicles are being built on a “global” platform.
An example of engine production in volume is the Global Engine Manufacturing
Alliance LLC (GEMA) World Engine, which until 2012 had a joint venture with Chrysler.
The World Engine had five factories worldwide and produced about 2 million engines per
year. Approximately 20 different vehicles by Chrysler, Mitsubishi, Hyundai, and Fiat used
the 1.8 L, 2.0 L, and 2.4 L World Engines, each slightly different for its own application.
The World Engine was used in vehicles all over the globe.
With more manufacturers producing similar products, another segment of engine
rebuilding and remanufacturing was created because of the volume. There are only a few
engine and component remanufacturing facilities in the United States. Their products can
be purchased directly from them, a parts store, or an authorized dealer/installer. These
facilities are large and have the capability of “assembly line production style” engine
remanufacturing because of their volume.
Remanufacturing starts out with a core engine. The core engine is an old, used, or A core engine is a used
discarded engine that was received from a variety of sources. These sources include sal- engine that is disassem-
bled for purposes of
vage yards and a customer’s old engine that was returned. A core charge is usually placed rebuilding in large
on a new engine when it is ordered. This is an extra charge that the customer (or repair volumes.
facility) must pay until the old engine that was removed is sent back in the same shipping
crate. The old engine is then inventoried and completely stripped down to the bare
components.
The major components, such as the cylinder head, block, and crankshaft, are checked
for cracks (Figure 2-5) and are machined, repaired, or discarded as needed. They are then
Figure 2-5 Machine shops and engine remanufacturing plants

usually have expensive equipment. This crankshaft is being
inspected for cracks using a magnet.
20 Chapter 2
inventoried and stored for later use. The major components are then thoroughly cleaned
and ready for reassembly. These engine components are also often sold as individual
remanufactured components.
During reassembly, new parts are installed, and everything is measured, tested, and
torqued to specification. The engines are then started and tested to ensure that the cus-
tomer receives a high-quality product. Some of the main advantages of purchasing an
engine from a remanufacturer are the warranty, quality control, and lower cost.
SUMMARY
■ Automotive and light truck engines last longer today ■ Specialized shops sometimes offer high-
than they did in the past. This has led to changes in performance engine work.
the engine repair and rebuilding industry. ■ Engine remanufacturing in large volumes helps
■ Machine shops perform the majority of engine lower the price.
machining and repairs today. ■ A core engine is a used engine that is disassembled
■ A CNC machine uses special computer software to for purposes of rebuilding in large volumes.
machine close tolerances.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Short-Answer Essays Fill-in-the-Blanks
1. Describe why an engine remanufacturer receives 1. A new car dealership is considered a
core engines. _______________ service repair facility.
2. Describe what a CNC machine is. 2. Technicians who work at a machine shop have to
use _______________ measuring tools as part of
3. Explain why full-service repair shops perform
their daily job.
more engine repairs and component replace-
ments than engine rebuilding. 3. When an installer purchases a remanufactured
engine, a _______________ _______________ must
4. Mention where engine remanufacturers receive
be paid until the old engine is returned.
their core engines from.
4. A CNC is a_______________ _______________
5. Describe the relationship between a full-service
_______________ machine.
repair facility and a machine shop.
5. Engine remanufacturing in large volumes helps
6. Explain why engine repair and rebuilding spe-
lower the _______________.
cialty shops exist.
6. Rebuilding a modern engine requires a
7. Describe the type of repairs an engine repair and
_______________ technician due to their growing
rebuilding specialty shop may perform.
complexity.
8. List where you can purchase a remanufactured
7. A machine shop’s inventory or machines and
engine.
equipment cost is usually very _______________.
9. Explain why a shop sometimes prefers to install a
8. High-performance and restoration engine work is
remanufactured engine or component instead of
usually performed at a _______________ repair
rebuilding.
facility.
10. List the advantages and disadvantages of a full-
9. A crate remanufactured engine offers a
service repair facility owning engine machining
_______________ with its purchase.
equipment.
10. Modern engines have _______________ failure 6. Technician A says that a CNC machine can cut
rates that keep them from needing extensive and mill engine components.
service frequently. Technician B says that a CNC machine is
computer controlled.
Multiple Choice Who is correct?
1. Where would you typically find an “assembly line” A. A only C. Both A and B
for engine rebuilding? B. B only D. Neither A nor B
A. Specialty shop 7. Technician A says that a CNC machine can mill
B. Full-service shop an engine part with more accuracy than a regular
C. New car dealership machine.
Technician B says that using a CNC will usually
D. Remanufacturing facility
result in more customer comebacks.
2. The World Engine can be found in what vehicles? Who is correct?
A. Chrysler C. Chevrolet A. A only C. Both A and B
B. Ford D. Both B and C B. B only D. Neither A nor B
3. Specialized engine rebuilding shops usually 8. Technician A says that a remanufacturing facility
work on: may receive its core engines from salvage yards.
A. high-performance engines. Technician B says that a remanufacturing facility
B. restoration engines. may receive its core engines from customers who
purchased engines from them.
C. race engines.
Who is correct?
D. all of the above.
A. A only C. Both A and B
4. Technician A says that a remanufactured engine
B. B only D. Neither A nor B
that comes from an engine remanufacture facility
typically has a warranty. 9. The failure rate on a modern engine is
Technician B says that an engine remanufacture A. lower than an older engine.
facility will charge you a core charge if you do not B. higher than an older engine.
send the old engine back to them.
C. similar to that of an older engine.
Who is correct?
D. none of the above.
A. A only C. Both A and B
B. B only D. Neither A nor B 10. Technician A says that an engine-rebuilding
technician at a machine shop must be able to
5. Technician A says that a machine shop’s inventory make precision measurements.
is high compared to other automotive repair shops. Technician B says that not much math is involved
Technician B says that there are very few when you are working as an engine rebuilding
machines at new car dealerships. technician at a machine shop.
Who is correct? Who is correct?
A. A only C. Both A and B A. A only C. Both A and B
B. B only D. Neither A nor B B. B only D. Neither A nor B
CHAPTER 3
THEORY OF ENGINE OPERATION
■ Major engine components. compression ratio, engine efficiency,
■ Basic engine operation. horsepower and torque, horsepower
■
losses, mechanical efficiency, and
Basic laws of physics involved with
thermal efficiency.
engine operation.
■ The relationship between compression
■ Engine classifications according to
ratio and engine power output.
the number of cycles, the number of
■ Mechanical, volumetric, and thermal
cylinders, cylinder arrangement,
and valvetrain type. efficiencies, and factors that affect
each.
■ The four-stroke cycle theory.
■ The basic operation of alternative
■ The different cylinder arrangements
engine designs, including two-stroke,
and the advantages of each.
diesel, and stratified charge.
■ The different valvetrains used in ■ The internal components of a diesel
modern engines.
engine and how they differ from those
■ Engine measurement terms such as of a gas engine.
bore and stroke, displacement,
Terms To Know
Autoignition temperature Engine bearings Potential energy
Bore Friction Preignition
Bottom dead center (BDC) Fuel injection Reciprocating
Boyle’s law Glow plugs Reed valve
Brake horsepower Gross horsepower Rotary valve
Coil Horsepower Spark-ignition (SI) engine
Compression-ignition (CI) Hybrid electric vehicle Stroke
engines (HEV) Thermal efficiency
Compression ratio Indicated horsepower Thermodynamics
Connecting rods Internal combustion engine Top dead center (TDC)
Crankshaft Kinetic energy Torque
Cycle Law of conservation of Transmission
Detonation energy
Transverse-mounted engine
Displacement Mechanical efficiency
Vacuum
Dual overhead cam Net horsepower
Valve overlap
(DOHC) Overhead cam (OHC)
Volumetric efficiency (VE)
Engine Overhead valve (OHV)
Wrist pin
Efficiency Piston rings
22 Copyright 2018 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-300
Theory of Engine Operation 23
INTRODUCTION
Today’s engines are designed to meet the demands of the automobile-buying public and
many government-mandated emissions and fuel economy regulations. High performance,
fuel economy, reduced emissions, low noise level, smooth operation, and reliability are
demanded from consumers. To fulfill these consumer needs, manufacturers are producing
engines using lightweight blocks and cylinder heads, and nontraditional materials such as
powdered metals and composites. In the past, engines were made from heavier and lower-
cost raw materials such as iron and steel.
While many of the engine’s mechanical components are similar to those of over
100 years ago, refinements in design, materials, and machining help the manufacturers
improve engine performance and reliability. Many engine and support system functions
are now closely controlled by the powertrain control module (PCM). Fuel delivery, spark
timing, and often valve timing are managed so precisely that the PCM can make adjust-
ments within milliseconds; a millisecond is one-thousandth of a second. Today’s techni-
cian is called upon to diagnose and service these advanced engines properly. Internal combustion
engines burn their fuels
The internal combustion engine used in automotive applications uses several laws within the engine.
of physics and chemistry to operate. Although engine sizes, designs, and construction vary
greatly, they all operate on the same basic principles. This chapter discusses these basic
principles and engine designs. A crankshaft is a shaft
held in the engine block
that converts the linear
and reciprocating
MAJOR ENGINE COMPONENTS motion of the pistons
into a nonreversing
The engine’s cylinder block is the structure that the rest of the engine is built upon rotary motion used to
(Figure 3-1). The block has precisely machined holes, known as cylinder bores, in which turn the transmission.
The crankshaft rotates in
the pistons are moved up and down. only one direction. It is
The number of cylinder bores describes the engine: a three-, four-, five-, six-, eight-, not reversible.
ten-, or twelve-cylinder engine. These bores are typically between 2.5 and 4.25 inches (6.35
and 10.795 cm) on common production vehicles and light duty trucks. Lengthwise across
The connecting rod
the bottom of the block is another bore that supports the crankshaft. The downward forms a link between
linear movement of the pistons rotates the crankshaft. The pistons are connected to the the piston and the
crankshaft by the connecting rods. crankshaft.
Figure 3-1 This engine block is an eight cylinder. It is a V-style engine with four cylinders
on each bank of the V. This photo shows four cylinders on one bank of the V.
24 Chapter 3
Figure 3-2 This engine cutaway shows the major components of the
engine.
The crankshaft connects to the transmission and provides the rotary motion to turn
the wheels. In many cases the transmission rotates in the same direction as the engine,
except when it is in the reverse gear. On top of the block covering the cylinders is the cyl-
inder head. It houses valves that open and close to allow fresh air and fuel into the cylinders
and burnt exhaust gases out. Look at Figure 3-2 to identify these components in the engine.
The cylinder block also has oil and coolant passages drilled throughout it to circulate
these vital fluids to key areas in the block and the cylinder head. The water and oil pumps
are mounted directly to the block in several different ways. Sometimes these components
are internal and behind a cover. In other cases they are external and visible without remov-
ing any components. Both the water and oil pumps are moving objects. They are usually
driven by the movement of the crankshaft via a belt, gear, or chair, but they are sometimes
electrically driven.
The crankshaft is a long iron or steel fabrication with round bearing surfaces machined
onto it called journals (Figure 3-3). The crankshaft must be made to be very strong. The
Figure 3-3 A crankshaft for an eight-cylinder engine.
main journals form the centerline of the crankshaft. Main engine bearings fit into the Engine bearings are
main bores of the engine block, and the crankshaft can spin freely in this mounting. There two bearing halves that
is just enough clearance (or space) between the bearings and the journals to allow a thin form a circle to fit
around the crankshaft
film of pressurized oil to keep the journals from actually riding on the bearings. Half of journals.
the main bore is integral to the block. Main caps form the other half of the bore; these can
be removed to service the crankshaft, bearings, pistons, and other components.
Piston rings are hard
The crankshaft also has journals that are offset from the centerline. These are called cut rings that fit around
rod journals because the connecting rods, fitted with rod bearings, bolt around these the piston to form a seal
journals to attach to the crankshaft. The rod bearings are very similar to the main bear- between the piston and
ings. When the piston pushes the connecting rod down on the offset journal of the crank- the cylinder wall.
shaft, it forces the crankshaft to rotate. The continued motion of the crankshaft in the
same direction is caused by the piston moving in the opposite direction (in the cylinder A wrist pin is a hard-
bore). The crankshaft also has counterweights or crankshaft throws that are offset around ened steel pin that con-
nects the piston to the
the shaft. The weight of these throws helps offset the crankshaft speed fluctuations and connecting rod and
vibrations as the different cylinders produce power. allows the rod to rock
The pistons are slightly smaller than the cylinders, to allow them to move up and back and forth as it trav-
els with the crankshaft.
down with minimal friction. They are fitted with piston rings that seal the area between
the piston and the cylinder wall. The piston connects to the small end of the connecting
rod through a wrist pin (sometimes called a piston or gudgeon pin) and a bushing. The The transmission is a
device that uses the
force of combustion (which is the explosion of fuel and air) on the top of the piston forces rotary motion and power
it to move with power. It is transferred to the crankshaft through the connecting rod. As of the crankshaft to turn
the piston moves up and down in the cylinder, it rotates the crankshaft. This process the differential and
driveshafts. The trans-
converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion (Figure 3-4). This mission multiplies the
rotary motion is what is needed to turn the tires and wheels after the energy is transferred power output and
through the transmission and differential. A flywheel or flexplate at the rear of changes the speed of
the driveshaft using dif-
ferent gear ratios.
Cylinder
head
Valve Valve
Piston
Combustion rings
Piston
Piston
pin
Cylinder
Up
and Connecting
Down rod
motion
Thrust
(Rotary motion)
Crankshaft
Figure 3-4 The engine components at work.
26 Chapter 3
the crankshaft, along with a balancer pulley at the front, provides a large, stable mass for
smoothing out the rotation and dampening the pulsations of the power stroke. Automatic
transmissions use flexplates, and manual transmissions use flywheels.
The cylinder head forms a tight cover for the top of the cylinders and contains
machined chambers into which the air-fuel mixture is forced and ignited (Figure 3-5).
The void area of the cylinder head located above the cylinder bore is called the combus-
tion chamber. It is sealed on the top by the cylinder head and valves and on the bottom
by the pistons and rings. The cylinder head also has threaded holes for the spark plugs
that screw right into the head so their tips protrude into the combustion chambers. Some
cylinder heads have threaded holes for fuel injectors (such as diesel and gasoline direct
injection engines). The valves in each cylinder are opened and closed by the action of the
camshaft and related valvetrain. The camshaft is connected to the crankshaft by a gear,
chain, or belt and is reduced to drive at one-half of the crankshaft’s speed. In other words,
for every complete revolution the crankshaft makes, the camshaft makes one-half of a
revolution. This makes the speed of the crankshaft exactly half of the crankshaft. The
camshaft may be mounted in the engine block itself or in the cylinder head, depending
on design. Some engines use two camshafts in the head; these are called dual overhead
cam engines.
The camshaft has lobes that are used to open the valves (Figure 3-6). A camshaft
mounted in the block operates the valves remotely through pushrods and rocker arms;
others act on followers placed directly on top of the valves. In some overhead camshaft
(OHC) engines, the camshaft lobes contact the rocker arms that may be mounted on a
rocker arm shaft.
Lubricating oil for the engine is normally stored in the oil pan (sometimes called a
sump) mounted to the bottom of the engine. The oil is force-fed under pressure to almost
all parts of the engine by the oil pump.
Journals
Lobes
Figure 3-6 A camshaft.
Figure 3-5 The cylinder head and valves seal the top of the
combustion chamber.
ENGINE OPERATING PRINCIPLES

One of the many laws of physics used within the automotive engine is thermodynamics. Thermodynamics is the
The driving force of the engine is the expansion of gases. Gasoline (a liquid fuel) will change study of the relationship
and efficiency between
its state to a gas if it is heated or burned. Gasoline must be mixed with oxygen before it can heat energy and
burn. In addition, the air-fuel mixture must be burned in a confined area to produce power. mechanical energy.
Gasoline that is burned in an open container produces very little power, but if the same
amount of fuel is burned in a closed container, it will expand producing usable force. When
the air-fuel mixture changes states, it also expands as the gas molecules collide with each
other and bounce apart. Increasing the temperature of the gasoline molecules increases their
speed of travel, causing more collisions and expansion.
Heat is generated by compressing the air-fuel mixture within the combustion cham-
ber. Igniting the compressed mixture causes the heat, pressure, and expansion to multiply.
This process releases the energy of the gasoline so it can produce work. The igniting of
the mixture is more of a controlled burn, rather than an explosion. The controlled com-
bustion releases the fuel energy at a controlled rate in the form of heat energy. The heat,
and consequential expansion of molecules, dramatically increases the pressure inside the
combustion chamber. Typically, the pressure works on top of a piston that is connected
to the connecting rod and crankshaft. The expanding gases push the piston down with Torque is a rotating
tremendous force and speed. As the piston is forced down, it causes the crankshaft to force around a pivot
point.
rotate. This rotation is a twisting force.
This twisting force on the crankshaft is called torque. Torque is applied to the drive
wheels through the transmission and differential. As the engine drives the wheels to move Horsepower is a
the vehicle, a certain amount of work is done. The rate of work being performed in a measure of the rate
of work.
certain amount of time is measured in horsepower.
Energy and Work

In engineering terms, in order to have work, there must be motion. Using this definition,
work can be measured by combining distance and weight and is expressed as foot-pound
(ft.-lb.) or newton meter (Nm). These terms describe how much weight can be moved a
certain distance. A foot-pound is the amount of energy required to lift and move 1-pound
of weight 1 foot in distance. The amount of work required to move a
500-pound weight 5 feet is 2,500 foot-pounds (3,390 Nm). In the metric system, the unit
used to measure force is called a newton meter (Nm). A Newton is a unit measure of force,
similar to a pound. Torque is measured as the amount of force in Newtons multiplied by
the distance that the force acts in meters. One foot-pound is equal to 1.355 Nm.
It is important to understand both systems because manufacturers will use both
systems.
Energy produces work that can be measured in units, such as torque. Basically, energy
is anything that is capable of resulting in motion. Common forms of energy include elec-
trical, chemical, heat, radiant, mechanical, and thermal. The law of conservation
of energy is a principal
The law of conservation of energy states that the total amount of energy in an iso- law of physics that
lated system remains constant. Energy cannot be created nor destroyed; however, it can states that the total
be stored, controlled, and changed into other forms of energy. For example, the vehicle’s energy of an isolated
system remains
battery stores chemical energy that is changed into electrical energy when a load is applied. constant despite any
An automotive engine converts thermal (heat) energy into mechanical energy or power internal changes.
to produce force and motion. During combustion, when the gasoline burns, thermal
energy is released. The engine converts this thermal energy into mechanical energy.
An engine is defined as
Mechanical energy provides movement. The heat, expansion, and pressure during com- a device or machine
bustion all supply thermal energy within the combustion chamber. This thermal energy that converts thermal
is converted to mechanical energy as the piston is pushed downward in the cylinder with energy into mechanical
energy.
great force. Often the engine under the hood is referred to as a motor. In automotive
28 Chapter 3
terms, a motor is referred to as a driving and moving device that is electrically or vacuum
controlled.
Types of Energy
Potential energy is
energy that is not being
There are two types of energy: potential and kinetic. Potential energy is available to be
used at a given time, used but is not being used. An example of this in the automobile is the chemical energy
but which can be used. of the battery when the engine and ignition are turned off. Most of the chemical energy
is stored as potential energy. (A very small percentage of the available energy is actually
Kinetic energy is the being used to keep computer memories alive.) When the ignition key is turned to start and
amount of energy that is the starter begins to crank the engine over, kinetic energy is being used. Kinetic energy
currently being used or is energy that is being used or working. The battery is now providing significant chemical
is currently working.
energy to the starter so it can do work.
Energy Conversion
In our example of the battery starting the engine, several energy conversions occur. Energy
cannot be destroyed or eliminated, but it can be converted from one state or form to
another. The starter converts the chemical energy from the battery into electrical energy
to engage the starter. The starter converts this electrical energy into mechanical energy
to crank the engine over. At the same time, chemical energy from the battery is being
converted to electrical energy to provide power to the fuel, ignition, and computer-
controlled systems so they will have the needed fuel and spark to start and run the engine.
When combustion is in a rapid enough sequence, the starter is disengaged and the engine
is kept running without the starter’s assistance. The speed of the engine when it is running
and idling is faster than its speed when it is starting. Combustion uses the potential energy
in gasoline and converts it into kinetic energy by burning it. The chemical energy of the
fuel is converted to thermal energy by the heat produced during combustion. The thermal
energy is converted to mechanical energy by the movement of the pistons and the crank-
shaft. The following energy conversions are all common automotive applications:
Chemical Energy Conversion to Thermal Energy. As fuel is burned in the combustion
chambers, the chemical energy in the fuel is converted to thermal energy.
Thermal Energy Conversion to Mechanical Energy. As the heat, pressure, and expan-
sion of gases develop during combustion, thermal energy increases. This thermal
energy is converted to mechanical energy to drive the vehicle through energy exerted
on top of the pistons, which turns the crankshaft to drive the transmission and drive wheels.
Chemical Energy Conversion to Electrical Energy. The battery stores chemical energy
and converts it to electrical energy as electrical loads such as the starter, the powertrain
control module, the fuel injectors, and the radio demand electricity.
Electrical Energy Conversion to Mechanical Energy. The starter, fuel injectors, elec-
tric cooling fan, and windshield wiper motor are just a few of the many automotive appli-
A hybrid electric cations of conversion of electrical energy into mechanical motion. A hybrid electric
vehicle (HEV) uses an vehicle (HEV) uses electricity to power an electric motor, which then turns the transmis-
electric motor in combi-
nation with a gas, die- sion with or without the engine running.
sel, or alternate fuel Mechanical Energy Conversion to Electrical Energy. The generator provides electrical
engine to power the
vehicle. energy to recharge the battery by using the mechanical energy of rotation through a belt
connected to the rotating crankshaft. HEVs use regenerative braking during deceleration
to recharge the high-voltage battery pack.
Mechanical Energy Conversion to Thermal Energy. The braking system on a tradi-
tional internal combustion engine vehicle is a fine example of this form of energy conver-
sion. The mechanical energy of the rotating wheels is changed into thermal energy
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empty title to be assumed at will. The first period of the King’s rule
did not give people a good impression of him; it looked as if he had
been rather impatient of rule than deserving of it. As a matter of fact,
he indulged no dangerous passions, and the only remarkable thing
about him seemed to be youthful fits of rage and a settled obstinacy.
He seemed proud and unable to apply himself. Even the
ambassadors to his court took him for a second-rate genius, and so
described him to their masters. The Swedish people had the same
opinion of him; no one understood his character; he himself had not
realized it, when storms arising in the North suddenly gave his
hidden talents an opportunity of displaying themselves.
Three strong princes, taking advantage of his extreme youth,
made simultaneous plans for his ruin. The first was Ferdinand IV,
King of Denmark, his cousin; the second Augustus, Elector of
Saxony and King of Poland; the third, and most dangerous, was
Peter the Great, Czar of Russia. It is necessary to explain the
beginning of these wars, which had such great results. We will begin
with Denmark.
Of the two sisters of Charles XII, the elder had married the Duke
of Holstein, a young prince of great courage and kindliness. The
Duke, oppressed by the King of Denmark, came to Stockholm with
his consort, in order to put himself under the King’s protection, and
ask his help, not only as a brother-in-law, but also as King of a
people which nourishes an undying hatred for the Danes.
The ancient house of Holstein, merged with that of Oldenburg,
was elected to the throne of Denmark in 1449. All the Northern
kingdoms were at that time elective, but that of Denmark shortly after
became hereditary. One of its kings, Christian III, had an affection for
his brother Adolphus for which there are few parallels in history. He
neither wished to leave him powerless, nor could he dismember his
own States. By an extraordinary arrangement he shared with him the
duchies of Holstein-Gottorp and Sleswick. The descendants of
Adolphus should, in future, rule Holstein in conjunction with the kings
of Denmark, so that the two duchies should be common property,
and the King could do nothing in Holstein without the sanction of the
Duke, and vice versa. This extraordinary union, of which there had,
however, been a parallel instance a few years previously, was, for
more than eighty years, a source of quarrels between the Denmark
and Holstein branches of the dynasty, since the kings always made it
their policy to oppress the dukes, and the dukes were equally
determined on independence. The struggle had cost the last Duke
his liberty and his supremacy. He had regained both at the
Conference of Altena in 1689, through the mediation of Sweden,
Holland and England, the guarantors of the treaty.
But as a treaty between princes is often only a temporary
makeshift, until the stronger is able to oppress the weaker, the
quarrel between the new Danish King and the young Duke began
again more violently than ever. While the Duke was at Stockholm,
the Danes had already begun hostilities in the district of Holstein,
and had made a secret alliance with the King of Sweden himself.
Frederic Augustus, Elector of Saxony, whom neither the
eloquence and schemes of the Abbé de Polignac, nor the great
qualifications of the Prince of Conti, his competitor for the throne,
had been able to deprive of election as King of Poland, was a prince
still more famed for his courage and chivalrous ideals, than for his
incredible physical strength. His court, after that of Louis XII, was
second to none in Europe in distinction. There was never a prince
more generous or liberal, nor one who gave with so good a grace.
He had bought half the votes of the Polish nobility, and gained
the other half by force on the approach of a Saxon army. He
considered it better to keep a standing army to strengthen himself on
the throne; but he wanted a pretext for keeping it in Poland. He had,
in fact, planned to send it against the King of Sweden, on the
occasion we are now going to relate.
Livonia, the most beautiful and fertile province of the North, had
once belonged to the Knights of the Teutonic order. The Russians,
Poles, and Swedes had since severally disputed their claim to it.
Sweden had enjoyed it for nearly one hundred years, and was
solemnly confirmed in possession of it by the Peace of Oliva.
The late King Charles XI, in his severity to his subjects, had not
spared the Livonians. He robbed them of their privileges and part of
their estates. Patkul, who from his unhappy death has since gained
the notoriety of misfortune, was deputed by the nobility of Livonia to
lay their grievances before the King. His speech to his master was
respectful, but strong and full of the rugged eloquence begotten of
calamity and courage. But kings too often regard public speeches as
vain ceremonies, which they must endure without paying attention
to. But Charles XI, who, when he did not give way to transports of
rage, knew how to act a part, patted Patkul gently on the shoulder
and said, “You have spoken for your country like a brave man; I
honour you for it. Proceed.” But a few days after he had Patkul
declared guilty of high treason and condemned to death.
Patkul, who had hidden, took to flight, and carried his resentment
to Poland. Some time after he was admitted to the court of King
Augustus. Charles XI was dead, but the sentence of Patkul was not
annulled, and he was still most resentful. He pointed out to the King
of Poland how easily Livonia could be conquered; the people were in
despair, and eager to shake off the Swedish yoke; the King was only
a child, and unable to defend himself. These proposals were well
received by a prince who had long meditated this conquest.
Preparations were immediately made for a sudden invasion of
Sweden, empty formalities of ultimata and manifestoes being
dispensed with.
At the same time the storm darkened on the Russian frontier.
Peter Alexiowitz, Czar of Russia, had already made his name feared
by the battle in which he defeated the Turks in 1697, and by the
conquest of Azov, which gave him the control of the Black Sea. But
the actions which won him the title of “The Great” were far more
glorious than conquests.
Russia occupies the whole of Northern Asia and Europe, and
from the frontiers of China extends 1,500 leagues to the borders of
Poland and Sweden. Yet the existence of this immense country was
not even realized by Europe before the time of the Czar Peter. The
Russians were less civilized than the Mexicans at the time of their
discovery by Cortez; born the slaves of masters as barbarous as
themselves, they were sunk deep in ignorance, and unacquainted
with the arts and sciences, and so insensible of their use that they
had no industry. An old law, held sacred among them, forbade them,
on pain of death, to leave their own country without the permission of
their Patriarch. Yet this law, avowedly enacted to prevent them from
realizing their state of bondage, was agreeable to a people who, in
the depths of their ignorance and misery, disdained all commerce
with foreign nations.
The era of the Russians began with the creation of the world;
they reckoned up 7,207 years at the beginning of the last century,
without being able to give any reason why they did so. The first day
of the year corresponded to our 13th of September. The reason they
gave for this was that it was probable that God created the world in
autumn, in a season when the fruits of the earth are in full maturity!
Thus the only traces of knowledge found among them were
founded on gross mistakes; not one of them suspected that autumn
in Russia might be spring in another country in the antipodes. Not
long before, the people were for burning the secretary of the Persian
ambassador, because he had foretold an eclipse of the sun. They
did not even know the use of figures, but in all their calculations
made use of little beads strung on wire; and this was their method of
reckoning in all their counting-houses, and even in the treasury of
the Czar.
Their religion was, and still is, that of the Greek Church, but
intermingled with superstitions, to which they firmly adhered in
proportion to their absurdity and their exacting nature. Few Russians
dare eat a pigeon, because the Holy Ghost is portrayed in form of a
dove. They regularly kept four Lents a year, and during that time
might eat neither eggs nor milk. God and St. Nicholas were the
objects of their worship, and next to them the Czar and the Patriarch.
The authority of the latter was as boundless as the people’s
ignorance. He had power of life and death, and inflicted the cruelest
punishments, from which there was no appeal. Twice a year he rode
in solemn procession, ceremoniously attended by all the clergy; and
the people prostrated themselves in the streets before him, like the
Tartars before their Grand Lama.
They practised confession, but only in the case of the greatest
crimes; and then absolution was held necessary, but not repentance;
they believed themselves purified in God’s sight as soon as they
received the priest’s benediction. Thus they passed without remorse
straight from confession to theft or murder; so that a practice which,
in the case of other Christians, acts as a deterrent, was, in their
case, only an incentive to crime. They scrupled to drink milk on a
fast-day, but on festivals fathers of families, priests, matrons and
maids got inebriated with brandy. As in other countries they had
religious differences among themselves, but the most important
cause of dispute was whether laymen should make the sign of the
cross with two fingers or with three, and a certain Jacob Nursoff had,
during a previous reign, raised a rebellion on this question.
The Czar, in his vast kingdom, had many subjects who were not
Christians; the Tartars, on the west coast of the Caspian, and the
Palus Mæotis were Mahometans; while the Siberians, Ostiacs and
Samoides, who live near the Baltic, were pagans. Some of these
were idolators, and some were without God in the world; still, in spite
of that, the Swedes, who were sent as prisoners among them, report
more favourably of their manners than those of the ancient
Russians.
Peter Alexiowitz had received an education which tended to
increase the barbarity of his part of the world. His disposition led him
to like strangers before he knew they could be useful to him. Le Fort
was the first instrument that he made use of to change the face of
Russia. Peter’s mighty genius, checked but not destroyed by a
barbarous education, suddenly broke out; he resolved to act a man’s
part, to hold command of men and to create a new nation. Several
princes before him had renounced their thrones, from distaste for
public business, but there was no instance of a prince resigning that
he might learn to rule better, as Peter the Great did. He left Russia in
1698, before the completion of the second year of his reign, and took
a journey into Holland, under an ordinary name, as if he were the
domestic servant of M. le Fort, whom he appointed ambassador-
extraordinary to the States-General. When he reached Amsterdam
he entered his name on the list of ships’-carpenters to the Indian
Admiralty, and worked in the dockyard like other carpenters. In his
leisure time he learned those branches of mathematics which might
prove useful to a prince, e. g. such as related to fortifications,
navigation, and the making of plans. He went into the workmen’s
shops, examined all their manufactures, and let nothing escape his
notice. Thence he passed to England, where he perfected himself in
the science of ship-building, and, returning to Holland, carefully
investigated everything which might be of use in his own country.
At last, after two years of travel and labour which nobody else
would have willingly undergone, he reappeared in Russia, bringing
thither with him the arts of Europe. A band of artists of all kinds
followed him, and then for the first time great Russian vessels were
to be seen on the Black Sea, the Baltic, and even on the ocean.
Imposing buildings of architectural merit were set up amidst the
Russian huts. He founded colleges, academies, printing-houses and
libraries. The great towns were civilized; and gradually, though not
without difficulty, the dress and customs of the people were changed,
so that the Russians learned by degrees what social life really is.
Even their superstitions were abolished, the Czar declared head of
the Church, and the influence of the Patriarch suppressed. This last
undertaking would have cost a less absolute Prince his throne and
his life, but in the case of Peter not only succeeded, but assured his
success in all his other innovations.
Peter, having subdued the ignorant and barbarous clerical orders,
dared to venture to educate them, and so ran the risk of making
them a power in the State—but he believed that he was strong
enough to take this risk.
In the few monasteries which remained he had philosophy and
theology taught; though this theology was only a survival of the age
of barbarity from which Peter had rescued his country. A credible
witness assured the writer that he had been present at a public
debate, where the question was whether the use of tobacco was a
sin; the proposer argued that it was lawful to intoxicate oneself with
brandy, but not to smoke, because the Holy Scriptures say that, “Not
that which goeth into the mouth defileth a man; but that which
cometh out of the mouth, this defileth a man.”
The monks were not content with the reform. Scarcely had the
Czar set up printing-presses than they made use of them to abuse
him. They called him Antichrist, because he had the men’s beards
cut off, and because post-mortem dissection was practised in his
academy. But another monk, who wanted to make his fortune, wrote
refuting this argument, and proving that Peter was not Antichrist
because the number 666 was not included in his name! The author
of the libel was broken on the wheel, and his opponent made Bishop
of Rezan.
The Reformer of Russia carried a law which puts to shame many
a civilized state; by this law no member of the civil service, no
“bourgeois” with an established position, and no minor, might enter a
monastery. Peter quite grasped the importance of not allowing useful
subjects to take up idleness as a profession, nor those who had not
yet command of the least part of their fortune to renounce liberty for
ever.
The Czar not only, after the example of the Turkish Sultans,
subjected the Church to the State, but, by a greater stroke of policy,
he destroyed a band of troops like the Janissaries; and that which
the Ottoman Emperors failed to do, he succeeded in very rapidly; he
disbanded the Russian Janissaries, called Strelitz, who had
dominated the Czars. This band, feared rather by its masters than its
neighbours, consisted of about 30,000 infantry, half stationed at
Moscow, and the other half at various points on the frontier; a
member of the Strelitz only drew pay at the rate of four roubles a
year, but privileges and abuses amply made up for this.
Peter at first formed a band of mercenaries, in which he had
himself enrolled, and was not too proud to begin as drummer-boy, so
much were the people in need of good example. He became officer
by degrees, made new regiments from time to time, and at last,
finding himself at the head of disciplined troops, broke up the Strelitz,
who were afraid to disobey him.
The cavalry resembled that of Poland, and that of France in the
days when France was only a collection of fiefs. Russian noblemen
took the field at their own expense, and engaged without discipline,
and sometimes unarmed but for a sabre and a quiver; they were
quite unused to discipline, and so were always beaten.
Peter the Great taught them to obey, both by example and by
punishment. For he himself served as a soldier and subordinate
officer, and as Czar severely punished the “boyards,” as the
noblemen were called, who argued that the privilege of the nobility
was to serve the State in their own way. He instituted a regular corps
of artillery, and seized 500 church bells to cast cannon. By the year
1714 he had 13,000 brass cannon. He also formed a corps of
dragoons, a form of arm both suited to Russian capacity and for
which their horses, which are small, are particularly fit.
Russia has, at the present day (1738), thirty well-equipped
regiments of dragoons of 1,000 men each.
He it was, too, who established the hussars in Russia; he even
got a school of engineers in a country where he was the first to
understand the elements of geometry.
He was a good engineer himself; but he excelled especially in
seamanship. As he was born with an extreme fear of the sea, it is all
the greater credit to him that he was a good captain, a skilful pilot, a
good seaman, and a clever carpenter. Yet in his young days he
could not cross a bridge without a shudder; and he had the wooden
shutters of his carriage closed on these occasions. It was his
courage and will which led him to overcome this constitutional
weakness.
He had built on the Gulf of Tanais, near Azov, a fine port; his idea
was to keep a fleet of galleys there, and as he considered that these
long, flat, light craft would be successful in the Baltic, he had 300 of
them built in his favourite town of Petersburg. He taught his subjects
how to construct them from ordinary fir, and then how to manage
them.
The revenue of the Czar was inconsiderable, compared with the
immense size of his empire. It never exceeded twenty-four millions,
reckoning the mark as £50, as we do at the present moment; but,
after all, only he is rich who can do great deeds. Russia is not
densely populated, though the women are prolific and the men are
strong. Peter himself, by the very civilization of his empire,
contributed to its population. The causes of the fact that there are
still vast deserts in this great stretch of the continent are to be sought
in frequent recruiting for unsuccessful wars, the transporting of
nations from the Caspian to the Baltic, the destruction of life in the
public works, the ravages wrought by disease (three-quarters of the
children dying of small-pox), and the sad result of a means of
government long savage, and barbarous even in its civilization. The
present population of Russia consists of 500,000 noble families,
200,000 lawyers, rather more than 5,000,000 “bourgeois” and
peasants paying a kind of poll-tax, and 600,000 men in the provinces
conquered from the Swedes; so that this immense realm does not
contain more than 14,000,000 men; that is to say, two-thirds of the
population of France.
The Czar Peter, having transformed the manners, laws, militia,
and the very face of his country, wished also to take a prominent part
in commerce, which brings both riches to a State and advantages to
the whole world. He intended to make Russia the centre of Asian
and European trade. The Volga, Tanais, and Duna were to be united
by canals, of which he drew the plans, and new ways were to be
opened from the Baltic to the Euxine and the Caspian, and from
these to the Northern Ocean.
In the year 1700 he decided to build on the Baltic a port which
should be the mart of the North, and a town which should be the
capital of his empire, because the port of Archangel, ice-bound for
nine months in the year, and the access to which necessitated a long
and dangerous circuit, did not seem to him convenient. Already he
was seeking a passage to China through the seas of the north-east,
and the manufactures of Paris and of Pekin were to enrich his new
town.
A road of 754 versts, made across marshes which had to be first
filled, led from Moscow to his new town. Most of his projects were
carried out by his own hand, and two Empresses who succeeded
him successively carried out his policy whenever practicable, and
only abandoned the impossible.
He made tours throughout his empire whenever he was not
engaged in active warfare. But he travelled as lawgiver and natural
philosopher. He carefully investigated natural conditions everywhere,
and tried to correct and to perfect. He himself plumbed rivers and
seas, had locks made, visited the timber-yards, examined mines,
assayed metals, planned accurate maps, and worked at them with
his own hand.
He built, in a desolate district, the imperial town of Petersburg,
which, at the present day, contains 60,000 houses, and where there
has arisen in our day a brilliant Court, and where the greatest luxury
is to be had. He built the port of Cronstadt on the Neva, Sainte-Croix
on the frontiers of Persia, and forts in the Ukraine and in Siberia,
docks at Archangel, Petersburg, Astrakan, and at Azov; besides
arsenals and hospitals. His own residences he built small and in bad
style, but his public buildings were magnificent and imposing. The
sciences, which in other parts have been the slow product of
centuries, were, by his care, introduced into his empire in full
perfection. He made an academy, modelled on the famous
institutions of Paris and London; at great expense men like Delisle,
Bilfinger, Hermann, Bernoulli, were summoned to Petersburg. This
academy is still in existence, and is now training Russian scholars.
He compelled the younger members of the nobility to travel to
gain culture, and to return to Russia polished by foreign good
breeding. I have met young Russians who were quite men of the
world, and well-informed to boot.
It is shocking to realize that this reformer lacked the cardinal
virtue of humanity. With so many virtues he was yet brutal in his
pleasures, savage in his manner, and barbarous in seeking revenge.
He civilized his people, but remained savage himself. He carried out
his sentences with his own hands, and at a debauch at table he
displayed his skill in cutting off heads. There are in Africa kings who
shed the blood of their subjects with their own hands, but these
monarchs pass for barbarians. The death of one of his sons, who
ought to have been punished or disinherited, would make his
memory odious, if the good he did his subjects did not almost atone
for his cruelty to his own family.
Such a man was Peter the Czar, and his great plans were only
sketched in outline when he united with the kings of Poland and
Denmark against a child whom they all despised.
The founder of Russia resolved to be a conqueror; he believed
the task an easy one, and felt that a war so well launched would help
him in all his projects. The art of war was a new art in which his
people needed lessons.
Besides, he wanted a port on the east side of the Baltic for the
execution of his great plans. He needed Ingria, which lies to the
north-east of Livonia. The Swedes possessed it, and it must be
seized from them. His ancestors, again, had had rights over Ingria,
Estonia, and Livonia; it seemed the right time to revive these claims,
which not only dated from a hundred years back, but had also been
annulled by treaties. He therefore concluded a treaty with the King of
Poland to take from Sweden the districts which lie between the Gulf
of Finland, the Baltic, Poland and Russia.
BOOK II
BOOK II
Sudden and extraordinary transformation in the character of Charles
XII—At the age of eighteen he carries on war with Denmark,
Poland and Russia—He concludes the war with Denmark in six
weeks—Beats an army of 80,000 Russians with 8,000 Swedes,
and proceeds to Poland—Description of Poland and its
Government—Charles wins several victories, and conquers
Poland, where he makes preparations to nominate a king.
THUS three powerful kings were threatening the throne of the

boy-king, Charles XII. Rumours of these preparations dismayed the
people, and alarmed the King’s Council. The great generals were
dead; everything was to be feared under a young king who had so
far made a bad impression on people. He was hardly ever present at
the Council without crossing his legs on the table; he seemed too
absent-minded and callous to take part in any business.
The dangerous position of affairs was deliberated by the Council
in his presence, and, as some Councillors were proposing to divert
the storm by means of negotiation, Charles suddenly rose from his
seat with the determined air of a man of resolution who has decided
on a course of action. “Gentlemen,” he said, “I have resolved never
to engage in an unjust war, but, on the other hand, never to conclude
a just war but by the ruin of my foes. I have made up my mind. I
intend to attack the first who declares war against me, and when I
have conquered him I hope to strike terror into the rest.” This speech
amazed the old Councillors; they exchanged glances without
venturing a reply, and finally, astonished at this revelation of their
king’s courage, and ashamed to show less courage than he, they
received his orders for the war cordially.
They were still more surprised when they observed that he
suddenly renounced all the most innocent, youthful pleasures. From
the moment that he began to prepare for war he entered on a new
mode of life, from which he never afterwards departed in one
particular. With Alexander and Cæsar as his ideals, he set himself
the task of imitating those conquerors in everything but their vices.
He renounced all magnificence, pastimes and recreations, and
reduced his menu to the utmost frugality. He had affected display in
dress, but in future wore the uniform of a common soldier. There had
been a rumour that he had entertained a passion for a lady of the
Court. But whether this was true or not, it is certain that he abstained
from the society of women for ever after, not only to avoid coming
too much under their influence, but that he might prove to his
soldiers his determination to live under the severest discipline;
possibly, too, he wished to pose as the only Prince who had
conquered so difficult a temptation. He also resolved to abstain from
wine for the rest of his life. Some people say that he made this
resolve in order to curb nature in every particular, and to add a new
virtue to his heroism; but the majority say that he took this means of
punishing himself for an excess which he had once committed,
leading to an insult offered to a lady at table in the presence of his
mother. If that was so, his self-condemnation and the life-long
deprivation which he imposed on himself are none the less to be
admired.
He began operations by a promise of relief to his brother-in-law,
the Duke of Holstein. Eight thousand men were immediately sent to
Pomerania, a province bordering on Holstein, to protect the Duke
against the attacks of the Danes. The Duke certainly needed them;
his dominions were already ravaged, his castle at Gottorp taken and
the town of Tonning closely besieged, the King of Denmark being
there in person, to enjoy a conquest of which he felt certain. This
spark enflamed the empire. On one side the Saxon troops of the
King of Poland and those of Brandenburg, Volfenbuttel and Hesse-
Cassel marched to join the Danes. On the other the King of
Sweden’s 8,000 men, the troops of Hanover and Zell, and three
Dutch regiments came to the help of the Duke.
While the little country of Holstein was thus made the theatre of
war two squadrons, one from England and the other from Holland,
appeared in the Baltic.
These two States were guarantors of the treaty of Altena, which
the Danes had broken, and they were all the more eager to relieve
the oppressed Duke, as it was to the interest of their trade to prevent
the growth of the power of the King of Denmark. For they knew that
the Danes, when they once had control of the Sound, would lay
heavy dues on the trading nations, as soon as they were strong
enough to do so.
The English and the Dutch had, for this reason, kept, as far as
possible, the balance of power equal between the princes of the
North; they joined the King of Sweden, who seemed on the point of
being overwhelmed by many enemies acting in concert, and helped
him for the same reason that the others attacked him, viz. because
they thought him incapable of self-defence.
He was bear-hunting when he got news of the invasion of Livonia
by the Saxons. He was conducting the hunt in a way as dangerous
as novel; the only arms used were forked cudgels, behind a net
stretched between trees; a bear of enormous size rushed straight at
the King, who, after a long struggle, brought it to the ground, with the
help of his net and cudgel.
He started for his first campaign on the 8th of May, new style, in
the year 1700. He left Stockholm never to return.
An immense crowd of people went with him as far as Carlscroon,
praying for him and weeping and praising him. Before he left
Stockholm he established a Council of Defence, composed of
Senators. This commission was to have charge of all that concerned
the fleet, the troops and fortifications. The Senate was to
provisionally regulate all other internal affairs. Having thus arranged
all securely within his dominions he concentrated entirely on the war.
His fleet consisted of forty-three vessels, that in which he embarked,
called the King Charles, was the largest they had ever seen, and
carried 120 guns; Count Piper, his Prime Minister, and General
Renschild embarked with him. He joined the squadron of the allies;
the Danish fleet refused an engagement, and gave the united fleets
the opportunity of coming so near Copenhagen that they could throw
some bombs into the town.
There is no doubt that it was the King himself who then proposed
to General Renschild that they should disembark and besiege
Copenhagen by land while it was invested by sea. Renschild was
astonished at a proposal which displayed in a young and
inexperienced Prince as much skill as courage. Soon all was ready
for the disembarkment; orders were given for the embarkation of
3,000 men who were stationed on the coast of Sweden, and who
were added to the men they had on board. The King left his large
ship and embarked on a lighter frigate; then they sent 300
grenadiers in small vessels along the coast. Among these vessels
were small, flat-bottomed boats, which carried the fagots, chevaux
de frise and the weapons of the pioneers.
Five hundred picked men followed in other shallops. Then came
the King’s men-of-war with two English and two Dutch frigates,
whose cannon were to cover the landing of the troops. Copenhagen,
the capital of Denmark, is situated in the island of Zeeland, in the
midst of a beautiful plain, which has the Sound on the north-west
and the Baltic on the east, where the King of Sweden then had his
position. At the unexpected movement of the vessels which
threatened invasion, the inhabitants, dismayed by the inactivity of
their own fleet and by the motion of the Swedish ships, looked round
in terror to see on what point the storm would burst. Charles’s fleet
stopped before Humblebek, seven miles from Copenhagen. The
Danes immediately drew up their cavalry on this spot. The infantry
were placed behind deep entrenchments, and all the artillery
forthcoming was directed against the Swedes.
The King then left his frigate to embark on the first boat at the
head of his guards. The ambassador of France was constantly at his
elbow. “Sir,” said the King to him in Latin, for he never would speak
French, “you have no quarrel with the Danes, and must now oblige
me by retiring.” “Sir,” answered the Count de Guiscard, in French,
“the King my master has commanded me to attend your Majesty;
and I flatter myself that you will not banish me from your Court,
which has never been so brilliant as to-day.” With these words he
gave his hand to the King, who leapt into the boat, followed by Count
Piper and the ambassador.
They advanced supported by the broadsides of the vessels which
were covering the descent. The small boats were within a hundred
yards of the shore when Charles, impatient of the delay in landing,
threw himself from the boat into the sea, sword in hand, and with the
water up to his waist, and in spite of a shower of musket-shot,
discharged by the Danes, his ministers, the ambassador of France,
and officers and soldiers followed his example. The King, who had
never before heard a discharge of loaded muskets, asked Major
Stuart, who stood next to him, what that whistling was in his ears. “It
is the sound of the muskets they are firing at you,” said the Major.
“Ah!” remarked the King, “that shall henceforth be my band.” At that
very moment the Major, who had explained the noise to him, was
shot in the shoulder, and a lieutenant fell dead at the other side of
the King.
Troops attacked in entrenchments are generally beaten, because
the attacking party has an impetus which defenders cannot have;
besides, waiting for the enemy in one’s lines is often a confession of
inferiority.
After a faint resistance the Danish horse and foot fled. As soon
as the King had seized their entrenchments he fell on his knees to
thank God for the first success of his arms. He immediately had
redoubts formed in the direction of the town, and himself marked out
the line of the encampment. At the same time he sent his fleet back
to Scania, a part of Sweden not far from Copenhagen, to get
reinforcements of 9,000 men. Everything conspired to second
Charles’s energetic efforts; the 9,000 men were on the shore ready
to embark, and the very next day a favourable wind brought them to
him.
All this happened within sight of the Danish fleet, which had not
dared to advance. Copenhagen, in consternation, sent deputies to
the King to ask him not to bombard the town. He received them on
horseback at the head of his regiment of guards, and the deputies
fell on their knees before him. He demanded of the town four
hundred thousand dollars, with all sorts of provisions for the camp,
for which he gave his word of honour to pay. They brought him the
provisions, because they dare not refuse, but did not expect that the
conquerors would condescend to pay for them; and those who
brought them were astonished to find that they were paid generously
by the humblest soldier in the army. The Swedish troops had long
been accustomed to the strict discipline which contributed not a little
to their victories, but the young King increased its severity. A soldier
would not have dared to refuse payment for what he bought, much
less maraud, or even go out of the camp. He even easily brought his
troops to keep his rule that the dead should not be stripped after a
victory without his permission. Prayers were said in camp twice a
day, at seven in the morning and five in the afternoon, and he never
failed to be present at them himself and to give his soldiers an
example of piety as well as of valour.
His camp, which was far better governed than Copenhagen, had
everything in abundance; and the country folk preferred to sell their
goods to their enemies the Swedes than to their own countrymen,
who did not pay so good a price for them. So it happened that the
townsmen were often obliged to fetch goods, which were
unobtainable in their own markets, from the King of Sweden’s camp.
The King of Denmark was then in Holstein, whither he seems to
have marched only to raise the siege of Tonning. He saw the Baltic
covered with his enemies’ ships, and a young conqueror already
master of Zeeland and ready to take possession of the capital. He
published a declaration that whoever took up arms against the
Swedes should gain their liberty. This declaration had great influence
in a country which had once enjoyed freedom, but where all the
peasants and many even of the townsmen were then serfs. Charles
sent word to the King of Denmark that he must make up his mind
either to do justice to the Duke of Holstein, or have his kingdom laid
waste with fire and sword.
The Danes were, indeed, fortunate in dealing with a conqueror
who prided himself on his justice. A congress was summoned to
meet in the town of Tevendal on the frontiers of Holstein. The
Swedish King would not allow diplomacy on the part of the ministers
to lengthen the proceedings; he wanted the treaty settled with the
same rapidity with which he had invaded Zeeland. As a matter of fact
it was concluded on the 5th of August to the advantage of the Duke
of Holstein, who was indemnified for all the expenses of the war and
freed from oppression. The King of Sweden would make no claims
on his own behalf, being satisfied with having helped his ally and
humbled his enemy. Thus Charles XII, at eighteen years old, began
and ended this war in less than six weeks.
Just at the same time the King of Poland laid siege in person to
the town of Riga, the capital of Livonia, and the Czar was marching
from the East at the head of 100,000 men. Riga was defended by
the old Count D’Alberg, a Swedish general who, at the age of eighty,
combined the enthusiasm of youth with the experience of sixty
campaigns. Count Fleming, afterwards minister for Poland, a man
great both in the field and at the council board, together with M.
Patkul, carried on the siege under the directions of the King; in spite
of several advantages gained by the besiegers the experience of the
old Count D’Alberg counteracted all their efforts, and the King of
Poland despaired of gaining the town. At last he got an honourable
pretext for raising the siege; Riga was full of merchandise belonging
to the Dutch; the States-General ordered their ambassador at the
Court of Augustus to make representations to him on the subject.
The King of Poland did not require much pressing, but consented to
raise the siege rather than occasion the least inconvenience to his
allies, who were not much surprised at his ready compliance, as they
knew the cause of it.
The only thing left to Charles to complete his first campaign was
to march against his rival for glory, Peter Alexiowitz. He was the
more angry with him because there were at Stockholm three
ambassadors who had just sworn to an inviolable peace: he who
prided himself on his probity could not understand how a legislator
like the Czar could make light of what should be held sacred. The
young and honourable Prince never dreamed that there might be
one code of morality for princes and another for private individuals.
The Russian Emperor published a manifesto which he had much
better have suppressed: he gave as reason for war that he had not
been sufficiently honoured when he passed incognito to Riga, and
also that provisions were sold too dear to his ambassadors. These
were the grievances for which he ravaged Ingria with 80,000 men.

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Today’s Technician: Automotive Engine

Repair & Rebuilding, Classroom Manual

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Today's technician classroom manual for automotive

Automotive Engines: Diagnosis, Repair, Rebuilding 8th

The Speaker's Handbook, Spiral bound Version 12th

Automotive Service: Inspection, Maintenance, Repair

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Printed in the United States of America

CHAPTER 1 Automotive Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

CHAPTER 2 Engine Repair and Rebuilding Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

CHAPTER 3 Theory of Engine Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

CHAPTER 4 Engine Operating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

CHAPTER 5 Factors Affecting Engine Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

CHAPTER 6 Engine Materials, Fasteners, Gaskets, and Seals . . . . . 118

CHAPTER 7 Intake and Exhaust Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

CHAPTER 8 Engine Configurations, Mounts,

CHAPTER 9 Cylinder Heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

CHAPTER 10 Camshafts and Valvetrains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

CHAPTER 11 Timing Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

CHAPTER 12 Engine Block Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

CHAPTER 13 Pistons, Rings, Connecting Rods, and Bearings . . . . . 250

CHAPTER 14 Alternative Fuel and Advanced

understanding of the underlying theories is also a requirement for competence in the

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE NEW EDITION—CLASSROOM

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE NEW EDITION—SHOP MANUAL

ratio and eng

■ The each. engine des on of alterna

Terms to Know List

Brake horsep Glow plugs Reciprocating

Displacement energy Transmission

the Shop Manual within the ran

bea rin g clearances fall ical clearances; always che

This helps students understand and 71.indd 256

speak the language of the trade,

A Bit of History d to exce

blems can occ ____________ rk

Special Tools retaining the turbocharger turbocharger down-

won’t be back anytime soon

detailed Photo Sequences. These

or type of equipment that the

P2-4 Make sure that the locks

material covered in other

Figure 13-77 Water pump,

(Figure 13-79). Most gasket

incorrect part or tool is used.

Case Studies 570 Chapter 12

CASE STUDY dam-

Matthew Bockenfeld Todd Mikonis

Jason S. Grice Michael White

Figure 1-2 This piston and rings, with the connecting

Valve timing refers to

Figure 1-9 The flywheel bolts to the crankshaft and is attached to

The intake manifold ENGINE BREATHING

Figure 1-14 This supercharger creates powerful boost and acceleration.

Figure 1-15 This severely worn lifter would

Fulcrum (Pivot point)

Figure 1-20 The lower crankshaft gear turns at twice

Short-Answer Essays 8. The _ and _ are