Laxmi Computer & Electronics Education

Government Registered
B.K.Road, Lohiyachowk, Laheriasarai, Darbhanga, Bihar- 846001

Computer
Fundamental
What is Computer
A 'Computer' word derived from "Compute" which means to 'Calculate'.
A computer is a programmable electronic device that accepts raw data as input and processes
it with a set of instructions (a program) to produce the result as output.

The basic parts without which a computer cannot work are as follows:

Processor  It executes instructions from software and hardware.

Memory  It is the primary memory for data transfer between the CPU and storage.
Motherboard  It is the part that connects all other parts or components of a computer.
Storage Device  It permanently stores the data, e.g., hard drive.
Input Device  It allows you to communicate with the computer or to input data, e.g., a
keyboard.
Output Device  It enables you to see the output, e.g., monitor.

Characteristics of Computer

Automatic  Computer can perform any work automatically without human

intervention.
Speed  Computer can perform any task at very high speed, typically Microsecond,
Nanosecond & Picosecond.
Accuracy  Computer can complete any work accurately and its accuracy depends on
users input.
Diligence  Computer is free from monotony, tiredness & lack of concentration.
Versatility or Multitasking  Computer can do multiple work at the same time.
Power of remembering  It can store and recall any amount of information with the
help of secondary memory.
No Feelings  Its judgement is based on instruction given by user in the form of
programing languages.
No IQ  Computer can only do what actually it is program to do. It cannot take
decision by his own capability like human brain.

History of Computer
ABACUS
 Abacus is the first world computer. It is similar to calculator. It performs only
add or subtract.
 Invented in 500 B.C.
 Invented by TIM Carnmer.
 It was a wooden rack which has metal rods with beads mounted on them.

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Napier's Bones
 It was a manually-operated calculating device which was invented by John
Napier (1550-1617) of Merchiston.
 In this calculating tool, he used 9 different ivory strips ¼gkFkh nkar dh iV~Vh½
or bones marked with numbers to multiply and divide.
 So, the tool became known as "Napier's Bones.
 It was also the first machine to use the decimal point.
Pascaline
 Pascaline is also known as Arithmetic Machine or Adding Machine.
 It was invented between 1642 and 1644 by a French mathematician-
Philosopher Biaise Pascal.
 It is believed that it was the first mechanical and automatic calculator.
 It could only perform addition and subtraction.
 It was a wooden box with a series of gears and wheels.

Stepped Reckoner or Leibnitz wheel

 It was developed by a German mathematician-philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibnitz in 1673.
 He improved Pascal's invention to develop this machine.
 It was a digital mechanical calculator which was called the stepped reckoner as
instead of gears it was made of fluted drums.
Difference Engine
 In the early 1820s, it was designed by Charles Babbage who is known as
"Father of Modern Computer".
 It was a mechanical computer which could perform simple calculations.
 It was a steam driven calculating machine designed to solve tables of numbers
like logarithm tables.
Analytical Engine
 This calculating machine was also developed by Charles Babbage in 1830.
 It was a mechanical computer that used punch-cards as input.
 It was capable of solving any mathematical problem and storing information as
a permanent memory.
 Today’s commuters are based on Analytical Engine.
ENIAC
 Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer
 Invented by Eckert, Mauchley & U. Penn. in 1945
 First electronic general-purpose computer
 It can solve large class of numerical problems
 30 tons, 1000 square feet space needed, & 140KW power consumption which
cost around 150000 lacs electricity bill.

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EDVAC
 Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer
 Designed for store program machine.
 Invented by Eckert, Mauchley in 1945.
 Stored program computer worked on binary system rather than decimal
system.
EDSAC
 Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer
 Invented by Wilkes & Wheeler in 1949
 World's first stored-program computer

Generation of Computer

First Generation Computers (1946-1959)

Components Storage Device Computers Language
Vacuum Tubes Magnetic Tape and ENIAC These computers were
Vaccum Tubes invented by Paper Tape EDVAC mainly depended on batch
John Ambrose Fleming in UNIVAC operating system and punch
1904 IBM-701 cards.
IBM-650

Second Generation Computers (1959-1965)

Components Storage Device Computers Language
Transistor Magnetic Tape and IBM-1620 Assembly language and
Transistors were invented by Paper Tape IBM-7094 programming languages like
Bell Labs' William Shockley in CDC- 1604 COBOL and FORTRAN
(1948/1950) CDC - 3600
UNIVAC - 1108

Third Generation Computers (1965-1971)

Components Storage Device Computers Language
IC (Integrated Circuits) Hard Disk IBM-360 series High-level programming
IC was invented by Robert Honeywell- languages like FORTRON-II
Noyce and Jack Kilby In 1958- 6000 series TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1,
1959. PDP(Personal ALGOL-68
Data Processor)
IBM-370/168
TDC-316

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Fourth Generation Computers (1971-1980)
Components Storage Device Computers Language
VLSI(Very Large Scale Integrated) Hard Disk DEC 10 The programming languages
STAR 1000 like C, C++, DBASE were also
PDP 11 used in this generation.
CRAY-1(Super
Computer)
CRAY-X-
MP(Super
Computer)

Fifth Generation Computers (1980-Till date)

Components Storage Device Computers Language
VLSI(Very Large Scale Integrated) Hard Disk Desktop The programming languages
ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Laptop used in this generation were
Integration) NoteBook C, C++, Java, .Net, etc.
UltraBook
ChromeBook

Peripheral Devices
A Peripheral Devices is a device that connects directly or indirectly to a computer system.

A peripheral device provides input/output (I/O) functions for a computer.

Peripheral devices connect with a computer through several I/O interfaces, such as
Communications (COM), Universal Serial Bus (USB), VGA Port, HDMI Port, Serial ports &
Parallel ports etc.

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External Input Peripheral devices are:-
Keyboard
Mouse
Joystick
OMR (Optical Mark
Reader)
OCR (Optical Character
Reader)
MICR (Magnetic Ink
Character Reader)
BCR (Bar Code Reader)
ECR ( Electronic Card
Reader)
Digitizer
Webcam
Scanner
Microphone

External Output Peripheral devices are:-

Monitor
Projector
Printer
Plotter
Speaker

Input Device:-
Use to provide data & control signals to a computer system. Such as Keyboard, Mouse,
Joysticks, OCR, OMR, BCR, Webcam & Scanner etc.

Output Device:-
Use to provide data from a computer to a user in the form of mostly audio & video, such as
Speaker, Monitor, Projector, Printer & Plotter etc.

Role of I/O
Devices:-

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Commonly use Input devices:

Keyboard:-
Allow data entry work by pressing a set of keys.
It can be use in GUI (Graphic User Interface) & CUI (Character User Interface) both.

There are 3 type of Keyboard according to number of keys:-

Standard Keyboard:- having 84 keys, Old Keyboard, also known as AT keyboard and outdated.
Extended Keyboard:- having 101 or more keys, Modern Keyboard, also known as ATX
keyboard and updated.
Multimedia Keyboard:- having 101 QWERTY keys or more with multimedia functions like
volume up & down key, mute, forward & previous key, internet browsing keys etc and
updated.

Keyboards are available in 4 types of port; AT port, PS/2 port, USB port & Wireless.

Two types of
Keyboard
according to
technology used in
Keyboard,-
Mechanical
Keyboard:- Long
Life & costlier, best
for heavy duty and
typing work.
Rubber Dome
Keyboard:- Shorter
life & cheaper, best
for normal user or graphic designer.
There are various type of keys available in Keyboard:-
Alphabetical Keys:- A to Z & a to z.
Numerical Keys:- 0 to 9.
Arrow Keys:- Up/Down, Left/Right arrow keys.
Function Keys:- F1 to F12.
Command Keys:- Ctrl, Enter key, Shift Key, Tab Key, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Home, End etc.
Multimedia Keys:- Volume Up/Down, Mute, Forward/Previous, Play/Pause etc.
Special Character Keys:- !@#$%^&*()…

Mouse:-
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It is a pointing input device.
It can be used in GUI (Graphic User
Interface) mode only.
Used for selecting graphical icon and tap
into it.
Mouse can also be used to create graphic
design work.
It has two/three or four buttons. Each has
a different function.
There are two types of mouse mostly in
used today.
Normal Mouse:- Using Track Ball for
moving pointer on the screen.
Optical Mouse:- Using Light Principle for
moving pointer on the screen.
There are 4 types of mouse according to
Interface or Port:-
Normal or serial port mouse.
PS/2 mouse
USB mouse
Wireless mouse

Joystick:-
A Joystick is a cursor control Input Device used in
computer device and assistive technology. It is mostly used
for gaming purpose in computer.

OMR:-
Optical Mark Reader/Recognition is the process of capturing
human-marked data from document such as surveys & test.

OCR:-
Optical Character Reader/Recognition is a technology that
enables you to convert different types of documents, such
as scanned paper documents, PDF files or images captured
by a digital camera into editable and searchable data, so that
you can modify the text and correct the document
accordingly.

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MICR:-
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition/Reader. It is a
technology which allows machines to read and
process validation of cheque. It can process
thousands of cheque transactions in a short time.
MICR code is usually a nine digit code which contain
important information about the transaction and
the bank.

BCR:-
A Bar Code reader (or barcode scanner) is an electronic
input device that can read and output printed barcodes to
a computer. It's basically contains product information and
mostly used by retailers.

ECR:-
Electronic Card Reader is a data input device that reads data
from a card. Such as timesheet, attendance record in office or
school/colleges and banking transaction over debit/credit card
etc.

Digitizer:-
A Digitizer or Graphics Tablet is a
tool used to convert hand-drawn images or captured image into
a format suitable for computer processing. Images are usually
drawn onto a flat surface with a Stylus (Light pen) and then appear
on a computer monitor or screen.

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Webcam:-
A video camera connected to a computer, allowing its images to be seen
by Internet users.

Scanner:-
A scanner is an input device that scans documents such as
photographs and pages of text. When a document is scanned, it is
converted into a digital format. This creates an electronic version of
the document that can be viewed and edited on a computer.

Microphone:-
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in
digital form. The microphone is used for various applications like
adding sound to a multimedia presentation or for mixing music.

Apart from these above input devices there are lot more devices which can been seen
somewhere in life.

Commonly use Output devices:-

Monitor:-
Monitors, is also known as Visual Display Unit (VDU), and it is a mandatory output device of a
computer system. It converts images from tiny dots, called "Pixels", that are arranged in a
rectangular form. The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels called
"Resolution".
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.
Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
Flat-Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

Large in Size and much space needed.
Heavy weight & old technology & outdated.
High power consumption mostly in between 140W-200W
Most of the CRT screen capable of displaying 80 character of
data horizontally and 25 lines vertically.
CRT is not best suited for human eye because of high radiation.

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Flat-Panel Display:-
Less space needed.
Light weight & modern technology.
Low power consumption than CRT mostly in between 50W-
120W.
Two type of Flat-Panel technology display screen.
LED Display:- Electrical energy convert into light, also known
as emissive display. Light Emitting Diode.
LCD Display:- light convert into some other source to graphic
pattern. Here is Liquid Crystal Display. Also known as non-
emissive display.

Monitor works on 3 Primary color and rest colors are developed by these 3 primary color.

Projector:-
It is a special type of VDU which can project the
videos signal on to a large surface with the help of
lens. HD projector best suited for computer and
Non-HD projector best suited for viewing movies.

Printers:-
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.
There are two types of printers:
Impact Printers:-
Non-Impact Printers:-
Impact Printer:-
The impact printers print the characters by striking
them on the ribbon which is then pressed on the
paper.
Very low consumable costs.
Very noisy, slow speed, poor quality.
Useful for bulk printing due to low cost.
More reliable,
There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image.
DMP(Dot Matrix Printer) belongs to Impact Printer.
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 Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without
using ribbon. These printers print a complete page
at a time so they are also called as Page Printers.
Laser Printers & Inkjet Printers belong to Non-impact
Printers.
Faster than impact printers.
They are not noisy.
High quality print.
Support many fonts and different character size.
Laser Printers
It is non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to print the
characters on a page.

ADVANTAGES
Very high speed (PPM=Page/Paper Per Minute)
Very high quality output (PPI = Pixel Per Inch or DPI = Dot Per Inch)
Give good graphics quality
Support many fonts and different character size
DISADVANTAGES
Expensive.
Not coming in multicolor printing.

Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character
printers based on a relatively new technology.
They print characters by spraying small drops of
ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high
quality output with presentable features.
They make less noise because no hammering is
done and have many styles of printing modes
available. Color printing is also possible. Some
models of Inkjet printers can produce multiple
copies of printing also.

ADVANTAGES
High quality printing
More reliable
Less noisy sound
Colored print possible
DISADVANTAGES
Expensive as cost per page is high
Slow as compared to laser printer

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Printer works on 3 secondary color mainly, and rest of the colors are developed by 3
secondary colors:- C= Cyan, M=Magenta, Y=Yellow

Plotter:-
A Plotter is a computer hardware device
much like a printer that is used for
printing vector graphics. Instead of toner,
plotters use a pen, pencil, marker, or
another writing tool to draw multiple,
continuous lines onto paper rather than a
series of dots like a traditional printer.
Hence it is specially used for Computer
Aided Design (CAD) but more expensive.

Speaker:-
It is an output device that convert electrical
signals into sound.

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Bits & Bytes…
A BIT (short form of BInary digiT) is the smallest memory unit of Data in a computer system.
A BIT can have a Binary value of either 0 or 1.
BITs is a combination of 0 and 1.
One Byte or One character is a composed of 8 Bits.
Half a Byte called Nibble (having 4bits).
Hence all of the computer memory technology measured in BITs & Bytes, whether they are,
Cache memory, RAM, ROM, Floppy Disk, Hard Disk, CD/DVD/BD, Pen drive/Memory Card and
Networking terminology.
 Now we can say:-
 BIT= 0 or 1 which is a smallest unit of measurement of Data.
 BITs = Combination of 0 & 1
 4 Bits = 1 Nibble
 8 Bits = 1 Byte = 1 Character
 1024 Bytes = 1 KB (Kilobyte)
 1024 KB = 1 MB (Megabyte)
 1024 MB= 1 GB (Gigabyte)
 1024 GB = 1 TB (Terabyte)
 1024 TB = 1 PB (Petabyte)
 1024 PB = 1 EB (Exabyte)
 1024 EB = 1 ZB (Zettabyte)
 1024 ZB = 1 YB (Yottabyte) and it’s a largest unit of measurement of Data in present
days.

Full Form: -
KIPS= Kilobyte of Instruction Per Second = Data Processing Rate
MIPS=Millions of Instructions Per Second = Data Processing Rate
KBPS=Kilo Byte Per Second = Data Transfer Rate
MBPS= Mega Byte Per Second = Data Transfer Rate
GBPS= Giga Byte Per Second = Data Transfer Rate

Data Transfer Rate also known as "Bandwidth".

Define the CD/DVD, Floppy Disk, Hard Disk, Pen Drive storage capacity etc.
Floppy = 1.44MB/2.88MB
CD= 650MB/700MB
DVD = 4.7GB/8.5GB
BD = 30-35GB, 80GB…
Hard Disk = 40GB, 120GB, 320GB, 500GB, 1TB, 2TB, 5TB…
Pen Drive (Memory Card) = 1GB, 2Gb, 4GB, 8GB, 16GB, 32GB, 64GB, 128GB,256GB…

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Computer Memory…
A Computer memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions.
Computer memory is the storage space in computer system, where data is to be processed
and instructions required for processing are stored. Data are stored in 'Bits & Bytes' form…

Two types of computer memory:-

 Primary Memory/Internal Memory/Main Memory

 Secondary Memory/External Memory/Additional Memory

Cache Memory…
Cache memory is a very high-speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU.
Hold the calculated data for temporary mode and inbuilt into the Microprocessor.
Small in capacity like 1MB,2MB,3MB,4MB,6MB,8MB,16MB etc.
It is very expensive memory hence Microprocessor is the expensive chip.

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those temporary data and instructions on which computer is
currently working.
It has limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off.
It is divided into two subcategories RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only
Memory)

 RAM Primary Memory is also known as Volatile Memory but ROM is Non-volatile
stored the BIOS (Basic Input Output System) which require to start the computer.
 RAM hold the data in Temporary mode whereas ROM holds the data in Permanent
Mode.
 Capacity of RAM may be 1GB, 2GB, 4GB, 8GB, 16GB, 32GB or may be more than that
in Server Computer, whereas capacity of ROM may be 32KB, 64KB,128KB, 512KB,
1MB, 2MB 4MB etc…
 A computer cannot run without primary memory that is RAM & ROM.
 Faster than Secondary Memory.

Secondary Memory
 This type of memory is also known as External Memory or Non-volatile.
 Data is Permanently stored even if power is switched off.
 These are used for storing data & Information permanently.
Examples of secondary memories are : CD/DVD, Floppy Disk, Hard Disk, Pen Drive,
Memory card etc.
 Today we are using Hard Disk in most of the modern computer for huge amount of
data saving purpose. Like 250GB/500GB/1TB/2TB etc.
 Used as a backup memory.
 Computer may run without secondary memory.
 Slower than Primary Memory.
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 Microprocessor…

 Micro + Processor = Very small and Processing.

 It is a "Brain of the Computer System".
 It is also a "Heart of the Computer System",
 Microprocessor is also known as CPU (Central Processing Unit)
 It can perform all major calculations (+,-,*,%) & comparisons (a=b, ab, a<b).
 Activate and control the operations of other unit of computer system.

CPU basic component:-

 It has two basic components, which are :-
1. Memory Unit (MU)
2. Control Unit (CU)
3. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

1. Control Unit (CU):-

 One of the basic component of CPU.
 Acts as the central nervous system of a computer system.
 Interprets (Translator) program instruction and co-ordinates execution of
application.
2. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):-
 One of the basic component of CPU.
 Actual execution of instruction take place in ALU.
 All types of arthematic operation done by the ALU

 Hence, we can say CU + ALU = CPU

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 Processor Speed:-
 CPU speed measured in "Clock Speed" (Number of clock cycle per second) and the
clock speed measured in Kilohertz (10 to the power 3 cycles/sec), Megahertz(10 to the
power 6 cycles/sec) and Gigahertz (10 to the power 9 cycles/sec) Ex:- the first processor was
4004 having 740KHz, Old CPU 8087/88 having 5MHz where now current processors are
coming in GHz like 1.6GHz, 2.0GHz, 2.4GHz, 2.66GHz and 3GHz, 3.88GHz, 4GH,
5GHz……etc……
 Most popular CPU manufacturers are Intel & AMD (Advance Micro Device).
 Today latest processors are like Intel Core i3, Core i5, Core i7 and Core i9 and AMD
Phenom & Zen series are much popular.

Some processors form factor or physical design:-

DIPP (Dual In-Line Pin Package) Type IC:-

PGA (Pin Grid Array) Chip Type:-

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LGA (Line Grid Array) or Pinless Chip type:-

***The End***
Happy Learning!!!

Motherboard or Mainboard…

Motherboard is a single platform which connects all of the internal and external parts of the
computer system.

A motherboard connects CPU, hard drives, CD/DVD drives, video card, sound card, RAM,
Keyboard, Mouse, Printer, Monitor & Speaker etc.

It can be considered as the "Backbone of a computer system".

Most popular companies are Intel, ASUS, MSI, Gygabyte, Asrock, Biostar, Murcury, Consistent,
Gsonic & Foxin etc.
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There are two types of Motherboard:-

 AT (Advance Technology)= Outdated, 12 pin power supply connector, Manual

shutdown.
 ATX (Advance Technology eXtended)= Updated, 20 or 24 pins power supply connector,
Automatic shutdown features through S/W.

***The End***
Happy Learning…

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 Power Supply…

All type of computer system needs constant voltage to run properly. There should not be a
fluctuation in current otherwise it can reboot or harm your computer.

Hence its require DC (Direct Current or Constant Current) voltage. So, special type of
equipment designed for computer system known as SMPS (Switched Mode Power Supply) or
Power section unit.

It is also known as "Kitchen of the computer system".

Its convert unregulated AC (Alternating Current) input (110V-260V AC) into regulated DC
output like 3.3V, 5V and 12V DC supply and provide the regulated O/P DC voltage to internal
parts of computer like Motherboard, Microprocessor, RAM/ROM, Hard Disk Drive, CD/DVD
drive etc.

There are two type of SMPS:-

i.AT (Advance Technology):- Outdated, 12 pins O/P, Manual Shutdown.
ii.ATX (Advance Technology eXtended):- Updated, 20 or 24 pins O/P, Auto Shutdown features
is a great advantage over AT SMPS.

***The End***
Happy Learning…

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Hardware & Software…

Hardware:-
Computer Hardware is the collection of physical parts of a computer system. This includes
the computer case or CPU Cabinet, Monitor, Keyboard, and Mouse. It also includes all the
parts inside the computer case, such as the Hard Disk drive, Motherboard, SMPS, CD/DVD
Drive, RAM, and many others. Computer Hardware is what you can physically touch, feel and
see it.

Denoted as H/W.

Software:-
Software is a general term for the various kinds of programs used to operate computers and
related devices.

Or,

Computer instruction or program or data that can be stored electronically is Software, and it
cannot physically touch but you can feel and see it on the monitor screen.

Denoted as S/W.

There are few type of software:-

1. System Software:-
It enables the computer to function properly, which manage and controls the hardware so
that the application software can perform a task.
Ex:- Operating System (Windows & Android), Hardware Device Drivers Software etc.
2. Application Software:-
Application Software includes program that do real work for user.
Ex:- MS-Office, Photoshop, PageMaker, Corel Draw, Tally etc.
3. Programing Software:-
It is a software development tools.
Ex:- C (Compiler), C++, C#, Java, JavaScript, HTML, PHP (Personal Home Page), Python, .Net
etc.
4. Malicious Software:-
Commonly known as Malware, and designed for harm a computer system.
Ex:- Viruses, Spyware, Rootkits, Adware, Trojans & Worm etc.
5. Firmware:-
Firmware is a software that is embedded in a piece of hardware. You can think of firmware
simply as "Software for Hardware" which is permanently written in ROM.
Ex:- BIOS (Basic Input Output System) which require to start the computer.
6. Security Software:-
It helps in defending computer from outer unauthorized attack or designed for enhancing
information security.
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Ex:- Antivirus, Firewall, Windows Defender, Encryption etc.
7. Utility Software:-
It is a software designed to help analyze, configure, optimize or maintain a computer.
Ex:- Disk Defragmenter, Disk Clean-Up, Disk Checker (CHKDSK), Scandisk, Tune-up etc.

***The End***
Happy Learning!!!
.

Types Of Computer

Types of Computer
We can categorize computer by two ways: Data Handling Capabilities and Size.

On the basis of Data Handling Capabilities, the computer is of three types:

1. Analogue Computer
2. Digital Computer
3. Hybrid Computer

1) Analogue Computer
Analogue computers are designed to process the analogue data.
Analogue data is continuous data that changes continuously and cannot have discrete
values such as speed, temperature, pressure and current.
Analogue computers directly accept the data from the measuring device without first
converting it into numbers and codes.
Speedometer and mercury Thermometer are examples of analogue computers.

2) Digital Computer
Digital computer is designed to perform calculations and logical operations at high
speed.
It accepts the raw data as digits or numbers and processes it with programs stored in
its memory to produce output.
All modern computers like Laptops and Desktops that we use at home or office are
digital computers.

3) Hybrid Computer
Hybrid computer has features of both analogue and digital computer.
It is fast like analogue computer and has memory and accuracy like digital computers.

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 It can process both continuous and discrete data.
So it is widely used in specialized applications where both analogue and digital data is
processed.
For example, a processor is used in Petrol Pumps that converts the measurements of
fuel flow into quantity and price.

On the basis of Size, the computer can be of five types:

1) Super Computer
 Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers.
 They are designed to process huge amount of data.
 A supercomputer can process trillions of instructions in a second.
 It has thousands of interconnected processors.
 Supercomputers are particularly used in scientific and engineering applications such
as weather forecasting, scientific simulations and nuclear energy research.
 First supercomputer was developed by Roger Cray in 1976.

2) Mainframe Computer
 Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users
simultaneously.
 They can support multiple programs at the same time.
 It means they can execute different processes simultaneously.
 These features of mainframe computers make them ideal for big organizations like
banking and telecom sectors, which need to manage and process high volume of
data.

3) Mini computer
 It is a midsize multiprocessing computer.
 It consists of two or more processors and can support 4 to 200 users at one time.
 Mini computers are used in institutes and departments for the tasks such as billing,
accounting and inventory management.

4) Workstation
 Workstation is a single user computer that is designed for technical or scientific
applications.
 It has faster microprocessor, large amount of RAM and high speed graphic adapters.
 It generally performs a specific job with great expertise; accordingly, they are of
different types such as graphics workstation, music workstation and engineering
design workstation.

5) Microcomputer
 Microcomputer is also known as Personal Computer (PC).
 It is a general purpose computer that is designed for individual use.

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  It has a microprocessor as a central processing unit, memory, storage area, input unit
and output unit.
 Laptops and Desktop computers are examples of microcomputers.

***The End***
Happy Learning!!!

Number System
Number systems are the technique to represent numbers in the computer system
architecture, every value that you are saving or getting into/from computer memory
has a defined number system.

 Number system is used to represent information in quantitative form.

 Some important type of Number System:-
1. Binary Number System
2. Decimal Number System
3. Octal Number System
4. Hexadecimal Number System

Binary Number System

In binary number system, we have two digits 0 and 1. Computer represents all kinds
of data and information in binary numbers. It includes audio, graphics, video, text and
numbers. The base of binary number system is 2.
Example - (101010)2

Decimal Number System

Decimal number system has ten-digits represented by 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9. any decimal
number can be represented by these digits and since there are ten-digits. The base of
decimal number system is 10.
Example - (345)10

Octal Number System

An octal number system has eight-digits represented as 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7. The base of
octal number system is 8.
Example - (345)8

Hexadecimal Number System

The hexadecimal number system has 16-digits, which are represented as
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F. The base of hexadecimal number system is 16.
Example - (9B6)16

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Decimal To Binary Conversion

(21)10
Number Remainder
2 21
2 10 1
2 5 0
2 2 1
2 1 0
2 0 1

Binary to Decimal Conversion

(10101)2 = (1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20)

= 16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1
= 21
= (21)10

Binary to Octal Conversion

Binary Octal
000 0
001 1
010 2
011 3
100 4
101 5
110 6
111 7

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Octal to Binary Conversion
Binary Octal
000 0
001 1
010 2
011 3
100 4
101 5
110 6
111 7

Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion

Binary Hexadecimal
0000 0
0001 1
0010 2
0011 3
0100 4
0101 5

0110 6
0111 7
1000 8
1001 9
1010 A
1011 B
1100 C
1101 D
1110 E
1111 F

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