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Learning in Adulthood
A Comprehensive Guide

FOURTH EDITION
 Learning in
Adulthood
A Comprehensive Guide

Sharan B. Merriam
Lisa M. Baumgartner

FOURTH EDITION
Copyright © 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Merriam, Sharan B., author. |
Baumgartner, Lisa, 1964- author. | Jossey-Bass Inc.
Title: Learning in adulthood : a comprehensive guide / Sharan B. Merriam,
Lisa M. Baumgartner.
Other titles: Jossey-Bass higher and adult education series.
Description: Fourth Edition. | San Francisco : Jossey-Bass, 2020. | Series:
The Jossey-Bass higher and adult education series | Third edition published 2007.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019037489 (print) | LCCN 2019037490 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119490487 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119490517 (Adobe PDF) | ISBN
9781119490494 (ePub)
Subjects: LCSH: Adult learning.
Classification: LCC LC5225.L42 M47 2020 (print) | LCC LC5225.L42 (ebook)
| DDC 374—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019037489
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019037490
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Image: © Fedor Selivanov/Shutterstock
Printed in the United States of America
fourth edition
HB Printing 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 Contents

Acknowledgmentsvii
Prefaceix
About the Authors xv

PART I: ADULT LEARNING IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY 1

Chapter 1 The Social Context of Adult Learning 5
Chapter 2 Adult Learning and Technology 26
Chapter 3 Learning Environments and Learning Concepts 52
Chapter 4 Adult Learners: Who Participates and Why 82

PART II: ADULT LEARNING THEORY 113

Chapter 5 Knowles’s Andragogy and McClusky’s Theory of Margin 117
Chapter 6 Self-Directed Learning 137

v
vi Contents

Chapter 7 Transformative Learning 166

Chapter 8 Experience and Learning 196

PART III: NEWER APPROACHES TO ADULT LEARNING 229

Chapter 9 Embodied, Spiritual, and Narrative Learning 233
Chapter 10 Learning and Knowing: Eastern and
Indigenous Perspectives 268
Chapter 11 Critical Theory, Postmodern, and
Feminist Perspectives 290

PART IV: LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT 317

Chapter 12 Adult Development 321
Chapter 13 Cognitive Development in Adulthood 346
Chapter 14 Intelligence and Aging 375
Chapter 15 Brain, Memory, and Cognition 409
Chapter 16 Reflections on Learning in Adulthood 439

References459
Name Index 541
Subject Index 561
 Acknowledgments

T his fourth edition of Learning in Adulthood is a direct response to

the field’s burgeoning literature base on research and theory in
adult learning and the need for a single, comprehensive, up-to-
date textbook to use in our adult learning classes and as a resource for
research in adult learning. In a very real sense, it has been the students in
our programs, participants in our workshops and seminars, and colleagues
in the field who have challenged us to revise and update the previous edi-
tion of the book. Others, of course, have been of invaluable assistance at
various stages of the project. David Brightman, an editor at Jossey-Bass
for the first three editions of Learning in Adulthood, was enormously
supportive in assisting us through the process as was Amy Fandrei and
Pete Gaughan for this fourth edition. Colleagues Ralph Brockett, Carol
Kasworm, Ed Taylor, and Libby Tisdell unselfishly provided us with
updated materials and suggested resources for us to consider. A special
thanks goes to Bora Jin, student and graduate research assistant at Texas
A&M University, for tracking down references, assisting in editing, and
in technical matters of getting the book ready for the publisher. Thanks
also to Julia Lynch, postdoctoral scholar at Texas A&M, for her editing

vii
viii A ck n o w ledgme n t s

suggestions, creation of tables and figures, and attention to detail in pre-

paring the book manuscript. Finally, thanks to Mario Torres at Texas
A&M University and Kevin Fall at Texas State University for their sup-
port. To all of you, we offer our heartfelt thanks. Of course, we also want
to thank our family members and friends for their support and patience
over the last year.
Finally, we wish to acknowledge Rosemary S. Caffarella’s invaluable
contribution in the conceptualizing, researching, and writing of ­chapters
in the earlier editions of Learning in Adulthood.
Athens, Georgia Sharan B. Merriam
San Marcos, Texas Lisa M. Baumgartner
July 2019
 Preface

L earning in adulthood is an intensely personal activity. Yet at the

same time, a multibillion-dollar enterprise has arisen in response
to adult learning interests—an enterprise that spends more dol-
lars than elementary schools, high schools, and postsecondary schools
combined. Indeed, the field of adult and continuing education is char-
acterized by a bewildering array of programs, agencies, and person-
nel working to assist adults in their learning. It is precisely the focus
on adults as learners, however, that unites an otherwise extraordinarily
diverse field. It is also the life context of adults and some of the distin-
guishing characteristics of the adult learning process that differentiate
adult education from other kinds of education. To facilitate the process
of learning, it is especially important to know who the adult learner is,
how the social context shapes the learning that adults are engaged in,
why adults are involved in learning activities, how adults learn, and how
aging affects learning ability. Learning in Adulthood addresses these top-
ics, among others.
There is a voluminous literature on adult learning, ranging from tech-
nical articles on various aspects of adult learning to handbooks, guides,
YouTube ­videos, and other online resources, summarizing material for
ix
x P r e fac e

the new instructor of adult students. If one investigates the Educational

Resources Information Center (ERIC) website, which contains journal
articles, monographs, conference proceedings, fact sheets, and so on, or
does some random exploring on the World Wide Web, one encounters
thousands of citations under the topic “adult learning.” Further, there
are dozens of books with either a central or secondary focus on adult
learning.
For this fourth edition of Learning in Adulthood we have paid par-
ticular attention to work published since the last edition of the book.
This fourth edition of Learning in Adulthood builds on material in the
2007 edition, bringing together the important contributions of the past
dozen or so years to our understanding of adult learning. While we have
preserved important foundational material (such as a discussion of
andragogy), we have also brought to bear the most recent thinking and
research. We have endeavored to put together a comprehensive overview
and synthesis of what we know about adult learning: the current context
in which it takes place, who the participants are, what they learn and
why, the nature of the learning process itself, new approaches to adult
learning, the development of theory in adult learning, and other issues
relevant to understanding adult learning.
The book also takes into account recent work in sociology, philosophy,
critical social theory, and psychology. Historically, in much of the writ-
ing on adult learning the sociocultural perspective has been neglected
in favor of a psychological orientation to the individual learner and how
to facilitate her or his learning. In addition to the focus on the learner,
we attend to what is today a technology-infused context in which learn-
ing takes place and to learners’ interactive relationship with that context
and with the learning activity itself. We look at how the social structure
influences what is offered and who participates, how the sociocultural
context creates particular developmental needs and interests, and how
social factors such as race, class, and gender shape learning.
This book is intended primarily for educators of adults and scholars
of adult learning. We have organized the material so that it will make
sense to readers who are new to adult education and at the same time
will challenge those who are already familiar with the knowledge base
of the field. The organization and presentation of this material reflect
our efforts over the years to find the best way to organize courses, work-
shops, and seminars in adult learning and development for audiences
 Preface xi

with varying levels of expertise. We have endeavored to put together a

book that is at once readable, thorough, and up to date in its coverage.
In particular, the book is designed for use in courses in adult learning
and as a resource for those interested in conducting research on adult
learning. In addition to those associated with the field of adult educa-
tion itself, however, those in counseling, health, social work, human
resource development, administration, and instructional technology and
in such institutions as libraries, places of worship, museums, business
and industry, and higher education often deal on a daily basis with adult
learners. We also intend this book to be a resource for practitioners in
these fields who would like to know more about adult learners and the
learning process.

Overview of the Contents

This fourth edition of Learning in Adulthood retains the organization
of topics found in the previous edition. That is, in the third edition we
realized that in most courses using this text, the chapters specific to
adult learning theory and models were read before chapters on cognitive
development, intelligence and aging, and psychosocial developmental
frameworks. We have organized accordingly. This edition is divided into
four parts. Part I describes the context of adult learning. Part II focuses
on theories and models of adult learning. The chapters in Part III address
newer approaches to adult learning, and those in Part IV present mate-
rial on topics that intersect with adult learning, such as memory and
cognition, adult development, and so on.
The chapters in Part I, “Adult Learning in Contemporary Society,”
center on the context of adult learning. Chapter 1 sets the sociocultural
context for adult learning in North America. In it, we discuss three
forces—demographics, globalization, and technology—that have shaped
adult learning today. It is important to understand how the interaction of
those three factors has led to changes in both what adults want to learn
and the learning opportunities provided for them. Chapter 2 is a new
chapter devoted to the ubiquitous presence of technology in all forms of
adult education from formal to nonformal to informal and self-directed
learning environments. Directly related to the sociocultural context of
adult learning are the environments where learning takes place, the
xii P r e fac e

subject of Chapter 3. These range from educational and noneducational

institutions, such as hospitals and government agencies, to nonformal
and community-based agencies, to incidental and informal learning that
is more self-directed than structured by others. Also in this chapter we
explore the concepts of organizational learning and the learning organi-
zation, lifelong learning and the learning society. The fourth chapter in
Part I summarizes the literature on who participates in primarily formal
adult learning activities, why people participate, and what they choose
to learn. We also take a critical look at key questions of access and oppor-
tunity and examine the gaps between the rhetoric and the reality in the
provision of formal and nonformal learning activities in our society.
Part II, “Adult Learning Theory,” builds on foundational material in
adult learning, material that is at the heart of our field of adult edu-
cation. The topics covered in these chapters represent the field’s efforts
in distinguishing itself from the education of children. We begin Chap-
ter 5 with a description and critique of the best known of these theories,
Knowles’s (1980) concept of andragogy. Based on six characteristics of
adult learners, andragogy focuses on the adult learner as distinguished
from preadult learners. In this chapter we also cover one other model of
learning, McClusky’s (1970) theory of margin, which has great intuitive
appeal to adult learners introduced to it. McClusky considers how every-
day life and transitions can be both an opportunity and a barrier to engag-
ing in an adult learning activity. In Chapter 6 we explore the rich array
of work that has been completed on self-directed learning. Addressed
are the goals and processes of self-directed learning, the concept of self-
directedness as a personal attribute of the learner, recent approaches to
self-directed learning, and some suggestions for building research and
theory in this area. Currently, self-directed learning along with trans-
formative learning has taken center stage in research and writing. Chap-
ter 7 summarizes the development of transformational learning, reviews
the burgeoning recent research in this area, and examines unresolved
issues inherent in this approach to adult learning. In Chapter 8, the last
chapter of Part II, we look closely at the role of experience in learning:
both how adult learning builds on prior experience and how experience
shapes learning. The concepts of experiential learning, reflective prac-
tice, and situated cognition are also examined in this chapter.
Part III, “Newer Approaches to Adult Learning,” contains three chap-
ters. There is a burgeoning interest in embodied or somatic learning,
 Preface xiii

spirituality and learning, and narrative approaches to learning, topics

addressed in Chapter 9. We uncovered so much recent material in these
areas that, had space allowed, we could have easily devoted a full chapter
to each of these subjects. Chapter 10 explores Eastern and indigenous
approaches to adult learning. Because the majority of the knowledge
base represented in Learning in Adulthood is from a Western perspective,
characterized by cultural values of privileging the individual learner
and cognitive processes over more holistic approaches, we wanted to
introduce readers to other epistemologies, other ways of thinking about
learning and knowing. We hope we have done that through brief intro-
ductions to five non-Western perspectives. The final chapter in Part III
is an update of critical theory, postmodernism, and feminist pedagogy.
These three perspectives draw from literature outside the field of adult
education. Scholars have applied these perspectives to our field, enlarg-
ing our understanding by inviting us to question how the structural ineq-
uities based on race, gender, class, sexual orientation, able-bodiedness,
and so on affect learning.
Part IV, which we have titled “Learning and Development,” brings
together material from philosophy, psychology, sociology, biology, and
so on that has a bearing on adult learning. Chapter 12 focuses on adults’
developmental characteristics. Beginning with biological and psycho-
logical perspectives on adult development, we move to sociocultural and
integrated perspectives. The work on adult development in recent years
places less emphasis on age and stage models and more on the effect of
such factors as race, gender, class, and ethnicity. Much has been written
lately about cognitive development in adulthood, and so this is treated
separately in Chapter 13. Here we review several theoretical models
of cognitive development as well as present the concept of dialectical
thinking. Chapter 14 reviews the work on intelligence, especially as it
has been studied from a developmental or aging perspective. Drawing
on several disciplines and summarizing recent work on memory and
aging, expertise, cognitive and learning styles, and brain-based research,
Chapter 15 on the brain, memory, and cognitive functioning is one of the
few compilations of its kind in an adult learning textbook.
Finally, in the last chapter we step back from the accumulated knowl-
edge base to summarize and integrate the material on adult learning
presented in earlier chapters. Chapter 16 also reflects how we ourselves
have come to think about learning in adulthood.
 About the Authors

Sharan B. Merriam is professor emerita of adult education and qualita-

tive research methods at the University of Georgia. Merriam’s research
and writing activities have focused on the foundations of adult educa-
tion, adult development, adult learning, and qualitative research meth-
ods. She has published more than 30 books and dozens of chapters and
articles and held major editorship roles throughout her career. For 5 years
she was coeditor of Adult Education Quarterly, the major research and
theory journal in adult education. She was also coeditor for the book
series Professional Practices in Adult Education and Lifelong Learning.
She has won the Cyril O. Houle World Award for Literature in Adult Edu-
cation for four different books. Various of her books have been translated
into Chinese, Korean, Japanese, Farsi, Italian, and French. Her most
recent books include Qualitative Research in Practice: Examples for Dis-
cussion and Analysis (with Robin S. Grenier, 2019), ­Qualitative Research:
A Guide to Design and Implementation (with Elizabeth J. Tisdell, 2016),
A Guide to Research for Educators and Trainers of Adults (with Patricia
Cranton, 2015), and Adult Learning: Linking Theory and Practice (with
Laura Bierema 2014). Based on her widespread contributions to the field
of adult education, Merriam has been inducted into the International

xv
xvi A bout the A uthors

Adult and Continuing Education Hall of Fame and was the first to
receive the American Association of Adult and Continuing Education’s
Career Achievement award. She has served on steering committees for
the annual North American Adult Education Research Conference, the
Qualitative Research in Education Conference held at the University of
Georgia, and the Commission of Professors of Adult Education. She has
conducted workshops and seminars on adult learning and qualitative
research throughout North America and overseas, including countries
in southern Africa, Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and Europe. In 1998
she was a Senior Fulbright Scholar to Malaysia, in 2006 a Visiting Scholar
to South Korea, and from 2016 to 2018 she was a Distinguished Visiting
Scholar to Northwest University in South Africa.

Lisa M. Baumgartner is an associate professor of adult education at

Texas State University, San Marcos. Her research and writing focus on
adult learning and development in marginalized populations. A recipi-
ent of the W. K. Kellogg Foundation Cyril O. Houle Scholars Research
Grant for Emerging Scholars in Adult Education, she completed a study
on civil rights activist Septima P. Clark’s lifelong contributions to social
justice adult education. She received the Houle O. Cyril Award for Out-
standing Literature in Adult Education for the coauthored text Learn-
ing in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide (3rd edition) in 2007. She has
served on the steering committee for the annual North American Adult
Education Research Conference. She was a coeditor of Adult Education
Quarterly from 2011 to 2014 and serves on the editorial boards of several
journals including Adult Education Quarterly, Adult Learning, and the
Journal of Transformative Education. In 2004, she received the Commis-
sion of Professors of Adult Education Early Career Award, which hon-
ors individuals in the early stages of their academic career who have
made significant contributions in scholarship and service to the field.
In 2019, she received the Circle of 50 Award from the Learning, Lead-
ership and Organizational Development Program at the University of
Georgia. Awardees are seen as having made an impact on the research
and practice of adult education, learning, leadership, and organizational
development.
 Part I
Adult Learning in
Contemporary Society

It is very much the perspective of this book that learning is a personal

process—but a process that is shaped by the context of adult life and the
society in which one lives. Compare how industrialization of the early
years of the twentieth century affected what an adult needed and wanted
to learn with the knowledge economy of the early twenty-first century.
This learning in turn affects the social context. For example, as we
become more technologically savvy, businesses respond by developing
more sophisticated systems and gadgets that then require us to keep
learning. It is indeed an interactive process between the learner and the
social context. The four chapters in Part I explore the current sociocul-
tural context, the range of learning opportunities available to adults in
this context, and who takes advantage of these opportunities and why.
Chapter 1 describes three factors characteristic of American society
today that affect what adults want to learn. First, dramatic changes are
occurring in the demographic base of our society. Adults outnumber
1
2 A d u l t L e a r n i n g i n C o n t e m p o r a r y S o ci e t y

those under 18 years old for the first time ever. Moreover, the percent-
age of the population over age 65 continues to grow, commanding the
attention of policymakers, businesspeople, and educators alike. Our
population as a whole is also better educated than ever before, and there
is more cultural and ethnic diversity. Therefore, there are simply more
adults seeking learning opportunities, as well as more groups of adults
with particular learning needs.
The second and third factors shaping the learning enterprise are glo-
balization and technology. These are very much interrelated, of course;
technology has had an enormous impact on the economy. Robotics and
automation displace production workers but create other jobs; tech-
nology has fostered whole new work structures, such as job sharing
and telecommuting. The effect of the global economy and technologi-
cal advances on the nature of adult learning is staggering. Adults find
that they must continue their learning past formal schooling in order to
function at work, at home, and in their communities. The need for new
knowledge, for updating old information, for retraining, has resulted in
a multibillion-dollar educational enterprise.
Because of its ever-increasing presence in our lives, we have added
a new chapter on technology and adult learning. From online courses
offered by educational institutions and corporations to the myriad of
online sites on the World-Wide Web to technological innovations that
are pervading our everyday world, technology is both creating learning
demands and facilitating learning in adult life. Chapter 2 is thus devoted
to broadly examining the role of technology in the context of adult learn-
ing today. Some of the topics include the history of distance education,
online learning theories, and the role of technology in informal and non-
formal learning.
Some of this learning takes place in formal settings sponsored by
countless institutions and agencies. As might be expected, business and
industry and educational institutions offer many adult learning oppor-
tunities, but so do the military, cooperative extensions, churches, hospi-
tals, and other institutions. Chapter 3 explores how the context of formal
institutional settings influences the learner and the learning process.
Also reviewed are learning opportunities that are nonformal, such as
those offered by community-based agencies such as museums, libraries,
hospitals, and so on, and informal, incidental, and self-directed oppor-
tunities, as might happen in the course of the workday or by looking up
 Adult Learning in Contemporary Society 3

something on the Internet. In addition, we briefly discuss online learn-

ing, a fourth environment for learning that overlays formal, nonformal,
and informal modes of learning. In the second half of this chapter, we
explore the interrelated concepts, first, of organizational learning and
the learning organization, and second, of lifelong learning and the learn-
ing society.
Chapter 4 profiles who participates in adult learning, why adults par-
ticipate, and what an adult chooses to learn. Most of this information
on participation and motivation is in reference to formal learning, such
as that provided by educational institutions and employers. Estimates
of the percentage of the adult population that participates in learning
have steadily risen over the past 50 years, with the most current study
suggesting that approximately 44% of all adult Americans participate
in learning. Studies of self-directed learning and other nonformal types
of education reveal the percentage of participation to be even higher.
Clearly, learning is an important activity for today’s adults. What moti-
vates adults to participate and what deters participation is important
information, especially for program developers. This chapter also reviews
motivational studies.
The final section of Chapter 4 “problematizes” the concept of par-
ticipation. By examining the assumptions that underlie participation we
squarely confront the issues of access and opportunity in adult educa-
tion. The gap between the better educated who seek out continuing edu-
cation and those who do not continues to widen. Adult learning seems
to have become a vehicle for solidifying a socioeconomic structure that
limits access and opportunity, contrary to the stated goal of equal access
to education in our society. We examine the rhetoric, which espouses
one set of values, and the reality, which demonstrates another, in the
provision of adult learning opportunities.
 Chapter 1
The Social Context
of Adult Learning

L earning, even self-directed learning, rarely occurs “in splendid

isolation from the world in which the learner lives; . . . it is inti-
mately related to that world and affected by it” (Jarvis, 2012, p. 11).
What one wants to learn, what is offered, and the ways in which one
learns are determined to a large extent by the nature of the society at any
time. Contrast the young male apprentice of colonial times learning to
be a blacksmith with today’s middle-aged woman learning a new smart-
phone app, or the preparation needed to become a medical doctor at the
turn of the twentieth century—less than a high school diploma—with
today’s long and specialized training.
It can also be argued that the nature of society at any point in time
determines the relative emphasis placed on adult learning. In preindus-
trial societies, the rate of change was such that what a person needed to
know to function as an adult could be learned in childhood. In societies
hurrying to catch up, however, and in our own society with its acceler-
ated rate of change, the urgency of dealing with social realities is felt by
adults. In this global, increasingly technologically interconnected world,
“the context for adult learning is growing more complex” (Nicolaides &
Marsick, 2016, p. 9). The challenge for learners and adult educators is
to understand the learning context whether it be “simple, complicated,

5
6 A D U LT L E A R N I N G I N CO N T E M P O R A RY S O C I ET Y

complex [or] chaotic” and to adapt our learning and teaching (p. 10).
Further, social issues such as immigration and climate change and indi-
vidual concerns such as those related to health or family or finances
often result in individuals attending courses or learning informally about
these issues.
Although adult education is responsive to the context in which it
takes place, it affects that same context. Take, for example, enormous
changes in our society brought on by advances in technology. Advances
in telemedicine mean doctors can diagnose patients who live at a dis-
tance using increasingly sophisticated web-based communication and
patients can use smartphone apps to monitor their health. Auto mechan-
ics must now be trained to diagnose engine problems using computers;
auto manufacturers tout self-driving cars; a smartphone can be turned
into a 3D printer; misplaced items such as keys, wallets, and backpacks
can be located via smartphone. Adult education has responded to these
technological advances by offering courses to learn this technology so
that we can better function in our digital environment.
Although the preceding examples of learning are particularly con-
temporary, historically there has always been an interlocking of adult
learning needs with the social context in which they occur. The skills
needed in colonial America reflected the agrarian context; further, since
early settlers were fleeing religious persecution in Europe, there was a
moral and religious imperative in learning to read so that one could study
the Bible. After the Revolutionary War, the newly independent nation
needed leaders and informed citizens to build the democratic society.
In this new world, civic education, which included learning about phi-
losophy, science, and politics, eclipsed religious education and became
paramount in the education of adults.
With the Industrial Revolution of the late nineteenth and early twen-
tieth centuries, industry-based skills training became a necessity. Also,
because of the massive influx of immigrants to the United States at this
time, “Americanization” and citizenship programs became a prominent
form of adult education. It was felt that these immigrants needed to learn
the ways of their adopted country so that they would “melt” into soci-
ety. Interestingly, immigrants themselves organized their own schools to
maintain their culture, but these were largely invisible to society at large.
Although a major thrust of adult education at any particular time
reflects the sociohistorical context, varied purposes and learning
 The Social Context of Adult Learning 7

interests coexist. We might argue that technology is a major thrust of

learning today, but there is still job training, literacy, civic education,
liberal (such as Great Books clubs) and leisure learning, along with
community-based social-action initiatives. As Stubblefield and Keane
(1994, p. 312) observed from their survey of adult education from colo-
nial times until the present, regardless of the historical era, “Americans
learned because there was knowledge to master, technology to adapt,
and life’s uncertainties to be resolved.”
Thus, to a large extent, the learning that goes on in adulthood can
be understood through an examination of the social context in which
it occurs. How is learning in adulthood shaped by the society in which
it takes place? How does the sociocultural context determine what is
learned and by whom?
This chapter explores three conditions characteristic of the current
sociocultural context that are shaping the learning needs of adults in
today’s world: changing demographics, the global economy, and infor-
mation and technology. Although we present each of these separately at
first, these three factors are very much interrelated, and thus their con-
vergence and subsequent impact on learning in adulthood are discussed
in the final section of this chapter.

Changing Demographics
Changing demographics is a social reality shaping the provision of learn-
ing in contemporary American society. Demographics is about people,
groups of people, and their respective characteristics. For the first time
in our society, adults outnumber youth, there are more older adults, the
population is better educated than ever before, and there is more cul-
tural and ethnic diversity. For various reasons, individuals and groups of
people seek out learning experiences; for other reasons, society targets
learning activities for certain segments of the population. Thus, certain
learning activities are learner initiated and others are society initiated in
response to the changing demographics. The field is concerned with the
growth and development of adult learners, while at the same time, there
are emerging groups of learners with special needs.
To begin, there are simply more adults in our society than ever before,
and the population will continue to age. In comparison to colonial times
8 A D U LT L E A R N I N G I N CO N T E M P O R A RY S O C I ET Y

when half the population was under age 16, in 1990, fewer than one in
four Americans were under age 16 and half were age 33 or older. The
median age of the American population was 38 years in 2017 up from of
35.3 years in 2000 and this figure is expected to increase to 43 by 2060
(U.S. Census Bureau, 2017b, 2018a, 2018b). The so-called Baby Boomers,
born between 1946 and 1964, are a contributing factor to this change in
the population. The Baby Boomers started turning 65 in 2011 and by 2056
those over age 65 will outnumber individuals under 18 (Ortman, 2012,
U.S. Census Bureau, 2017b).
The shift from a youth-oriented to an adult-oriented society is solidi-
fied by the increasing numbers of older adults in the population. In addi-
tion to an increase of persons over age 65, the oldest old, those over 85
years old, are the fastest-growing segment of the older population. The
number of people age 85 and older is expected to grow from 5.8 million
in 2010 to 19 million in 2050. This age group is expected to comprise 2.3%
of the population in 2030 and 4.3% in 2050 (Vincent & Velkoff, 2010). In
addition, the population over age 65 is expected to become increasingly
racially diverse and the life expectancy gap between men and women is
expected to narrow (Vincent & Velkoff, 2010).
Today’s older adults are also increasingly better educated, in better
health, and many are economically better off than previous cohorts.
Society is already heeding their learning needs with policies like tuition
waivers for higher and continuing education programs and specially
designed programs, such as the popular Road Scholar program and
learning-in-retirement institutes. There has also been a subtle change in
the philosophical rationale—at least among those working in the fields
of gerontology and educational gerontology—underlying the provision
of education for this group. Along with an economic rationale (the better
educated need fewer social services) and a social stability rationale (mil-
lions of healthy retired people need something to do) is an awareness
that older adults as well as younger ones have an unending potential for
development. The stereotypical idea of retirement as a time for cogni-
tive decline and withdrawal seems to be slowly changing as an increas-
ing number of individuals are reaching retirement age and the media,
although still promoting some stereotypes, is showing older adults
actively engaged in a wide variety of activities. Additionally, retirement
communities arrange learning opportunities for their residents includ-
ing lectures, travel, concerts, and discussion groups.
 The Social Context of Adult Learning 9

Thus, more adults and an increase in the number of older adults are
two demographic factors influencing the provision of learning activi-
ties in our society. So, too, is the rising level of education characteristic
of U.S. citizens. This is dramatically illustrated by the fact that 90% of
the U.S. population age 25 or older has completed high school or higher
levels of education, which compares with 24% in 1940 (Schmidt, 2018).
Because previous education is the single best predictor of participation
in adult education, the rising educational level of the adult population
is a contextual factor of considerable import. For example, 66% of U.S.
adults 26–35 years old participated in adult education activities com-
pared to 49% of those 56–65 years old (Desjardins, 2015). In adults age
16–65 (excluding individuals from 16 to 24 in formal studies), 31% with
less than a high school education participated in adult education activi-
ties whereas 79% of those with a high school education or higher partici-
pated in adult education activities (Desjardins, 2015).
Participation in adult education is also affected by literacy and eco-
nomics. In the United States, 27% of low-literate adults said they had
participated in adult education within the last year, while 84% of those
with higher levels of literacy participated (Desjardins, 2015). This pat-
tern is seen in other countries as well. In Korea, the respective figures
are 13% for low-literates and 77% for those with higher literacy rates, and
Cyprus’s figures are 24% and 51%, respectively (Desjardins, 2015). Partic-
ipation rates for U.S. adults ages 16–65 whose parents had not graduated
from high school was 39%, while individuals where at least one parent
completed high school was 72%.
Another demographic characteristic of the social context is
the growing cultural and ethnic diversity of America’s population.
Roughly 13.4% or 43.7 million people residing in the United States
are foreign born (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Devel-
opment [OECD], 2018). Twenty-six percent of those who are foreign
born and living in the United States are from Mexico (OECD, 2018).
Applications for asylum in the United States have risen especially from
citizens from Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador (OECD, 2018).
Although immigration rates are expected to slow somewhat in the
short term due to U.S. governmental policies enacted in the late 2010s,
(OECD, 2018), starting in 2030, “net international migration is pro-
jected to become the largest driver of population growth” (Vespa, Arm-
strong, & Medina, 2018, p. 12). Immigration combined with birthrate
10 A D U LT L E A R N I N G I N CO N T E M P O R A RY S O C I ET Y

projections in the United States mean there will be an increase in the

Latinx, Asian, and African American populations with a decrease in
Whites. In 2016, non-Hispanic Whites comprised 61.3% of the popula-
tion and by 2060 they will make up 44.3% of the population. In contrast,
the Latinx population is expected to increase almost 10% from 17.8% of
the U.S. population in 2016 to 27.5% in 2060. The African American
population is projected to increase almost 2% from 13.3% in 2016 to
15% of the population by 2060. The Asian population is expected to
grow from 5.7% to 9.1% of the population. The percentage of those of
two or more races is expected to expand from 2.6% of the population in
2016 to 6.2% in 2060 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2017c). By 2045, people of
color will account for 51.3% of the population (Frey, 2018).
The socioeconomic and cultural diversity of today’s immigrant pop-
ulation presents special challenges. In 2016, 30% of the foreign-born
population age 25 or older possessed a bachelor’s degree or higher and
29% lacked a high school diploma or GED (Zong, Batalova, & Hal-
lock, 2018). Fifty-two percent of the immigrants in the United States
over age 5 are English proficient (Radford, 2019). Immigrants’ income
varies with education level, occupation, industry, and geographic region,
but immigrants tend to earn less than their native-born counterparts
although the gap is small for those with a bachelor’s degree or higher
(U.S. Department of Labor, 2018). Hence, immigrants’ income and
opportunities can vary depending on their education level and language
proficiency, with the less educated and less English proficient “concen-
trated in trade and labour professions and confined mostly to general
education programmes” (Calvo & Sarkisian, 2015, p. 1044). Courses for
immigrants include English as a second language courses, adult basic
education (ABE), and other community-based courses in “nutrition,
parenting, immigration issues and other informal education opportuni-
ties” (Larrotta, 2017, p. 67). Typically, churches, libraries, social service
centers, and community centers are places where immigrants engage in
adult education (Larrotta, 2017).
In summary, the composition of society is an important factor in
the provision of learning opportunities for citizens of all ages. In the
United States, there are more adults than youth, the number of older
adults is growing, the population as a whole is better educated, and more
diverse—racially, ethnically, and culturally—than ever before.
 The Social Context of Adult Learning 11

Globalization
Globalization is an overarching concept encompassing changes taking
place worldwide. But globalization is not a new concept because it can
be argued that the world has always sought to connect through travel,
trade, and cultural exchange. (For a brief overview of the history and
various definitions of globalization see Gulmez, 2017) Since the 1980s,
the term has more frequently been used to reflect the increasing inte-
gration of economies around the world, particularly through trade and
the flow of finances. Globalization includes the flow of “goods, services,
people, knowledge, ideas, information and financial capital across bor-
ders” (Desjardins, 2013, p. 184). An incredibly complex and controversial
phenomenon, we can only try to convey some of its essential character-
istics and some of the issues and speculate as to how it is shaping adult
learning in our context.
Neoliberal ideas of free trade, privatization, and “reduced capital
controls on cross-border flow of finance” fuel the images most asso-
ciated with the economic view of economic globalization (Desjar-
dins, 2013, p. 183). These images include the loss of low-wage
manufacturing jobs to less developed corners of the world, with trans-
national companies operating in a space outside national boundaries
and control, with consumerism and commercialism supplanting other
interests. Those opposed to the neoliberal agenda say that the costs of
globalization include the loss of human rights including poor working
conditions, although proponents indicate that globalization promotes
economic growth (Richards & Gelleny, 2016). Although the market
economy is clearly a driving force in globalization, so too is informa-
tion technology. Technology has changed the way we work in that
individuals can work from anywhere in the world. Changes in infor-
mation technology have changed the teaching/learning transaction.
Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs), synchronous and asynchro-
nous distance courses, communication tools such as Skype, Zoom, and
Google Hangouts, and the plethora of web-based resources including
LinkedIn Learning, and YouTube have affected the way individuals
learn alone and in groups.
Another random document with
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small branch of a sunken river. There must be some other point of
ingress, one of which Grandfather King had no knowledge. Some
one had come in by the other route and had taken the gold. The
work had been done systematically, by miners who knew what they
were about. A glance at the workings told him that.
Rawley turned his light down the stream. As far as its rays could
pierce the dark of the cavern, the placer workings extended. He went
on, following the windings of the stream and its natural tunnel. Now
that he had discovered his grandfather’s potential riches, the legacy
which he had confidently believed was a fortune, Rawley was
determined to see just where the watercourse would lead him.
He thought that he must have followed it for a mile or more,
although it could have been farther. All the way along, the gravel had
been worked and the gold taken out. A suspicion had been growing
in his mind, and quite suddenly it crystallized into certainty. He
walked into a larger cavern, the full extent of which he could not see
from that point. There he stopped and considered.
Near at hand, all around him, black cans were piled. He did not
need the second glance to tell him what it was he had run into. Here
was the secret hoard of black powder which the Cramers had been
gathering together for years. Here was the powder that would, in the
space of a breath, tear down two mountain sides and halt the flow of
a great river,—if what they hoped and dreamed should come to
pass.
The Cramers, then, had taken the gold which Grandfather King
had discovered. Here was a part of it, no doubt, transformed into
tons of explosive. Rawley’s grin was sardonic as he surveyed the
piled cans. It would be a bitter ending for their quest that he must
show to Johnny Buffalo, he thought.
He walked on slowly and halted suddenly when a light showed
ahead. Some one was coming toward him, and Rawley instinctively
snapped off his light and moved to one side. War habits were still
strong upon him, and in any case he would not trust the Cramers.
Presently he saw that it was Peter, and called to him and went
forward. Peter was astonished, but he was also glad to see Rawley.
 “I meant to walk over to your place this evening,” he explained.
“We’re so busy, right now—”
“With the dam?” Rawley sat down on a keg of powder, started to
roll a cigarette and remembered that it might not be wise.
“Yes. We’re loading her as fast as we can. It’s a big job, and the
old man is getting fractious over the delay.” Peter sat down on
another keg and took off his hat, wiping his forehead with his sleeve.
“It’s going to be a blistering day outside. Seems like an ice-box in
here. How did you come?”
Then Rawley told him.
Peter listened in complete silence, his arms folded on his knees.
When Rawley had finished, Peter straightened up with a sigh.
“I never dreamed we had cut into your ground,” he said heavily. “I
thought, as you probably did, that the code described an old,
underground watercourse some miles from here. But you must be
right, this is it. Old Jess discovered gold near the river, at a point
where this stream back here dives under the cliffs and empties, most
likely, into the river somewhere under the water line. It was rich; a
heap richer than any one ever dreamed, I guess. And the fact that
the stream flowed right into the Colorado may have given him his
first idea of gathering the gold that had washed on into the river. If
you come with me, I’ll show you.”
“I can’t be too long,” said Rawley. “Johnny Buffalo’s up on top,
waiting for me to come back with my pockets full of gold. It’s going to
be hard on the old man, especially since Grandfather’s gold went
into the clutches of Old Jess. I don’t know that I’d better tell him. At
the same time,” he mused aloud, “I can’t tell him that there isn’t any
gold; he is so firmly convinced that his sergeant told the truth. He’d
have to know that some one else has beat us to it.”
Peter turned and looked at him thoughtfully. “I’ll give you some
nuggets to take up to him,” he said. “Old Johnny’s pretty keen, and
he holds a bad grudge against Young Jess and the old man. If I
could, you know I’d replace the gold we got from under that
blowhole. But I can’t. It has all been spent, practically. Gone into the
dam, along with the rest.”
Rawley laid his hand on Peter’s shoulder and left it there.
 “You wouldn’t do anything of the kind,” he laughed. “That darned
dam idea of yours is catching. I’ve got it, and got it bad. If that gold
you beat me to will tip enough rock into the river to make a good job
of the dam, I’m satisfied. All I ask is that you let me know when
you’re ready so I can see her go. Are you doing as I advised,—
preparing to shoot her with electricity?”
Peter nodded. “Old Jess kicked on the cost, but we showed him
how it was the only safe way. She’s all loaded, across the river. We
did that during low water and carried the wiring across up to a high,
overhead cable that crosses the river all ready to be hooked up to
the battery. I talked with a mining man about explosives and found
out some things that came in pretty handy, I guess. I got a hint not to
break the ground with dynamite enough so that the power of the
black powder would be killed in the seams opened up. We didn’t use
so much dynamite, after all. We’re depending on the black powder.”
“I still warn you against it,” said Rawley. “But if you can’t be
stopped, I do want to see the fireworks. There’s a pretty engineering
problem there, and it will be worth a good deal to see how it works
out.” His thoughts returned again to the old Indian waiting up on the
hill. “I’ll buy some gold from you, Uncle Peter, if you have it handy. I’ll
tell old Johnny it’s all I could find; I think I can satisfy the old fellow
with the thought that his sergeant had it straight.”
Peter left him for five minutes and returned, carrying a small
canvas sack.
“Here’s a handful of specimens I tucked into a niche in the rocks,
intending to give them to Nevada for a necklace or something,” he
told Rawley. “But Nevada can have diamond necklaces when the
dam goes in. You take these, boy. Maybe some of them sort of
belong to you, anyway.”
“Lord, I don’t want them,” Rawley protested. “I’ll give them to
Johnny Buffalo, though. It will keep him from worrying about it. More
than all that, it will keep him off the warpath, the old catamount.”
 CHAPTER TWENTY-TWO
GREATER THAN GOLD
Johnny Buffalo held a handful of nuggets in his hard, brown
palms. His eyes shone whenever he looked toward the old wheel
chair beside the window. He listened to Rawley’s explanation of why
there would be no more gold, but the technical phraseology went
completely over his head, and he smiled abstractedly and held up
first one bit of gold and then another to the light. They were very
heavy. They were beautiful. They had lain, hidden away all these
years, just where his sergeant had said that they were hidden.
“‘There is a path which no man knoweth,’” he muttered, when
Rawley had finished and was waiting to see what effect his harangue
about erosions and changed currents had taken on the Indian mind.
“It is so. My sergeant said it, and it was the truth. My sergeant never
lied. Always the words he spoke were true. I know it without proof.
Now you have the proof, and you know it also.”
“There won’t be any more, you understand,” Rawley repeated with
finality. “My work is to examine these matters and report the truth
about them. After examining what lies at the bottom of the pit, I am
reporting to you that there will be no more gold—”
Johnny Buffalo stopped him with a hand lifted, palm out. “What
was revealed to you in the pit is not good for me to know,” he stated
firmly. “My sergeant has said that you should know the truth about
riches. He said that it would not be good that I should know the truth
as you would know it.”
“That’s true, too,” Rawley admitted, taken aback.
“The gold was there when my sergeant said that it was there. That
is good. My sergeant did not say that there would always be gold
where gold has been. I think that is the truth about riches which you
have learned.”
“You’re right, Johnny.” Rawley grinned at him ruefully. “If we’ve
had any dream of being millionaires, we may as well forget it.
Grandfather gave us the straight dope, and you found the cleft in the
rocks. It isn’t Grandfather’s fault that the millions have moved on. So
that’s all of that, and the next thing is something else.”
“The next thing is what is given us to do,” said Johnny Buffalo
solemnly. “We will do our duty, whatever that may be. Now I have no
more searching for my sergeant’s gold. I shall live here until it is time
to go. I do not think it will be long.”
Rawley looked at him anxiously, but he could not bring himself to
speak what was in his mind. Johnny Buffalo would not understand
that to the young death is a dreadful thing, to be shunned and never
thought of voluntarily,—an ogre that may snatch one away from the
joys of living. After all, he thought, Johnny Buffalo had outlived his
love of life. No one needed him. He had only to wait. Rawley wished
that he could be with him longer and oftener, but that was not
possible unless he were willing to sacrifice the work he loved. Even if
he could bring himself to that, Johnny Buffalo would not permit it. It
would break his heart to feel that he had hindered his sergeant’s
grandson.
“Your work,” said Johnny Buffalo, almost as if he had been
reading Rawley’s thoughts, “is better than the gold. A man is great
within himself, or he is nothing. The full pocket makes the empty
head. It is greater fortune that you have honor and youth and work to
perform. So my sergeant would tell you.”
“You’re right, Johnny,” Rawley assented again. “If we’d found a ton
of gold I think I’d have gone on with my work just the same. A man
my age can’t stop working for the sake of seeing how fast he can
spend money. I couldn’t, anyway.”
“Then you do not need the gold. You can earn what you need and
have the pleasure twice: in the getting and in the spending. So you
have not lost.”
“We’re a great pair of philosophers,” Rawley laughed, “or else we
are eating sour grapes. Blamed if I know, sometimes, just where the
difference lies. Or perhaps there isn’t any, and crying sour grapes is
true philosophy, after all.”
Peter and Nevada, coming up the path, diverted the talk to lighter
channels. Nevada, spying the gold, exclaimed over the odd pieces
and took them in her cupped palm to admire each specimen by itself.
“They are yours, save this one which I shall keep,” said Johnny
Buffalo unexpectedly. “Rawley will not take them. I do not need gold.
I have three friends and the spirit of my sergeant, who waits for me. I
am rich. They are yours. Put them on a chain and hang them around
your neck while yet it is white and round.”
Nevada looked at him a full fifteen seconds before she moved.
Then she rose and kissed Johnny Buffalo on the withered cheek
nearest her.
“To know a man like you is a privilege,” she said simply. “I shall
keep the nuggets to remind me that not all men worship gold.”
“You will wear them in a necklace. My sergeant wishes you to
have them. They are not so beautiful as your white throat.”
Nevada blushed vividly and shook the nuggets in her two hands.
“It’s a good thing Grandmother can’t hear you,” she laughed. “An old
bachelor like you!”
“An old bachelor can say what the young man dares only to think,”
Johnny Buffalo stated calmly.
Rawley was trying distractedly to read a letter which Nevada had
brought down from the post-office, and to pretend that he did not
hear what was going on. But it is reasonable to assume that there
was nothing in the letter to make him blush at the moment when
Johnny Buffalo said his little say. Nevada stole a glance at him from
under her lashes and smiled.
“What is it, Cousin Rawley?” she asked wickedly. “You seem
disturbed.”
“I’m called back on the job.” Rawley tried to meet her eyes
unconcernedly. “I won’t even have the week I promised myself. This
is pretty urgent, and so I think I’ll take the trail again in the morning.”
Even Nevada betrayed some mental disturbance over that
information, especially when Rawley could not hazard any opinion
concerning his next visit.
“I won’t even have time to look over your work at the dam,” he told
Peter. “I intended going down to-morrow. I wanted to have a talk with
you about that. I’ve picked up a little information, here and there, and
I’m afraid there will be complications. But I’ve been holding off until I
was sure of my ground. I know, of course, that my personal opinion
won’t have much weight.”
Peter shook his head. “You can work and pry and lift till your eyes
pop out of your head, starting a bowlder down a mountain,” he said
grimly, “and you can give it the last heave and over she goes. Any
time, up to that last heave, you can quit and she stays right there
where she was planted. But once she starts, all hell can’t stop her.
I’m afraid we’ve given the last heave, son.”
“Look out below!” Nevada cried mockingly and looked at Rawley.
“I could tell a cousin in three words how he can make himself as
popular as a rattlesnake with the Cramers,—and the last of the
Macalisters.”
“And those three words?” Rawley looked her squarely in the eyes.
“Fight the dam.” Nevada’s eyes were as steady as his own.
“Thunder!” Rawley sat back and reached for his tobacco sack.
“I’ve no notion of fighting the dam. It’s the biggest proposition I ever
saw three lone men—and a girl; excuse me, Nevada!—tackle in my
life. Four of you, thinking to stop, just like that,”—he made a slicing,
downward gesture, “—the second largest river in the United States!
You’ll be damming the Gulf Stream next, I suppose. Divert it so as to
warm up Maine and make it a winter-bathing resort!”
“Do you dare us to try?” Nevada poured nuggets from one palm to
the other. “That might be a good investment, when we’ve made our
clean-up in the river bed.” She smiled dreamily at her handful of
gold. “That’s a wonderful idea. We need some wonderful idea to
work on, after the dam is in and the gold is out. You can’t,” she
looked up wistfully at Rawley, “you can’t live with a tremendous idea
all your life and suddenly drop back to three meals a day and which
dress shall you wear. One would go mad. It—it’s like taking the
mainspring out of life.”
Johnny Buffalo nodded his head in significant approval. “A man
can only wait, then, until it is time to go,” he said with quiet decision.
“Very well. I’ll speak to the Peace Conference about the Gulf
Stream,” Rawley assured her gravely. “In case I am unable to
reserve it for you—would the Gulf of Mexico do, or the Mississippi
River, perhaps?”
 “We’re accustomed to cracking our whip over fresh water,”
Nevada retorted. “I should prefer to have the Mississippi, please.”
Johnny Buffalo glanced toward the wheel chair, gazed at it intently
and nodded his head.
“You will succeed and fail in the succeeding,” he intoned solemnly.
“In the failure you will rise to greater things. It is so. My sergeant
never speaks what is not true.”
Eyes moved guardedly to meet other eyes that understood,
conveying a warning that the old man must be humored. Johnny
Buffalo stood up, his face turned toward the wheel chair. He seemed
to be listening. His eyes brightened. The wrinkles in his bronzed old
face deepened and radiated joy.
“It is good! I need not wait—I go now!” He took an eager step and
wavered there.
Peter and Rawley, rising together, caught the old man in their
arms as he went down, falling slowly like a straight, old tree whose
roots have snapped with age.
 CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE
THE EAGLE LOOKS UPON A GREAT RIVER
Rawley drove down El Dorado Canyon, now silent in mid-
afternoon, with not a sound of stamp mill or compressor or the
mingled voices of men at work. Techatticup stood forlorn, deserted
save by one old man who bore himself proudly because he was the
guardian there. The war, the labor question, the slump in metals, had
done their work. It seemed to Rawley as if the nation were taking a
long breath, making ready to go forward again more resistlessly than
before. He missed Johnny Buffalo terribly; but if he could, he would
not have called him back. Johnny would have had a dreary time of it,
alone all these long months when Rawley’s work had held close to
the affairs of the government.
The eye of the Eagle had not been closed. His keen glance had
gone to this and to that, his piercing gaze had fixed itself upon the
desert land and the river that went hurrying down through flaming
gorge and painted canyon, a law unto itself, an untaught, untamed
giant of the wild; a scenic wonder set deep in savage walls of rock,
where people came and looked down upon it, drew back shivering,
ventured to look again in silent awe; a terrible, devastating thing from
which men fled in terror when the giant river rose, leaped from its
bed and went raging across the land.
Men called for power, for protection, for water to till barren acres
that might be made fertile. Men shouted for the things which the
Colorado held arrogantly within its grasp, to hoard with miserly greed
or to let loose in a ferocious fury. The Colorado had power, it had
water, it had a cruel habit of devouring lands and homes and
whooping onward toward the gulf, heedless of the destruction in its
wake.
And the Eagle had lifted his head and turned his eyes upon the
great river. Here, within the borders of his domain, dwelt a powerful,
savage thing that must be tamed and taught to obey the will of men.
The Eagle considered this headlong defiance of all civilized restraint.
The Eagle saw how men looked upon the river, drew back in awe
and ventured to look again; men, who should be the masters of the
river. The Eagle lifted and spread his wings. And the tip of a wing
reached over the desert land and laid its shadow across the
Colorado.
A great orator had painted it so, and Rawley was thinking of that
picture of the Eagle as he drove down the canyon to the very brink of
the river and climbed out of his car. Still desolate, more forsaken
than ever was the place where El Dorado had stood alive, alert, self-
sufficient. The camp was gone, almost forgotten. The river flowed
past, disdainful of the puny efforts of men who died and forgot their
dreams and their endeavors, while it rushed on through the ages,
and played with the lives of men and mocked at their fear of it.
But three men and a girl had dared to dream of holding the might
of it in leash. It was to see these dreamers, to warn and to show
them the shadow of the Eagle’s wing, that he had come in haste to
the bank of the Colorado. For months he had heard nothing. Nevada
had not written, or if she had the letter had not reached him. There
was danger in delay, in their continued silence.
Rawley slung a canteen over his shoulder and started up the river,
taking the well-known trail. This was the quickest way to reach the
Cramers, and now that he was in their neighborhood once more a
great impatience was upon him, a nervous dread that he might be an
hour, a minute too late for what he had come to do.
He came upon Nevada suddenly. She was standing on the site of
the old camp where he had stayed with Johnny Buffalo. Her back
was toward him, and she was holding something in her two hands;
something he had seen her extract from the thorny branches of a
stunted mesquite bush. When his footsteps sounded close, she
turned and looked at him dumbly, her eyes wide and dark. The thing
she held in her hands was his pipe,—one that he had lost on that
first trip into the country.
Before his better judgment or his doubts could stop him, Rawley
drew her into his arms and held her close while he kissed her. It was
so good to see her again, to feel her nearness. But after one
rapturous minute, she put away his arms and faced him calmly,
though her breath was not quite even and her eyes would not meet
his with the old frankness.
“Your one eighth of Indian blood should have given you more
reserve, Cousin Rawley,” she reproved him mockingly. “The Spanish
of us must be watched. Well, I needn’t ask about your health; you
haven’t been pining during your absence, that one could notice.”
Rawley barely escaped forswearing both his Indian and his
Spanish blood, but remembered his promise just in time. He did not
believe that Nevada regretted his impulsiveness,—for you simply
can’t fool a man under thirty when he kisses a girl. Nevada’s lips, he
joyously remembered, had not been unresponsive.
“Here’s your pipe,” she said lamely, when he only stood and
looked at her. “I was just wondering whether it’s worth saving, or
whether I’d better heave it into the river and see how far it would
float.”
Rawley did not believe that she intended to heave it anywhere,
but he passed the point.
“If cousins fell in love, they—would you consider the relationship
any bar—”
Nevada went white around the mouth.
“I certainly should! You ought to be ashamed to ask a question like
that. No man with any decency could think of such a thing.”
“I’m decent,” Rawley contended, “and I thought of it.” But he did
not pursue the subject further. Nevada had turned and was walking
on toward the camp of Cramer, and Rawley could do nothing but
follow. The path was too narrow to permit him to walk beside her,
and a man feels a fool making love to a woman’s back.
“Have you done anything further about the dam?” he asked, after
a silence.
“I believe the work is going ahead,” Nevada replied, keeping
straight on.
“You must have received my letter about it; or didn’t you?”
“Yes, I received a letter about something of the sort.”
“You didn’t answer it, did you? I never received any reply.”
“I did not think,” said Nevada, “that the letter required any answer.
You wrote and told us to stop all work on the dam, and give up the
idea, because some one else wanted to build a dam. Or was
considering the building of a dam. I read that letter to Grandfather
and Uncle Jess and Uncle Peter, as you requested. They swore
rather fluently and went to work the next morning as usual.” Then, as
if it had just occurred to her, “Did you come to see about that, Cousin
Rawley?”
“Oh, I wish you’d omit the ‘cousin’,” Rawley blurted irrelevantly. “I
don’t like having it rubbed in.”
Nevada said nothing for a time. Then she laughed, a hard little
laugh that sounded strange, coming from her.
“Certainly, if you wish. I’m very sorry I seem to have ‘rubbed it in’,
as you put it. And I quite understand how you feel. Out among men
—and women—as you have been, all your life, the—er—mixed
relationship would prove rather a handicap. Poor old Grandfather
and Grandmother should have thought of their children’s children,
before they fell in love. And Uncle Peter should either have brought
you here and raised you with the rest of the tribe, or never told you
the truth. I’m not blaming him; I’m merely sorry for the mistake. I
know what it means. I’ve been out in the world, too.”
Rawley stared at the proud lift of her head and wondered just how
much of that she meant. She must be quite aware of his reason for
disliking to be called her cousin, but he would not argue with her.
Except about the handicap.
“You’re mistaken, if you think the mixed blood is an objectionable
feature,” he said firmly. “Indian and Spanish have the same essential
characteristics of race that the straight white blood owns. Besides,
there are mighty few Americans who couldn’t trace back to
something of the sort. Character, culture and environment sweep a
few drops of red blood into the background, Nevada. You wouldn’t
feel bitter over it, if you didn’t live right here and see the Indian
predominate in Young Jess and Gladys—and your grandmother.”
“Your grandmother, as well as mine,” she flashed over her
shoulder with a very human spitefulness. “Don’t deny it—to me.”
Rawley did not deny anything at all; wherefore, conversation
languished between the two. Since first he had known her, Nevada
had frequently withdrawn into an unapproachable aloofness
discouraging to any lasting intimacy, but she had never before
betrayed resentment against her blood.
He had hoped that she would be glad to see him and would let
him see that she was glad. He had hoped to win her complete
confidence in his devotion to their interests and welfare. He needed
to have both Nevada and Peter on his side, if he were going to be
successful in his mission to the Cramers. But he was extremely
doubtful now of ever winning Nevada’s confidence. It began to look
as though he may as well count her an opponent and be done with
doubt.
 CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR
ANITA
Life seemed to have moved sluggishly in the basin, save in the
increase of the tribe. Six young Cramers now walked upright, though
the smallest walked insecurely and frequently fell down and lay
squalling with its eyes shut and its nose wrinkled until one of the
older children picked it up and dusted it off, remonstrating the while
in Pahute. The seventh was not yet old enough to ride the well-
upholstered hip of Gladys, but wailed in a cradle which some one
must be incessantly rocking.
Gladys was more slatternly than ever she had been, and her
vacuous grin had lost a tooth. Anita had aged terribly, Rawley
thought. She moved slowly, with a long stick for a staff, and her eyes
held a dumb misery he could not face. Nevada informed him that
Grandmother had not been very well, lately, although there was
nothing wrong, particularly.
“She doesn’t sleep at all, it seems to me,” Nevada detailed. “Often
she’s up and prowling along the river bank in the middle of the night,
and I have to go and lead her back. I think she’s getting childish. She
will sit and watch me by the hour, when I’m working, but she doesn’t
seem to want me to talk to her. She just sits and looks, the way she’s
been looking at you.”
Nevada went away then to some work which she said was
important, and Rawley wandered down to the river bank. In a few
minutes he heard a sound behind him and turned, hoping that
Nevada had yielded to his unspoken desire and was coming to join
him.
But it was Anita, walking slowly down the uneven pathway,
planting her crude staff ahead of her in the trail and pulling herself to
it with a weary, laborious movement. Her gray bangs hung straight
down to her eyelids. Her wrinkled old face was impassive, her eyes
dumb. Rawley bit his lip suddenly, thinking of his Grandfather King
sitting, “a hunk of meat in the wheel chair.” Life, it seemed to him,
had dealt very harshly with these two. He was no longer swayed by
the stern prejudice of Johnny Buffalo. He did not believe that Anita,
in her lovely youth, had been merely a whimsy of love. His
grandfather had loved her, had meant to return to her. He did not
believe that King, of the Mounted, would have loved one who loved
many. The King pride would not have permitted that.
Anita came up to him and leaned hard upon her stick, her eyes
turned dully upon the river. Never before had she sought him out;
rather had she avoided him, staring at him with a look he interpreted
as resentment. She looked so old, so infinitely tired with life, and her
eyes went to the river as if it alone could know the things she had
buried in her heart, long ago when she was a slim young thing, all
fire and life.
With a sudden impulse of tenderness he put his arm around her,
leading her to the flat rock and seating her there as gallantly as if she
were Nevada, whom he loved. It was what his grandfather would
have done. Rawley felt suddenly convicted of a fault, almost of a sin;
the sin of omission. Here was the love of his grandfather’s youth, the
mother of his grandfather’s first-born. And because she was old and
fat, because the primitive blood had triumphed and she had yielded
to environment and slipped back into Indian ways, he had snobbishly
held himself aloof. He had ignored her claim upon his kindness. Had
her beauty remained with her, he told himself harshly, his attitude
had been altogether different. Now he wanted to make up to her,
somehow, for his selfish oversight. He sat down beside her and
patted her hand,—for the Anita who had been beautiful, the Anita
whom King, of the Mounted, had loved.
“You love—my girl—Nevada?” The old squaw spoke abruptly,
though her voice held to a dead level of impassivity.
“How did you know?” Rawley took away his hand.
“I know. I have seen love—in eyes—blue. Eyes like your eyes.”
“Nevada doesn’t care anything about me, Anita.”
At the word, the old squaw turned her head and stared at him
fixedly. “You call that name. Where you know that name? Jess, he
call me Annie.”
 Rawley flushed, but there was no help for it now—or, yes, there
was Johnny—
“Johnny Buffalo called you Anita,” he parried.
Anita shook her head slowly. “Jawge—your gran’fadder—he call
me Anita too,” she said wistfully. “You ver’ much—like Jawge. I firs’
think—you are ghos’ of Jawge, when you come.”
“Grandfather was crazy about you,” slipped off Rawley’s tongue.
“He spoke of you in his diary—a book where he wrote down things
he did—things he thought.”
Anita stared down at the river.
“You tell me,” she commanded tersely. “All those things—Jawge
think—about—Anita.”
Rawley’s hand went out and closed again over her wrinkled, work-
hardened knuckles.
“The first was when he came up to El Dorado on the Esmeralda in
’66. He was leaning over the rail, watching the miners crowd down to
the landing. He wrote, ‘I saw a young girl—I think she is Spanish.
She has the velvet eyes and the rose blooming in her cheeks. She’s
beautiful. Not more than sixteen and graceful as a fairy.’ What more
he wrote of you I don’t know. He cut the pages from the book so no
one could read it.”
Anita raised a knotted, brown hand and smoothed her bangs,
tucking them neatly under her red kerchief.
“I was little,” she said complacently. “Ver’ beautiful. Every-body
was—crazy—about—me.” She halted, choosing the best English
words she knew. “I was—good girl. I love—nobody. I jus’ laugh all
time—when them so’jers make the love. Then I see—Jawge—my
Sah-geant King. He is king to me. Tall—big—strong—all time
laughing—making love with blue eyes—like you—all time make love
—with eyes—to Nevada. I know them eyes—I have lived—to look—
in them eyes.”
“I don’t do anything of the kind,” Rawley protested, confusion
crimsoning his face. “I’ve always tried—”
“Eyes like them eyes—no tell lies. Woman eyes see—things they
tell. Jawge—he write more?”
 “Most of it was cut from the book. He called you ‘el gusto de mi
corazon,’ and his ‘dulce corazon.’ Do you know—?”
Beneath his palm Anita’s hand was trembling. She pulled it free
and lifted it to her face, her withered fingers wiping the tears that
were slipping down her wrinkled cheeks. Rawley could have bitten
his tongue in two. Awkwardly he patted her on one huge, rounded
shoulder.
Like a lonesome dog, the old woman whimpered behind her
brown palm, from beneath which a tear sometimes escaped and
splashed upon her calico wrapper. Rawley sat silent, abashed before
this forlorn grief over a romance fifty years dead.
“Now I love Nevada, Peter.” She mastered her tears and became
again impassive. “You leave me—Nevada? Lil time—I want Nevada.
I die—then you can love—many years. You do that?”
“Of course. I promised Peter, a long time ago. But it doesn’t
matter, anyway. Nevada doesn’t care a rap about me.”
The old woman looked at him stolidly.
“You not tell Nevada—you not Peter’s boy,” she said. “Nevada
think that. You not tell Nevada—that’s a lie. You tell Nevada, I kill
myself.”
“I’ve no intention of telling Nevada,” Rawley said, chilled by her
manner. “It doesn’t matter, anyway.”
“You not come—for Nevada? You not think, marry Nevada—take
Nevada ’way off, I no see any more?” Anita peered into his face.
“No. I came to see Peter. About the dam.”
Anita took some time over this statement. Then she rose stiffly
and hobbled away, leaving Rawley to stare morosely into the river.
 CHAPTER TWENTY-FIVE
THE EAGLE AND THE VULTURE
“You may as well listen to me,” said Rawley in the incisive tone
which big responsibilities had taught him. “I am your friend. My only
object in coming here is to be of service to you. If you do not listen to
what I have to say, you will have to listen to the Federal Reclamation
Service, acting under the Secretary of the Interior. That may be more
convincing to you—but believe me, it will be less pleasant!”
“You were keen for the dam, last time you were here,” Peter
reminded him drily. “You called it a big idea. You’ve had a change of
heart, son.”
“I have. I have come to tell you that there are other ideas bigger
than yours, and a power behind them that will make yours look like
building a toy dam in the sand, like kids. You must have read of it in
the papers. There’s been all kinds of publicity given to the project.”
“You’re right. There’s been a heap of talk,” Peter retorted. “The
papers have done the talking, and we’ve been sawing wood and
keeping our mouths shut. While they’re still talking and arguing and
speechifying, we’ll put ’er in. There’s nothing the matter with that, is
there? Take the wind out of their sails, maybe, especially the fellows
that have their speeches all written out, ready for the next banquet.
But,—the dam will be in! They’ll have some work, trying to get
around that point.
“You ask if we’ve read the papers. I have. They’ve been talking
about spending a hundred million dollars. We’ve spent one. They’ve
been fiddling along the river, looking to see if it’s feasible. We’ve kept
right on digging. They thought we were mining—the only party that
discovered our diggings. They were very patronizing, very polite, and
they talked about the wonderful things a dam would do for us. Is that
what you came to tell us, son?”
Rawley leaned back against the wall and laid one foot across the
other knee, tapping his boot with his finger tips. He was facing them
all. He must convince them, somehow, and he must batter down the
dream of a lifetime to do it.
“No, you’ve read most of the talk,” he told Peter. “I admit the thing
has almost been talked to death. It begins to look as though the
general public is tired of reading about damming the Colorado. If that
were all there is to it, Peter, I’d never say a word. But there are some
facts we can’t get around with talk, or defiance. I came here to show
them to you—just plain, hard facts—and let you see for yourself what
they mean.
“In the first place—and this is probably the hardest fact you have
to face—the Colorado is an international stream. It flows through a
part of Mexico. The Constitution of the United States has decreed
that such rivers must at all times and in every particular be under the
control of the Federal Government. There are seven States
bordering this river, yet not one of them dare build a dam without the
consent and supervision of the government. Get that firmly planted in
your minds, folks.”
Young Jess turned his head an inch and slanted a look at Old
Jess. Old Jess crossed his legs, folded his arms and trotted one
rusty boot, waggling his beard while he chewed tobacco
complacently. No one could fail to read his mind, just then. He was
thinking that what seven States were afraid to do, he, Jess Cramer,
had dared. The joke was on the seven States, according to Old
Jess’s viewpoint.
“Arizona,” Rawley went on, after a minute of contemplating the
complete satisfaction of Old Jess, “Arizona wants water for irrigation.
One hundred and fifty thousand acres of desert land can be made
fertile with the water of the Colorado, properly diverted into a system
of canals.”
“They kin have the water,” the Vulture conceded benificently. “We
don’t want it. Glad to git rid of it. You kin tell ’em I said so.”
Young Jess laughed hoarsely.
“Sure. Glad to git it off’n our hands!”
“The State of Nevada wants power for her mines. The copper
interests are after a dam up the river here, so that they can resume
the output of copper. They want a smelter, operated by power from
the Colorado. Two million brake horse-power of electric energy is
slipping past your door, worse than wasted.
“California wants more power for her industries—”
“She’s welcome,” Old Jess stated smugly. “We ain’t hoggin’ no
electric energy ’t I know of.”
“You are, if you interfere with the building of a dam of sufficient
size and strength to conserve that power.”
Young Jess leaned forward, grinning impudently into Rawley’s
face.
“Hell! There’s thousands uh miles up river that we ain’t doin’ a
thing to. They kin build dams from here to Denver, fer all we care!
That’s all poppycock, our interferin’. Everybody with ten cents in his
pocket is talkin’ about buildin’ a dam in the Colorado. Why the hell
don’t they go ahead and do it? We ain’t stoppin’ nobody!”
“You may be, without knowing it,” Rawley explained patiently,
determined to educate them beyond their single-track idea, if
possible. “I see how it looks to you, of course. But I’ll explain how it
looks to the greatest engineers in the country, Jess. You remember I
was rather keen for it, myself. It was out of my line, and I didn’t know.
“Now the fact is, you are attempting, with a certain amount of rock
blown into the river from the sides, to dam a river second only to the
Mississippi.
“I know, the Missouri is wider, but I am speaking now of the
volume of water that passes through this canyon right here. It is a
swift river, and it is a deep river. You don’t realize, any of you, just
how deep and how swift it is, though you have lived beside it all your
lives.
“Peter has spoken of the amount of money they are talking of
spending to build a dam at Boulder Canyon, up here. The canyon
there is as narrow as this; perhaps narrower. And to hold back the
tremendous volume of water that flows past your door, engineers
have said that they must go down one hundred and fifty feet, to bed
rock, and start there to build their dam. They say that the dam will—
must—to hold back the terrific pressure of water, rise something like
six hundred feet above low-water mark. It will keep several thousand
men working for eight or ten years to complete the dam, its spillways