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Fundamentals of 10/e
Thermodynamics
Claus Borgnakke
Richard E. Sonntag
University of Michigan
VP AND EDITORIAL DIRECTOR Laurie Rosatone
SENIOR DIRECTOR Don Fowley
ACQUISITIONS EDITOR Linda Ratts
EDITORIAL MANAGER Judy Howarth
CONTENT MANAGEMENT DIRECTOR Lisa Wojcik
CONTENT MANAGER Nichole Urban
SENIOR CONTENT SPECIALIST Nicole Repasky
PRODUCTION EDITOR Ameer Basha
PHOTO RESEARCHER Mike Cullen
COVER PHOTO CREDIT © Dr. Hong Im
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ISBN: 978-1-119-49524-6 (PBK)

ISBN: 978-1-119-49521-5 (EVAL)
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Borgnakke, C. (Claus), author. | Sonntag, Richard Edwin, author.

Title: Fundamentals of thermodynamics / Claus Borgnakke, Richard E. Sonntag
(University of Michigan).
Description: 10e [Tenth edition]. | Hoboken : Wiley, [2019] | Includes
bibliographical references and index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2018052418 (print) | LCCN 2018053073 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119495178 (Adobe PDF) | ISBN 9781119494966 (ePub) | ISBN 9781119495246
(pbk.)
Subjects: LCSH: Thermodynamics. | Thermodynamics—Textbooks.
Classification: LCC TJ265 (ebook) | LCC TJ265 .S66 2019 (print) | DDC
621.402/1—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018052418
The inside back cover will contain printing identification and country of origin if omitted from this page. In
addition, if the ISBN on the back cover differs from the ISBN on this page, the one on the back cover is correct.
Preface
In this tenth edition the basic objective of the earlier editions have been retained:
• to present a comprehensive and rigorous treatment of classical thermodynamics
while retaining an engineering perspective, and in doing so
• to lay the groundwork for subsequent studies in such fields as fluid mechanics, heat
transfer, and statistical thermodynamics, and also
• to prepare the student to effectively use thermodynamics in the practice of engi-
neering.
The presentation is deliberately directed to students. New concepts and definitions

are presented in the context where they are first relevant in a natural progression. The intro-
duction has been reorganized with a very short introduction followed by the first thermo-
dynamic properties to be defined (Chapter 1) which are those that can be readily measured:
pressure, specific volume, and temperature. In Chapter 2, tables of thermodynamic proper-
ties are introduced, but only in regard to these measurable properties. Internal energy and
enthalpy are introduced in connection with the energy equation and the first law, entropy
with the second law, and the Helmholtz and Gibbs functions in the chapter on thermody-
namic relations. Many real world realistic examples and contemporary topics have been
included in the book to assist the student in gaining an understanding of thermodynamics,
and the problems at the end of each chapter have been carefully sequenced to correlate
with the subject matter, and are grouped and identified as such. The early chapters in par-
ticular contain a large number of examples, illustrations and problems, and throughout the
book, chapter-end summaries are included, followed by a set of concept/study problems
that should be of benefit to the students.
NEW FEATURES AND OVERALL BOOK

ORGANIZATION
The tenth edition completes the transition to the e-book format that was started with the
ninth edition. This includes a fully searchable text, select interactivity, and convenient direct
access to supplemental material. The primary interactive element is the set of new student
practice problems for which students can reveal the solutions with a simple click or tap.
These problems expand the examples beyond those in the main chapter text and allows stu-
dents to immediately test their knowledge. The digital format also enables students to access
supplemental notes and files directly from the text. (Supplemental materials also are avail-
able from the companion web site: www.wiley.com/go/borgnakke/FundofThermo10e.)
iii
.............. iv PREFACE ....................................................... .........................................................................................................
The e-book organization includes:
• Problems, including both student practice problems with the solution as a drop
down selection together with regular homework problems
• Chapter summary and skill sets includes a new student study guide table
• The main expository text ends with a concept list and equations for each chapter
• Additional study resources, such as extra student problems and how-to notes
• Links to appendices and other reference tables
The e-book also is available bundled with an abridged print companion that includes
the main expository text for Chapters 1-10 and the appendices. Problems are not included
in the print companion.
Chapter Reorganization and Revisions

The majority of the changes for the tenth edition have been to shorten some of the presenta-
tions and to reduce the amount of mathematical derivations of the theory. Material including
derivations that contribute to the understanding of the subject have been left in the text.
Many of the examples have been shortened and they include the units and their conversions
without being too repetitive in the presentation keeping the dublication of some examples
to show the use of english units. The application sections in the end of the chapters have
been expanded somewhat to emphasize the real world examples of devices and processes
for which this subject is important in their analysis and design.
Chapters 1 still contains the most important concepts from physics and the concepts of
the thermodynamic properties that describes the condition of the substance that is included
in the analysis. To have the tools for the analysis the order of the presentation has been kept
from the previous editions so the behavior of pure substances is presented in chapter 2 with
a slight expansion and separation of the different domains for solid, liquid and gas phase
behavior. Though the introduction of the property program CATT3 has been left out the
program is still available from Wiley’s web-site that is related to this book.
Chapter 3 contains the first major change namely to include a description of the
energy resources we consume and the typical energy conversions that are used in mod-
ern societies. Together with the mentioning of renewable energy resources and the end use
of energy it provides a better background for all the subsequent processes and details that
we study. A short description of energy storage systems and some of the energy transfer
processes devices are also presented accompanied by small tables with typical numbers
for such devices. Students typically have only vague ideas about the size of many of the
devices and processes we study. This material is covered under applications in chapter 3
after the introduction of the energy equation. The following chapters deals with analysis
of processes and devices which relates to this and also include a special section of the
homework problems where approbriate. By highlighting this material early it can serve as
a motivating factor to study the subsequent material where the use and need for the theory
becomes evident. Suggested homework that can be included in assignments for this cate-
gory are also available on Wiley’s website for the book for those that desire to emphasize
the energy conversion and conservation subjects.
The balance equations for mass, momentum, energy and entropy follow the same
format to show the uniformity in the basic principles and make the concept something to
be understood and not merely memorized. This is also the reason to use the name energy
............................................................................................................................... .....................................
PREFACE v .............
equation and entropy equation for the first and second law of thermodynamics to stress
they are universally valid not just used in the field of thermodynamics but apply to all
situations and fields of study with no exceptions. Clearly, special cases requires extensions
not covered in this text, but a few of these have been added in Chapter 12 together with the
thermodynamic property relations.
The energy equation applied to a general control volme is retained from the previous
edition that included a section with multi-flow devices. Again this is done to reinforce to
students that the analysis is done by applying the basic principles to systems under investi-
gation. This means the actual mathematical form of the general laws follows the sketches
and figures of the system and the analysis is not a question about finding a suitable formula
in the text. A small table is added in the end to give students some sense of the relative
magnitude of flow devices in terms of the energy transfer per unit mass.
The historical development of the second law of thermodynamics in chapter 5 has
been expanded to include the in-equality of Clausius. This chapter then includes all the his-
torical statements of the second law so chapter 6 exclusively deals with the entropy equation.
To show the generality of the entropy equation a small example is written up applying the
energy and entropy equations to heat engines and heat pumps so it can be demonstrated that
the historical presentation of the second law in Chapter 5 can be completely substituted with
the postulation of the entropy equation and the existence of the absolute temperature scale.
Carnot cycle efficiencies and the fact that real devices have lower efficiency follows from
the basic general laws. Also the direction of heat transfer from a higher temperature domain
towards a lower temperature domain is predicted by the entropy equation due to the require-
ment of a positive entropy generation. These are examples that practice the application of
the general laws for specific cases and improves the students understanding of the material.
The application section in chapter 7 has been expanded a little to include some
description of intercoolers and reheaters as a mean of energy conservation and efficiency
improvements. The device efficiencies is also placed here as an application of the entropy
equation and this whole section has about 30 homwork problems associated with it. The
general summary of the control volume analysis has been removed and will be available
on-line from Wiley website.
Exergy in chapter 8 has been shortened a little to reduce the mathematical manipu-
lation of the equations and a small application section with the second law efficiency for
cycles have been added to illustrate an important aspect of its use. A more detailed discus-
sion of this is now included as a separate section in Chapter 9.
The chapters with cycles are expanded with a few details for specific cycles and some
extensions shown to tie the theory to industrial applications with real systems. The expres-
sion for cycle efficiency is now included for the Stirling, Atkinson and Miller cycles to
show that they all are related to compression and expansion ratios.
The property relations in chapter 12 has been updated to include effects of dilution
and fugacity for mixtures and as a special application the effect of a surface tension is
included under engineering applications. This revision has also removed the older method
for development of thermodynamic tables and now only inlcudes the Helmholtz function
based development.
Web-Based Material
Although most of the supplemental material for this edition of the book is accessible directly
or by links from the e-book, several documents also are available from Wiley’s web site for
the book. The following material will be accessible for students through links to the book
.............. vi PREFACE ....................................................... .........................................................................................................
companion site and additional material reserved for instructors of the course will also by at
Wiley’s book companion site.
Notes for classical thermodynamics. A very short set of notes covers the basic ther-
modynamic analysis with the general laws (continuity, energy and entropy equations) and
some of the specific laws like device equations, process equations, etc. This is useful for
students doing review of the course or for exam preparation as it gives a comprehensive
presentation in a condensed form.
General Control Volume Analysis. This is the short step by step procedure that was at
the end of chapter 7 in the eighth edition.
Extended set of study examples. This document includes a updated collection of addi-
tional examples for students to study. These examples are written slightly longer and more
detailed in the solution than the examples printed in the book and thus are excellent for
self-study. There are about 8 SI unit problems with 3-4 english unit problems for each
chapter covering most of the material in the chapters.
How-to-notes. Frequently asked questions are listed for each of the set of subject areas
in the book with detailed answers. These are questions that are difficult to have room for in
the book. Examples:
How do I find a certain state for R-410A in the B-section tables?

How do I make a linear interpolation?
Should I use internal energy (u) or enthalpy (h) in the energy equation?
When can I use ideal gas law?
Instructor material. A set of powerpoint lecture slides are available. These also include
repeat copies of some book examples with specific heat done with the ideal gas tables and
visa versa. Additional english unit examples are also listed as copies of the SI unit prob-
lems and modified if needed due to the tables. Other material for instructors covers typical
syllabus and homework assignments for a first and a second course in thermodynamics.
Additionally examples of 2 standard 1 hour midterm exams, and a 2 hour final exam are
given for typical Thermodynamics I and Thermodynamics II classes.
FEATURES CONTINUED FROM 9TH EDITION

In-Text-Concept Question
The in-text concept questions appear in the text after major sections of material to allow
student to reflect over the material just presented. These questions are intended to be quick
self tests for students or used by teachers as wrap up checks for each of the subjects covered
and most of these are emphasizing the understanding of the material without being memory
facts.
End-of-Chapter Engineering Applications

The last section in each chapter, called engineering applications, have been revised with
updated illustrations and a few more examples. These sections are intended to be motivating
material mostly informative examples of how this particular chapter material is being used
in actual engineering.
PREFACE vii .............
............................................................................................................................... .....................................
End-of-Chapter Summaries with Main Concepts and Formulas

The end-of-chapter summaries provide a review of the main concepts covered in the chapter,
with highlighted key words are now located as suplemental material directly accessible
from the e-book. The only part still with the chapter material is an expanded listing of
the key concepts and the formulas including equation numbers. The list of skills that the
student should have mastered after studying the chapter is presented together with a table
of detailed references to examples, equations and homework problems for each specific
skill. These main concepts and formulas are included after the summary for reference and
a collection of these will be accessible through the links to the book companion site. The
main summary of the general control volume analysis has been removed from chapter 7
and placed together with the online material.
Concept-Study Guide Problems

Additional concept questions are placed as problems in the first section of the end of chapter
homework problems. These problems are similar to the in-text concept questions and serve
as study guide problems for each chapter they are a little more like homework problems with
numbers to provide a quick check of the chapter material. These are selected to be short
and directed toward a very specific concept. A student can answer all of these questions to
assess their level of understanding, and determine if any of the subjects need to be studied
further. These problems are also suitable to use together with the rest of the homework
problems in assignments and included in the solution manual.
Homework Problems
The number of homework problems has been significantly reduced but still contains intro-
ductory problems over all aspects of the chapter material and listed according to the subject
sections for easy selection according to the particular coverage given and they are generally
ordered to be progressive more complex and involved. Later problems in many sections are
related to real industrial processes and devices and lebeled under applications or energy
conservation with more comprehensive problems retained and grouped as review prob-
lems. The more comprehensive and lengthy problems have been removed to conserve space.
New and modified problems are reserved for instructors and available from Wileys
website for the book.
Tables
The tables of the substances have been carried over from the 8th edition with alternative
refrigerant R-410A which is the replacement for R-22 and carbon dioxide which is a
natural refrigerant. Several more substances are included in the software.
FLEXIBILITY IN COVERAGE AND SCOPE

The book attempts to cover fairly comprehensively the basic subject matter of classical
thermodynamics, and I believe that the book provides adequate preparation for study of
the application of thermodynamics to the various professional fields as well as for study of
more advanced topics in thermodynamics, such as those related to materials, surface phe-
nomena, plasmas, and cryogenics. I also recognize that a number of colleges offer a single
introductory course in thermodynamics for all departments, and have tried to cover those
.............. viii PREFACE ....................................................... .........................................................................................................
topics that the various departments might wish to have included in such a course. However,
since specific courses vary considerably in prerequisites, specific objectives, duration, and
background of the students, the material is arranged in sections, particularly in the later
chapters, so considerable flexibility exist in the amount of material that may be covered.
The book covers more material than required for a two-semester course sequence,
which provides flexibility for specific choices of topic coverage. Instructors may want to
visit the publisher’s Website at www.wiley.com/go/borgnakke/FundofThermo10e for infor-
mation and suggestions on possible course structure and schedules, and the additional
material mentioned as Web-material which will be updated to include current errata for
the book.
Flexibility with HW simple and extended problems to satisfy depth and time require-
ments Examples of this are constant specific heat question extended to be with variable
specific heats (gas tables), a piston cylinder includes the metal mass besides the contained
mass, some problems are also in english units. Many problems from earlier chapters are
repeated when entropy is added to the analysis.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I acknowledge with appreciation the suggestions, counsel, and encouragement of many
colleagues, both at the University of Michigan and elsewhere. This assistance has been
very helpful to me during the writing of this edition, as it was with the earlier editions of
the book. Both undergraduate and graduate students have been of particular assistance, for
their perceptive questions have often caused me to rewrite or rethink a given portion of the
text, or to try to develop a better way of presenting the material in order to anticipate such
questions or difficulties. Finally, the encouragement and patience of my wife and family
have been indispensable, and have made this time of writing pleasant and enjoyable, in
spite of the pressures of the project. A special thanks to a number of colleagues at other
institutions who have reviewed the earlier editions of the book and provided input to the
revisions. Some of the reviewers are
Ruhul Amin, Montana State University

Edward E. Anderson, Texas Tech. University
Cory Berkland, University of Kansas
Eugene Brown, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Sung Kwon Cho, University of Pittsburgh
Sarah Codd, Montana State University
Ram Devireddy, Louisiana State University
Fokion Egolfopoulos, University of Southern California
Harry Hardee, New Mexico State University
Hong Huang, Wright State University
Satish Ketkar, Wayne State University
Boris Khusid, New Jersey Institute of Technology
Joseph F. Kmec, Purdue University
Roy W. Knight, Auburn University
Daniela Mainardi, Louisiana Tech University
Randall Manteufel, University of Texas, San Antonio
Joseph Powers, Notre Dame University
Harry J. Sauer, Jr., Missouri University of Science and Technology
............................................................................................................................... .....................................
PREFACE ix .............
J.A. Sekhar, University of Cincinnati

Ahned Soliman, University of Noth Carolina, Charlotte
Reza Toossi, California State University, Long Beach
Thomas Twardowski, Widener University
Etim U. Ubong, Kettering University
Yanhua Wu, Wright State University
Walter Yuen, University of California at Santa Barbara
I also wish to thank the editor Chris Nelson for the encouragement and help during the
production of this edition.
I hope that this book will contribute to the effective teaching of thermodynamics to
students who face very significant challenges and opportunities during their professional
careers. Your comments, criticism, and suggestions will also be appreciated and you may
communicate those to me at claus@umich.edu.
Claus Borgnakke
Ann Arbor, Michigan
October 2018
Contents
1 Introduction and Preliminaries 1

1.1 A Thermodynamic System and the Control Volume, 2
1.2 Macroscopic Versus Microscopic Points of View, 5
1.3 Properties and State of a Substance, 6
1.4 Processes and Cycles, 6
1.5 Units for Mass, Length, Time, and Force, 7
1.6 Specific Volume and Density, 10
1.7 Pressure, 13
1.8 Energy, 20
1.9 Equality of Temperature, 22
1.10 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics, 22
1.11 Temperature Scales, 23
1.12 Engineering Applications, 24
2 Properties of a Pure Substance 29

2.1 The Pure Substance, 30
2.2 The Phase Boundaries, 30
2.3 The P–v–T Surface, 34
2.4 Tables of Thermodynamic Properties, 36
2.5 The Two-Phase States, 39
2.6 The Liquid and Solid States, 41
2.7 The Superheated Vapor States, 43
2.8 The Ideal Gas States, 46
2.9 The Compressibility Factor, 49
2.10 Equations of State, 54
3 Energy Equation and First Law of

Thermodynamics 58
3.1 The Energy Equation, 58
3.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics, 61
3.3 The Definition of Work, 62
3.4 Work Done at the Moving Boundary of a Simple Compressible
System, 67
3.5 Definition of Heat, 75
xi
.............. xii ....................................................... .........................................................................................................
CONTENTS
3.6 Heat Transfer Modes, 76

3.7 Internal Energy—A Thermodynamic Property, 78
3.8 Problem Analysis and Solution Technique, 80
3.9 The Thermodynamic Property Enthalpy, 86
3.10 The Constant-Volume and Constant-Pressure Specific Heats, 89
3.11 The Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific Heat of Ideal
Gases, 90
3.12 Nonuniform Distribution of States and Mass, 97
3.13 The Transient Process, 98
3.14 General Systems that Involve Work, 100
4 Energy Analysis for a Control Volume 111

4.1 Conservation of Mass and the Control Volume, 111
4.2 The Energy Equation for a Control Volume, 114
4.3 The Steady-State Process, 116
4.4 Examples of Steady-State Processes, 118
4.5 Multiple-Flow Devices, 129
4.6 The Transient Flow Process, 131
5 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 143

5.1 Heat Engines and Refrigerators, 143
5.2 The Second Law of Thermodynamics, 149
5.3 The Reversible Process, 151
5.4 Factors that Render Processes Irreversible, 153
5.5 The Carnot Cycle, 156
5.6 Two Propositions Regarding the Efficiency of a Carnot Cycle, 157
5.7 The Thermodynamic Temperature Scale, 159
5.8 The Ideal Gas Temperature Scale, 159
5.9 Ideal Versus Real Machines, 161
5.10 The Inequality of Clausius, 165
6 Entropy 173
6.1 Entropy—A Property of a System, 173
6.2 The Entropy of a Pure Substance, 175
6.3 Entropy Change in Reversible Processes, 177
6.4 The Thermodynamic Property Relation, 181
6.5 Entropy Change of a Solid or Liquid, 182
6.6 Entropy Change of an Ideal Gas, 183
6.7 The Reversible Polytropic Process for an Ideal Gas, 187
6.8 Entropy Change of a Control Mass During an Irreversible
Process, 191
6.9 Entropy Generation and the Entropy Equation, 192
6.10 Principle of the Increase of Entropy, 194
CONTENTS xiii .............
............................................................................................................................... .....................................
6.11 Entropy as a Rate Equation, 197

6.12 Some General Comments About Entropy and Chaos, 202
7 Entropy Analysis for a Control Volume 206

7.1 The Entropy Equation for a Control Volume, 206
7.2 The Steady-State Process and the Transient Process, 207
7.3 The Steady-State Single-Flow Process, 216
7.4 Principle of The Increase of Entropy, 220
7.5 Engineering Applications; Energy Conservation and Device
Efficiency, 224
8 Exergy 231
8.1 Exergy, Reversible Work, and Irreversibility, 231
8.2 Exergy and Its Balance Equation, 243
8.3 The Second Law Efficiency, 248
9 Power and Refrigeration Systems—With Phase

Change 256
9.1 Introduction to Power Systems, 257
9.2 The Rankine Cycle, 258
9.3 Effect of Pressure and Temperature on the Rankine Cycle, 261
9.4 The Reheat Cycle, 265
9.5 The Regenerative Cycle and Feedwater Heaters, 266
9.6 Deviation of Actual Cycles from Ideal Cycles, 272
9.7 Combined Heat and Power: Other Configurations, 276
9.8 Introduction to Refrigeration Systems, 278
9.9 The Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle, 279
9.10 Working Fluids for Vapor-Compression Refrigeration
Systems, 282
9.11 Deviation of the Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
from the Ideal Cycle, 283
9.12 Refrigeration Cycle Configurations, 284
9.13 The Absorption Refrigeration Cycle, 287
9.14 Exergy Analysis of Cycles, 288
10 Power and Refrigeration Systems—Gaseous

Working Fluids 293
10.1 Air-Standard Power Cycles, 293
10.2 The Brayton Cycle, 294
10.3 The Simple Gas-Turbine Cycle with a Regenerator, 300
10.4 Gas-Turbine Power Cycle Configurations, 302
10.5 The Air-Standard Cycle for Jet Propulsion, 306
10.6 The Air-Standard Refrigeration Cycle, 309
.............. xiv ....................................................... .........................................................................................................
CONTENTS
10.7 Reciprocating Engine Power Cycles, 312

10.8 The Otto Cycle, 314
10.9 The Diesel Cycle, 317
10.10 The Stirling Cycle, 320
10.11 The Atkinson and Miller Cycles, 321
10.12 Combined-Cycle Power and Refrigeration Systems, 324
Summary Objectives (Available in e-text for

students) S-1
Study guide and Chapter Study Resources

(Available in e-text for students) R-1
Chapters 11–15 (Available in e-text for

students) W-1
Problems (Available in e-text for students) P-1
Contents of Appendix A-1

Appendix A SI Units: Single-State Properties A-3
Appendix B SI Units: Thermodynamic Tables A-23
Appendix C Ideal Gas Specific Heat A-73
Appendix D Equations of State A-75
Appendix E Figures A-80
Appendix F English Unit Tables A-85
Index I-1
Symbols
a acceleration
A area
a, A specific Helmholtz function and total Helmholtz function
AF air-fuel ratio
BS adiabatic bulk modulus
BT isothermal bulk modulus
c velocity of sound
c mass fraction
CD coefficient of discharge
Cp constant-pressure specific heat
Cv constant-volume specific heat
Cpo zero-pressure constant-pressure specific heat
Cvo zero-pressure constant-volume specific heat
COP coefficient of performance
CR compression ratio
e, E specific energy and total energy
EMF electromotive force, electrical potential, volt
ER expansion ratio
f fugacity, pseudo pressure
F Faradays constant
F force, also tension
FA fuel-air ratio
g acceleration due to gravity
g, G specific Gibbs function and total Gibbs function
h, H specific enthalpy and total enthalpy
HR, HP enthalpy of reactants and enthalpy of products
HV heating value
i electrical current
i, I specifc and total irreversibility
k conductivity /
k specific heat ratio: Cp Cv
K equilibrium constant
ke, KE specific and total kinetic energy
L length
m mass
ṁ mass flow rate
M molecular mass
M Mach number
n number of moles
xv
.............. xvi SYMBOLS....................................................... .........................................................................................................
n polytropic exponent
P pressure
Pi partial pressure of component i in a mixture
pe, PE specific and total potential energy
Pr reduced pressure P/Pc
Pr relative pressure as used in gas tables
q, Q heat transfer per unit mass and total heat transfer
Q̇ rate of heat transfer
QH , QL heat transfer with high-temperature body and heat transfer with
low-temperature body; sign determined from context
R gas constant
R universal gas constant
s, S specific entropy and total entropy
Sgen entropy generation
Ṡ gen rate of entropy generation
t time
T temperature
Tr reduced temperature T/Tc
u, U specific internal energy and total internal energy
v, V specific volume and total volume
vr relative specific volume as used in gas tables
V velocity
w, W work per unit mass and total work
Ẇ rate of work, power
wrev specific reversible work between two states
x quality
y gas-phase mole fraction
y extraction fraction
Z elevation
Z compressibility factor
Z electrical charge
Greek Letters 𝛼 residual volume

𝛼 dimensionless Helmholtz function a/RT
𝛼p volume expansivity
𝛽 coefficient of performance for a refrigerator
′
𝛽 coefficient of performance for a heat pump
𝛽S adiabatic compressibility
𝛽T isothermal compressibility
/
𝛿 dimensionless density 𝜌 𝜌c
𝜂 efficiency
𝜇 chemical potential
𝜈 stoichiometric coefficient
𝜌 density
𝜎 surface tension (F/L), surface energy (E/A)
𝜎 Stefan-Boltzman constant /
𝜏 dimensionless temperature variable Tc T
𝜏0 dimensionless temperature variable 1 − Tr
SYMBOLS xvii .............
............................................................................................................................... .....................................
Φ equivalence ratio
𝜙 relative humidity
𝜙, Φ exergy or availability for a control mass
𝜓 specific exergy, flow availability
𝜔 humidity ratio or specific humidity
𝜔 acentric factor
Subscripts c property at the critical point

c.v. control volume
e state of a substance leaving a control volume
f formation
f property of saturated liquid
fg difference in property for saturated vapor and saturated liquid
g property of saturated vapor
i state of a substance entering a control volume
i property of saturated solid
if difference in property for saturated liquid and saturated solid
ig difference in property for saturated vapor and saturated solid
r reduced property
s isentropic process
0 property of the surroundings
0 stagnation property
Superscripts –— bar over symbol denotes property on a molal basis (over V, H, S, U, A, G, the
bar denotes partial molal property)
∘ property at standard-state condition
* ideal gas
* property at the throat of a nozzle
irr irreversible
r real gas part
rev reversible
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CHAPTER 1 PROBLEMS
Student solution available in interactive e-text.
CONCEPT-STUDY GUIDE PROBLEMS

1.1 Separate the list P, F, V, v, 𝜌, T, a, m, L, t, and V into ground. Is the pressure below it just as evenly dis-
intensive properties, extensive properties, and non- tributed?
properties. 1.10 If something floats in water, what does it say about
1.2 A tray of liquid water is placed in a freezer where it its density?
cools from 20 to −5∘ C. Show the energy flow(s) and 1.11 Two divers swim at a depth of 20 m. One of them
storage and explain what changes.
swims directly under a supertanker; the other avoids
1.3 The overall density of fibers, rock wool insulation, the tanker. Who feels a greater pressure?
foams, and cotton is fairly low. Why?
1.12 An operating room has a positive gage pressure,
1.4 Is density a unique measure of mass distribution in whereas an engine test cell has a vacuum; why is that?
a volume? Does it vary? If so, on what kind of scale
(distance)? 1.13 A water skier does not sink too far down in the water
k if the speed is high enough. What makes that situation k
1.5 Water in nature exists in three different phases: solid,
different from our static pressure calculations?
liquid, and vapor (gas). Indicate the relative magni-
tude of density and the specific volume for the three 1.14 What is the lowest temperature in degrees Celsius?
phases. In degrees Kelvin?
1.6 What is the approximate mass of 1 L of gasoline? Of 1.15 How cold can it be on Earth and in empty space?
helium in a balloon at T0 , P0 ? 1.16 A thermometer that indicates the temperature with
1.7 Can you carry 1 m3 of liquid water? a liquid column has a bulb with a larger volume of
1.8 A heavy refrigerator has four height-adjustable feet. liquid. Why?
What feature of the feet will ensure that they do not 1.17 How can you illustrate the binding energy between
make dents in the floor? the three atoms in water as they sit in a triatomic water
1.9 A swimming pool has an evenly distributed pressure molecule. Hint: imagine what must happen to create
at the bottom. Consider a stiff steel plate lying on the three separate atoms.
HOMEWORK PROBLEMS
Properties, Units, and Force of the system. List two extensive and three intensive
properties of the water.
1.18 One kilopond (1 kp) is the weight of 1 kg in the stan-
dard gravitational field. What is the weight of 1 kg in 1.21 The Rover Explorer has a mass of 185 kg, how
newtons (N)? much does this weigh on the Moon (g = gstd /6) and
on Mars where g = 3.75 m/s2 .
1.19 A stainless steel storage tank contains 5 kg of car-
bon dioxide gas and 7 kg of argon gas. How many 1.22 A 1700 kg car moving at 80 km/h is decelerated at
kmoles are in the tank? a constant rate of 4 m/s2 to a speed of 20 km/h. What
are the force and total time required?
1.20 A steel cylinder of mass 4 kg contains 4 L of water
at 25∘ C at 100 kPa. Find the total mass and volume
P-1
k
k
1.23 The elevator in a hotel has a mass of 750 kg, and holding the massless piston up as the piston lower side
it carries six people with a total mass of 450 kg. How has P0 besides the force.
much force should the cable pull up with to have an 1.31 A hydraulic lift has a maximum fluid pressure of
acceleration of 1 m/s2 in the upward direction? 500 kPa. What should the piston/cylinder diameter be
1.24 One of the people in the previous problem weighs in order to lift a mass of 850 kg?
80 kg standing still. How much weight does this per- 1.32 Ahydraulic cylinder has a 125-mm diameter piston
son feel when the elevator starts moving? with an ambient pressure of 1 bar. Assuming standard
gravity, find the total mass this piston can lift if the
Specific Volume inside hydraulic fluid pressure is 2500 kPa.
1.25 A 1-m3 container is filled with 400 kg of granite 1.33 A 75-kg human total footprint is 0.05 m2 when the
stone, 200 kg of dry sand, and 0.2 m3 of liquid 25∘ C human is wearing boots. Suppose that you want to
water. Using properties from Tables A.3 and A.4, find walk on snow that can at most support an extra 3 kPa;
the average specific volume and density of the masses what should the total snowshoe area be?
when you exclude air mass and volume. 1.34 A piston/cylinder with a cross-sectional area of
1.26 A power plant that separates carbon dioxide from 0.01 m2 has a piston mass of 65 kg plus a force of
the exhaust gases compresses it to a density of 800 N resting on the stops, as shown in Fig. P1.34.
110 kg/m3 and stores it in an unminable coal seam With an outside atmospheric pressure of 101 kPa, what
with a porous volume of 100 000 m3 . Find the mass should the water pressure be to lift the piston?
that can be stored.
1.27 A 5-m3 container is filled with 900 kg of granite F
(density of 2400 kg/m3 ). The rest of the volume is air, P0
g
k with density equal to 1.15 kg/m3 . Find the mass of air k
and the overall (average) specific volume.
Pressure Water
1.28 A 5000-kg elephant has a cross-sectional area of

0.02 m2 on each foot. Assuming an even distribution, Figure P1.34
what is the pressure under its feet?
1.29 A valve in the cylinder shown in Fig. P1.29 has 1.35 A 2.5-m-tall steel cylinder has a cross-sectional area
a cross-sectional area of 11 cm2 with a pressure of of 1.5 m2 . At the bottom, with a height of 0.5 m, is
735 kPa inside the cylinder and 99 kPa outside. How liquid water, on top of which is a 1-m-high layer of
large a force is needed to open the valve? engine oil. This is shown in Fig. P1.35. The oil sur-
face is exposed to atmospheric air at 101 kPa. What is
the highest pressure in the water?
Poutside
P0
Air
A valve
Pcyl 1m Engine oil

2.5 m
Figure P1.29
0.5 m H2O
1.30 The piston cylinder in Fig. P1.29 has a diameter

of 10 cm, inside pressure 735 kPa. What is the force Figure P1.35
P-2
k
k
1.36 An underwater buoy is anchored at the seabed with 1.44 The density of atmospheric air is about 1.15 kg/m3 ,
a cable, and it contains a total mass of 250 kg. What which we assume is constant. How large an absolute
should the volume be so that the cable holds it down pressure will a pilot encounter when flying 2000 m
with a force of 1000 N? above ground level, where the pressure is 101 kPa?
1.37 A floating oil rig is anchored in the seabed with 1.45 A barometer to measure absolute pressure shows a
cables giving a net pull of 10 000 kN down. How large mercury column height of 735 mm. The temperature is
a water displacement volume does that lead to? such that the density of the mercury is 13 550 kg/m3 .
1.38 At the beach, atmospheric pressure is 1025 mbar. Find the ambient pressure.
You dive 15 m down in the ocean, and you later climb 1.46 A differential pressure gauge mounted on a vessel
a hill up to 450 m in elevation. Assume that the density shows 1.25 MPa, and a local barometer gives atmo-
of water is about 1000 kg/m3 , and the density of air is spheric pressure as 0.96 bar. Find the absolute pressure
1.18 kg/m3 . What pressure do you feel at each place? inside the vessel.
1.39 A steel tank of cross-sectional area 3 m2 and height 1.47 What pressure difference does a 100-m column of
16 m weighs 10 000 kg and is open at the top, as shown atmospheric air show?
in Fig. P1.39. We want to float it in the ocean so that it 1.48 A barometer measures 760 mm Hg at street level
is positioned 10 m straight down by pouring concrete and 745 mm Hg on top of a building. How tall is the
into its bottom. How much concrete should we use? building if we assume air density of 1.15 kg/m3 ?
1.49 An exploration submarine should be able to descend
1200 m down in the ocean. If the ocean density is
Air 1020 kg/m3 , what is the maximum pressure on the
submarine hull?
k 1.50 The absolute pressure in a tank is 115 kPa and the k
Ocean local ambient absolute pressure is 102 kPa. If a U-tube
10 m
Concrete
with mercury (density = 13 550 kg/m3 ) is attached to
the tank to measure the gauge pressure, what column
height difference will it show?
Figure P1.39 1.51 An absolute pressure gauge attached to a steel cylin-
der shows 135 kPa. We want to attach a manometer
1.40 A piston, mp = 5 kg, is fitted in a cylinder, A = 15 using liquid water on a day that Patm = 101 kPa. How
cm2 , that contains a gas. The setup is in a centrifuge high a fluid level difference must we plan for?
that creates an acceleration of 25 m/s2 in the direction 1.52 A pipe flowing light oil has a manometer attached,
of piston motion toward the gas. Assuming standard as shown in Fig. P1.52. What is the absolute pressure
atmospheric pressure outside the cylinder, find the gas in the pipe flow?
pressure.
1.41 A container ship is 240 m long and 22 m wide. P0 = 101 kPa
Assume that the shape is like a rectangular box. How
much mass does the ship carry as load if it is 10 m
down in the water and the mass of the ship itself is
0.7 m
30 000 tonnes?
Oil
0.3 m
Manometers and Barometers Water
0.1 m
1.42 A probe is lowered 16 m into a lake. Find the abso-
lute pressure there. Figure P1.52
1.43 A person, 75 kg, wants to fly (hoover) on a 2 kg
skateboard of size 0.6 m by 0.25 m. How large a gauge 1.53 The difference in height between the columns of
pressure under the board is needed? a manometer is 200 mm, with a fluid of density
P-3
k
k
900 kg/m3 . What is the pressure difference? What is pressure difference between the two holes flush with
the height difference if the same pressure difference is the bottom of the channel. You cannot neglect the two
measured using mercury (density = 13 600 kg/m3 ) as unequal water columns.
manometer fluid? 1.61 A dam retains a lake 6 m deep, as shown in Fig.
1.54 A piece of experimental apparatus, Fig. P1.54, is P1.61. To construct a gate in the dam, we need to know
located where g = 9.5 m/s2 and the temperature is 5∘ C. the net horizontal force on a 5-m-wide, 6-m-tall port
Air flow inside the apparatus is determined by mea-
section that then replaces a 5-m section of the dam.
suring the pressure drop across an orifice with a mer-
Find the net horizontal force from the water on one
cury manometer (density = 13 580 kg/m3 ) showing
a height difference of 200 mm. What is the pressure side and air on the other side of the port.
drop in kPa?
Lake
Air
6m
g Side view
Figure P1.54 Lake
k k
Energy and Temperature
1.55 A 0.25 m3 piece of softwood is lifted up to the top 5m
shelf in a storage bin that is 4 m above the ground
Top view
floor. How much increase in potential energy does the
wood get? Figure P1.61
1.56 A car of mass 1775 kg travels with a velocity of
100 km/h. Find the kinetic energy. How high should
the car be lifted in the standard gravitational field to 1.62 In the city water tower, water is pumped up to a level
have a potential energy that equals the kinetic energy? of 25 m above ground in a pressurized tank with air
1.57 What is a temperature of −5∘ C in degrees Kelvin? at 125 kPa over the water surface. This is illustrated
1.58 A mercury thermometer measures temperature by in Fig. P1.62. Assuming water density of 1000 kg/m3
measuring the volume expansion of a fixed mass of liq- and standard gravity, find the pressure required to
uid mercury due to a change in density as 𝜌Hg = 13 595 pump more water in at ground level.
− 2.5 T kg/m3 (T in Celsius). Find the relative change
(%) in volume for a change in temperature from 10 to
20∘ C.
1.59 The density of liquid water is 𝜌 = 1008 − T/2
(kg/m3 ) with T in ∘ C. If the temperature increases
10∘ C, how much deeper does a 1-m layer of water
become?
H
g
Review Problems
1.60 Repeat Problem 1.54 if the flow inside the apparatus
is liquid water (𝜌 = 1000 kg/m3 ) instead of air. Find the Figure P1.62
P-4
k
k
1.63 The main waterline into a tall building has a pres-

Top floor
sure of 600 kPa at 5-m elevation below ground level.
The building is shown in Fig. P1.63. How much extra
pressure does a pump need to add to ensure a water-
line pressure of 200 kPa at the top floor 150 m above-
ground? 150 m
Ground
5m
Water main
Pump
Figure P1.63
ENGLISH UNIT PROBLEMS

English Unit Concept Problems 1.74E A power plant that separates carbon dioxide from
1.64E A mass of 2 lbm has an acceleration of 5 ft/s2 . the exhaust gases compresses it to a density of
What is the needed force in lbf? 8 lbm/ft3 and stores it in an unminable coal seam with
k 1.65E How much mass is in 1 gal of gasoline? In helium
a porous volume of 3 500 000 ft3 . Find the mass that k
in a balloon at atmospheric P and T? can be stored.
1.66E Can you easily carry a 1-gal bar of solid gold? 1.75E The piston cylinder in Fig. P1.29 has a diameter of
4 in., inside pressure 100 psia. What forcemust hold
1.67E What is the temperature of −5 F in degrees Rank-
ine? the massless piston up as the piston lower side has P0
besides the force?
1.68E What is the lowest possible temperature in degrees
Fahrenheit? In degrees Rankine? 1.76E A laboratory room keeps a vacuum of 1 in. of
1.69E What is the relative magnitude of degree Rankine water due to the exhaust fan. What is the net force
to degree Kelvin? on a door of size 6 ft by 3 ft?
1.77E A person, 175 lbm, wants to fly (hoover) on a
4 lbm skateboard of size 2 ft by 0.8 ft. How large a
English Unit Problems
gauge pressure under the board is needed?
1.70E The Rover Explorer has a mass of 410 lbm, how 1.78E A floating oil rig is anchored in the seabed with
much does this “weigh” on the Moon (g = gstd /6) and
cables giving a net pull of 2 250 000 lbf down. How
on Mars where g = 12.3 ft/s2 .
large a water displacement volume does that lead to?
1.71E A 2500-lbm car moving at 25 mi/h is accelerated
1.79E A container ship is 790 ft long and 72 ft wide.
at a constant rate of 15 ft/s2 up to a speed of 50 mi/h.
What are the force and total time required? Assume the shape is like a rectangular box. How
much mass does the ship carry as load if it is 30 ft
1.72E An escalator brings four people with a total mass
down in the water and the mass of the ship itself is
of 600 lbm and a 1000-lbm cage up with an accelera-
tion of 3 ft/s2 . What is the needed force in the cable? 30 000 tons.
1.73E A car of mass 4000 lbm travels with a velocity of 1.80E A manometer shows a pressure difference of
60 mi/h. Find the kinetic energy. How high should the 3.5 in. of liquid mercury. Find ΔP in psi.
car be lifted in the standard gravitational field to have 1.81E What pressure difference does a 300-ft column of
a potential energy that equals the kinetic energy? atmospheric air show?
P-5
k
k
1.82E A piston/cylinder with a cross-sectional area of 1.84E A piston, mp = 10 lbm, is fitted in a cylinder,
0.1 ft2 has a piston mass of 100 lbm and a force of A = 2.5 in.2 , that contains a gas. The setup is in
180 lbf resting on the stops, as shown in Fig. P1.34. a centrifuge that creates an acceleration of 75 ft/s2 .
With an outside atmospheric pressure of 1 atm, what Assuming standard atmospheric pressure outside the
should the water pressure be to lift the piston? cylinder, find the gas pressure.
1.83E The main waterline into a tall building has a pres- 1.85E The human comfort zone is between 18 and 24∘ C.
sure of 90 psia at 16 ft elevation below ground level. What is the range in Fahrenheit?
How much extra pressure does a pump need to add to
ensure a waterline pressure of 30 psia at the top floor
450 ft above ground?
k k
P-6
k
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Summary Objectives
CHAPTER 1 We introduce a thermodynamic system as a control volume, which for a fixed mass is a
control mass. Such a system can be isolated, exchanging neither mass, momentum, nor
energy with its surroundings. A closed system versus an open system refers to the ability of
mass exchange with the surroundings. If properties for a substance change, the state changes
and a process occurs. When a substance has gone through several processes, returning to
the same initial state, it has completed a cycle.
Basic units for thermodynamic and physical properties are mentioned, and most are
covered in Table A.1. Thermodynamic properties such as density 𝜌, specific volume v,
pressure P, and temperature T are introduced together with units for these properties. Prop-
erties are classified as intensive, independent of mass (like v), or extensive, proportional to
mass (like V). Students should already be familiar with other concepts from physics such as
force F, velocity V, and acceleration a. Application of Newton’s law of motion leads to the
variation of static pressure in a column of fluid and the measurements of pressure (absolute
and gauge) by barometers and manometers. The normal temperature scale and the absolute
temperature scale are introduced.
k You should have learned a number of skills and acquired abilities from studying this k
chapter that will allow you to
• Define (choose) a control volume C.V. around some matter and

• Sketch the content and identify storage locations for mass
• Identify mass and energy flows crossing the C.V. surface
• Know properties P–T–v–𝜌 and their units.
• Know how to look up conversion of units in Table A.1.
• Know that energy is stored as kinetic, potential, or internal (in molecules).
• Know the difference between (v, 𝜌) and (V, m) intensive versus extensive.
• Apply a force balance to a given system and relate it to pressure P.
• Know the difference between a relative (gauge) and absolute pressure P.
• Understand the working of a manometer or a barometer and get ΔP or P from
height H.
• Know the difference between a relative and absolute temperature T.
• Understand how physics of a device can influence a property.
• You should have an idea about magnitudes (v, 𝜌, P, T).
Most of these concepts will be repeated and reinforced in the following chapters, such as
properties in Chapter 2, energy transfer as heat and work, and internal energy in Chapter 3,
together with their applications.
S-1
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Study guide and Chapter

Study Resources
CHAPTER 1 Objectives Reading, Examples, Concepts, Study,
Eqs & Tables Hw problems
Know properties P-T-v-𝜌 and Reading: Sec. 1.3, 1.5–1.7, C: 1, 3–10, 14–15
their units 1.11 S: 5, 18, 59
Examples: 1.1–1.5 Hw: 19–24, 57–58, 65E–69E,
Eqs : 1.2, 1.3, 1.12, 1.13 85E
Tables: A.1
Know that energy is stored as Reading: Sec. 1.8 C: 17
kinetic, potential or internal Examples: 1.1–1.5 Hw: 19–24, 55–56, 73E
(in molecules) Eqs. : 1.9, 1.10, 1.11
Know the difference between Reading: Sec. 1.3 C: 1, 3
k (v, 𝜌) and (V, m) intensive Examples: 1.2 Hw: 20
k
versus extensive
Apply a force balance to a Reading: Sec. 1.5–1.7, 1.11 C: 8–13
given system and relate it to Examples: 1.3, 1.4, 1.7 S: 13, 31, 38, 40, 84E
pressure P Eqs : 1.1, 1.3–1.7 Hw: 28–41, 84E
Know the difference between Reading: Sec. 1.7 C: 11–12,
a relative (gauge) and Examples: 1.5 – 1.6 S: 44, 49, 53
absolute pressure P Eqs and Tables: 1.3 – 1.4, 1.6 Hw: 42–46, 49, 52, 54
Understand manometer and Reading: Sec. 1.7 C: 11–12
barometer to get ΔP or P Examples: 1.5–1.6 S: 44, 49, 53, 80E
from height H Eqs : 1.3–1.6 Hw: 42–54, 80E–83E
Know the difference between Reading: Sec. 1.11 C: 14–16
a relative and absolute Examples: 1.5–1.6 S: 59
temperature T Eqs : 1.12, 1.13 Hw: 57–59
Tables: A.1
Understand how physics of a Reading: all nearly all hw
device can influence a Examples: 1.2–1.7
property. Device eqs.: P = C, V = C,
T=C
Have an idea about Reading: Sec. 1.7 S: 18
magnitudes (v, 𝜌, P, T) Examples: 1.5–1.6 Hw: 18, 57, 85E
Equations: 1.2–1.6
Figure: 1.8
R-1
k
Introduction
and Preliminaries
1
The field of thermodynamics is concerned with the science of energy focusing on energy
storage and energy conversion processes. We will study the effects of energy on differ-
ent substances, as we may expose a mass to heating/cooling or to volumetric compres-
sion/expansion. During such processes, we are transferring energy into or out of the mass,
so it changes its conditions expressed by properties such as temperature, pressure, and vol-
ume. We use several processes similar to this in our daily lives; we heat water to make coffee
or tea or cool it in a refrigerator to make cold water or ice cubes in a freezer. In nature, water
evaporates from oceans and lakes and mixes with air where the wind can transport it, and
later the water may drop out of the air as either rain (liquid water) or snow (solid water).
As we study these processes in detail, we will focus on situations that are physically simple
and yet typical of real-life situations in industry or nature.
By a combination of processes, we are able to illustrate more complex devices or
complete systems—for instance, a simple steam power plant that is the basic system that
generates the majority of our electric power. Figure 1.1 shows a power plant that produces
electric power and hot water for district heating by burning coal. The coal is supplied by
ship, and the district heating pipes are located in underground tunnels and thus are not
visible. For a better understanding and a technical description, see the simple schematic of
the power plant shown in Fig. 1.2. This includes various outputs from the plant as electric
power to the net, warm water for district heating, slag from burning coal, and other materials
such as ash and gypsum; the last output is a flow of exhaust gases out of the chimney.
Another set of processes forms a good description of a refrigerator that we use to
cool food or apply it at very low temperatures to produce a flow of cold fluid for cryogenic
surgery by freezing tissue for minimal bleeding. A simple schematic for such a system is
shown in Fig. 1.3. The same system can also function as an air conditioner with the dual
purpose of cooling a building in summer and heating it in winter; in this last mode of use, it
is also called a heat pump. For mobile applications, we can make simple models for gasoline
and diesel engines typically used for ground transportation and gas turbines in jet engines
used in aircraft, where low weight and volume are of prime concern. These are just a few
examples of familiar systems that the theory of thermodynamics allows us to analyze. Once
we learn and understand the theory, we will be able to extend the analysis to other cases we
may not be familiar with.
Beyond the description of basic processes and systems, thermodynamics is extended
to cover special situations like moist atmospheric air, which is a mixture of gases, and the
combustion of fuels for use in the burning of coal, oil, or natural gas, which is a chemical
and energy conversion process used in nearly all power-generating devices. Many other
extensions are known; these can be studied in specialty texts. Since all the processes engi-
neers deal with have an impact on the environment, we must be acutely aware of the ways
1
.............. 2 CHAPTER.......................................................
ONE INTRODUCTION AND PRELIMINARIES .........................................................................................................
FIGURE 1.1 The

Avedoere Power Station,
Denmark. (Courtesy of Dong Energy, Denmark.)
in which we can optimize the use of our natural resources and produce the minimal amount
of negative consequences for our environment. For this reason, the treatment of efficiencies
for processes and devices is important in a modern analysis and is required knowledge for
a complete engineering study of system performance and operation.
Before considering the application of the theory, we will cover a few basic concepts
and definitions for our analysis and review some material from physics and chemistry that
we will need.
1.1 A THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM

AND THE CONTROL VOLUME
A thermodynamic system is a device or combination of devices containing a quantity of
matter under study. To define this more precisely, a control volume is chosen so that it
...............................................................................................................................
A THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEM .....................................
AND THE CONTROL VOLUME 3 .............
Flue gas
Steam Turbine Generator

drum
Coal
silo
Chimney Power
grid
Oil
Gas Ash
purifier separator Coal
grinder
Gypsum Pump
Fly Heat
District
ash exchanger
Slag heating
Air
FIGURE 1.2 Schematic diagram of a steam power plant.
Heat to room
Warm vapor 2
Condenser
Work 3 Warm liquid
Compressor Expansion valve

or
Evaporator capillary tube
Cold vapor 1 4 Cold liquid + vapor

FIGURE 1.3
Schematic diagram of a Heat from cold
refrigerator. refrigerated space
contains the matter and devices inside a control surface. Everything external to the control
volume is the surroundings, with the separation provided by the control surface. The surface
may be open or closed to mass flows, and it may have flows of energy in terms of heat
transfer and work across it. The boundaries may be movable or stationary. In the case of a
control surface closed to mass flow, so that no mass can escape or enter the control volume,
it is called a control mass containing the same amount of matter at all times.
.............. 4 CHAPTER.......................................................
Weights
P0
Piston
g
System
boundary
Gas
FIGURE 1.4 Example

of a control mass.
Selecting the gas in the cylinder of Fig. 1.4 as a control volume by placing a control
surface around it, we recognize this as a control mass. If a Bunsen burner is placed under
the cylinder, the temperature of the gas will increase and the piston will move out. As the
piston moves, the boundary of the control mass also changes. As we will see later, heat
and work cross the boundary of the control mass during this process, but the matter that
composes the control mass can always be identified and remains the same.
An isolated system is one that is not influenced in any way by the surroundings so that
no mass, heat, or work is transferred across the boundary of the system. In a more typical
case, a thermodynamic analysis should be conducted for a device such as an air compres-
sor in which mass flows in and out, as shown schematically in Fig. 1.5. The real system
includes possibly a storage tank, as shown in Fig. 1.20. In such an analysis, we specify
a control volume that surrounds the compressor with a surface called the control surface,
across which there may be a transfer of mass and momentum as well as heat and work.
Thus, the more general control surface defines a control volume, where mass may
flow in or out, while a control mass is the special case of no mass flowing in or out. Hence,
the control mass contains a fixed mass at all times, which explains its name. The general
formulation of the analysis is considered in detail in Chapter 4. The terms closed system
(fixed mass) and open system (involving a flow of mass) are sometimes used to make this
distinction. Here, we use the term system as a more general and loose description for a
mass, device, or combination of devices that then is more precisely defined when a control
volume is selected. The procedure that will be followed in presenting the first and second
Heat
High-pressure
air out Low-pressure
air in
Work
Compressor
P Motor
Control
Air
surface
storage
FIGURE 1.5 Example tank
of a control volume.
...............................................................................................................................
MACROSCOPIC VERSUS .....................................
MICROSCOPIC POINTS OF VIEW 5 .............
laws of thermodynamics is first to present these laws for a control mass and then to extend
the analysis to the more general control volume.
1.2 MACROSCOPIC VERSUS MICROSCOPIC POINTS

OF VIEW
The behavior of a system may be investigated from either a microscopic or macroscopic
point of view. Let us briefly describe a system from a microscopic point of view. Con-
sider a system consisting of a cube 25 mm on each side and containing a monatomic gas
at atmospheric pressure and temperature. This volume contains approximately 1020 atoms.
To describe the position of each atom, we need to specify three coordinates; to describe the
velocity of each atom, we specify three velocity components.
Thus, to describe completely the behavior of this system from a microscopic point
of view, we must deal with at least 6 × 1020 equations. Even with a modern computer,
this is a hopeless computational task. However, there are two approaches to this problem
that reduce the number of equations and variables to a few that can be computed relatively
easily. One is the statistical approach, in which, on the basis of statistical considerations
and probability theory, we deal with average values for all particles under consideration.
This is usually done in connection with a model of the atom under consideration. This is
the approach used in the disciplines of kinetic theory and statistical mechanics.
The other approach to reducing the number of variables to a few that can be handled
relatively easily involves the macroscopic point of view of classical thermodynamics. As
the word macroscopic implies, we are concerned with the gross or average effects of many
molecules. These effects can be perceived by our senses and measured by instruments.
However, what we really perceive and measure is the time-averaged influence of many
molecules. For example, consider the pressure a gas exerts on the walls of its container.
This pressure results from the change in momentum of the molecules as they collide with
the wall. From a macroscopic point of view, however, we are concerned not with the action
of the individual molecules but with the time-averaged force on a given area, which can
be measured by a pressure gauge. In fact, these macroscopic observations are completely
independent of our assumptions regarding the nature of matter.
Although the theory and development in this book are presented from a macroscopic
point of view, a few supplementary remarks regarding the significance of the microscopic
perspective are included as an aid to understanding the physical processes involved. Another
book in this series, Introduction to Thermodynamics: Classical and Statistical, by R. E.
Sonntag and G. J. Van Wylen, includes thermodynamics from the microscopic and statisti-
cal point of view.
A few remarks also should be made regarding the continuum approach. We are nor-
mally concerned with volumes that are very large compared to molecular dimensions and
with time scales that are very large compared to intermolecular collision frequencies. For
this reason, we deal with very large numbers of molecules that interact extremely often dur-
ing our observation period, so we view the system as a simple uniformly distributed mass
in the volume called a continuum. This concept, of course, is only a convenient assump-
tion that loses validity when the mean free path of the molecules approaches the order of
magnitude of the dimensions of the vessel, as, for example, in high-vacuum technology. In
much engineering work, the assumption of a continuum is valid and convenient, consistent
with the macroscopic point of view.
.............. 6 CHAPTER.......................................................
1.3 PROPERTIES AND STATE OF A SUBSTANCE

If we consider a given mass of water, we recognize that this water can exist in various
forms. If it is a liquid initially, it may become a vapor when it is heated or a solid when it
is cooled. Thus, we speak of the different phases of a substance. A phase is describing a
condition of matter that is homogeneous throughout, commonly referred to as solid, liquid,
or gas phases. When more than one phase is present, the phases are separated from each
other by the phase boundaries. In each phase, the substance may exist at various pressures
and temperatures or, to use the thermodynamic term, in various states. The state may be
identified or described by certain observable, macroscopic properties; some familiar ones
are temperature, pressure, and density. In later chapters, other properties will be introduced.
Each of the properties of a substance in a given state has only one definite value, and these
properties always have the same value for a given state, regardless of how the substance
arrived at the state. In fact, a property can be defined as any quantity that depends on the
state of the system and is independent of the path (i.e., the prior history) by which the system
arrived at the given state. Conversely, the state is specified or described by the properties.
Later, we will consider the number of independent properties a substance can have, that is,
the minimum number of properties that must be specified to fix the state of the substance.
Thermodynamic properties can be divided into two general classes: intensive and
extensive. An intensive property is independent of the mass; the value of an extensive prop-
erty varies directly with the mass. Thus, if a quantity of matter in a given state is divided
into two equal parts, each part will have the same value of intensive properties as the orig-
inal and half the value of the extensive properties. Pressure, temperature, and density are
examples of intensive properties. Mass and total volume are examples of extensive prop-
erties. Extensive properties per unit mass, such as specific volume, see Section 1.6, are
intensive properties.
Frequently we will refer not only to the properties of a substance but also to the prop-
erties of a system. When we do so, we necessarily imply that the value of the property has
significance for the entire system, and this implies equilibrium. For example, if the gas that
composes the system (control mass) in Fig. 1.4 is in thermal equilibrium, the temperature
will be the same throughout the entire system, and we may speak of the temperature as a
property of the system. We may also consider mechanical equilibrium, which is related to
pressure. If a system is in mechanical equilibrium, there is no tendency for the pressure
at any point to change with time as long as the system is isolated from the surroundings.
There will be variation in pressure with elevation because of the influence of gravitational
forces, although under equilibrium conditions there will be no tendency for the pressure
at any location to change. However, in many thermodynamic problems, this variation in
pressure with elevation is so small that it can be neglected. Chemical equilibrium is also
important and will be considered in Chapter 14. When a system is in equilibrium regarding
all possible changes of state, we say that the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium.
1.4 PROCESSES AND CYCLES

Whenever one or more of the properties of a system change, we say that a change in state
has occurred. For example, when the crank moves as shown in Fig. 1.6, the piston moves to
give a larger cylinder volume so a change in state occurs toward a lower pressure and higher
specific volume. The path of the succession of states through which the system passes is
called the process.
...............................................................................................................................
UNITS FOR .....................................
MASS, LENGTH, TIME, AND FORCE 7 .............
FIGURE 1.6 Example

of a system that may
Gas
undergo a
quasi-equilibrium
process.
Let us consider the equilibrium of a system as it undergoes a change in state. The

moment the piston in Fig. 1.6 is moved, mechanical equilibrium does not exist; as a result,
the volume and pressure change until mechanical equilibrium is restored. The question is
this: Since the properties describe the state of a system only when it is in equilibrium,
how can we describe the states of a system during a process if the actual process occurs
only when equilibrium does not exist? One step in finding the answer to this question
concerns the definition of an ideal process, which we call a quasi-equilibrium process.
A quasi-equilibrium process is one in which the deviation from thermodynamic equilib-
rium is infinitesimal, and all the states the system passes through during a quasi-equilibrium
process may be considered equilibrium states. Many actual processes closely approach a
quasi-equilibrium process and may be so treated with essentially no error. If the piston
moves slowly, the process could be considered quasi-equilibrium. However, if the piston
moves fast, there will be a nonuniform pressure distribution in the gas. This would be a
nonequilibrium process, and the system would not be in equilibrium at any time during this
change of state.
For nonequilibrium processes, we are limited to a description of the system before
the process occurs and after the process is completed and equilibrium is restored. We are
unable to specify each state through which the system passes or the rate at which the process
occurs. However, as we will see later, we are able to describe certain overall effects that
occur during the process.
Several processes are described by the fact that one property remains constant.
The prefix iso- is used to describe such a process. An isothermal process is a constant-
temperature process, an isobaric process is a constant-pressure process, and an isochoric
process is a constant-volume process.
When a system in a given initial state goes through a number of different changes of
state or processes and finally returns to its initial state, the system has undergone a cycle.
Therefore, at the conclusion of a cycle, all the properties have the same value they had at
the beginning. Steam (water) that circulates through a steam power plant undergoes a cycle.
A distinction should be made between a thermodynamic cycle, which has just been
described, and a mechanical cycle. A four-stroke-cycle internal-combustion engine goes
through a mechanical cycle once every two revolutions. However, the working fluid does
not go through a thermodynamic cycle in the engine, since air and fuel are burned and
changed to products of combustion that are exhausted to the atmosphere. In this book, the
term cycle will refer to a thermodynamic cycle unless otherwise designated.
1.5 UNITS FOR MASS, LENGTH, TIME, AND FORCE

Since we are considering thermodynamic properties from a macroscopic perspective, we
are dealing with quantities that can, either directly or indirectly, be measured and counted.
Therefore, the matter of units becomes an important consideration, and they are all shown
in appendix Table A.1. In the remaining sections of this chapter, we will define certain
.............. 8 CHAPTER.......................................................
thermodynamic properties and the basic units. Because the relation between force and
mass is often difficult for students to understand, it is considered in this section in some
detail.
Force, mass, length, and time are related by Newton’s second law of motion, which
states that the force acting on a body is proportional to the product of the mass and the
acceleration in the direction of the force:
F ∝ ma
The concept of time is well established. The basic unit of time is the second (s),
which in the past was defined in terms of the solar day, the time interval for one complete
revolution of the earth relative to the sun. Since this period varies with the season of the
year, an average value over a 1-year period is called the mean solar day, and the mean solar
second is 1/86 400 of the mean solar day. In 1967, the General Conference of Weights and
Measures (CGPM) adopted a definition of the second as the time required for a beam of
cesium-133 atoms to resonate 9 192 631 770 cycles in a cesium resonator.
For periods of time less than 1 s, the prefixes milli, micro, nano, pico, or femto, as
listed in Table A.0, are commonly used. For longer periods of time, the units minute (min),
hour (h), or day (day) are frequently used. It should be pointed out that the prefixes are used
with many other units as well.
The concept of length is also well established. The basic unit of length is the meter
(m), which used to be marked on a platinum–iridium bar. Currently, the CGPM has adopted
a more precise definition of the meter in terms of the speed of light (which is now a fixed
constant): The meter is the length of the path traveled by light in a vacuum during a time
interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second.
The fundamental unit of mass is the kilogram (kg). As adopted by the first CGPM
in 1889 and restated in 1901, it is the mass of a certain platinum–iridium cylinder main-
tained under prescribed conditions at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.
A related unit that is used frequently in thermodynamics is the mole (mol), defined as an
amount of substance containing as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kg
of carbon-12. These elementary entities must be specified; they may be atoms, molecules,
electrons, ions, or other particles or specific groups. For example, 1 mol of diatomic oxy-
gen, having a molecular mass of 32 (compared to 12 for carbon), has a mass of 0.032 kg.
The mole is often termed a gram mole, since it is an amount of substance in grams numer-
ically equal to the molecular mass. In this book, when using the metric SI system, we will
use the kilomole (kmol), the amount of substance in kilograms numerically equal to the
molecular mass, rather than the mole.
The system of units in use presently throughout most of the world is the metric
International System, commonly referred to as SI units (from Le Système International
d’Unités). In this system, the second, meter, and kilogram are the basic units for time,
length, and mass, respectively, as just defined, and the unit of force is defined directly from
Newton’s second law. The unit conversions are shown in Table A.1 and covers most of the
commonly used ones in SI and English unit systems.
Therefore, a proportionality constant is unnecessary, and we may write that law as an
equality:
F = ma (1.1)
...............................................................................................................................
UNITS FOR .....................................
MASS, LENGTH, TIME, AND FORCE 9 .............
The unit of force is the newton (N), which by definition is the force required to accelerate
a mass of 1 kg at the rate of 1 m/s2 :
1 N = 1 kg m∕s2
It is worth noting that SI units derived from proper nouns use capital letters for symbols;
others use lowercase letters. The liter, with the symbol L, is an exception.
The traditional system of units used in the United States is the English Engineering
System. In this system, the unit of time is the second, which was discussed earlier. The
basic unit of length is the foot (ft), which at present is defined in terms of the meter as
1 ft = 0.3048 m = 12 in.
and therefore also relates to the inch (in.). The unit of mass in this system is the pound mass
(lbm). It was originally defined as the mass of a certain platinum cylinder kept in the Tower
of London, but now it is defined in terms of the kilogram as
1 lbm = 0.453 592 37 kg
A related unit is the pound mole (lb mol), which is an amount of substance in pounds mass
numerically equal to the molecular mass of that substance. It is important to distinguish
between a pound mole and a mole (gram mole).
In the English Engineering System of Units, the unit of force is the pound force (lbf),
defined as the force with which the standard pound mass is attracted to the earth under
conditions of standard acceleration of gravity, which is that at 45∘ latitude and sea level
elevation, 9.806 65 m/s2 or 32.1740 ft/s2 . Thus, it follows from Newton’s second law that
1 lbf = 32.174 lbm ft∕s2
which is a necessary factor for the purpose of units conversion and consistency. Note that
we must be careful to distinguish between an lbm and an lbf, and we do not use the term
pound alone.
The term weight is often used with respect to a body and is sometimes confused with
mass. Weight is really correctly used only as a force. When we say that a body weighs so
much, we mean that this is the force with which it is attracted to the earth (or some other
body), that is, the product of its mass and the local gravitational acceleration. The mass of
a substance remains constant with elevation, but its weight varies with elevation.
Example 1.1
What is the weight of a 1-kg mass at an altitude where the local acceleration of gravity is
9.75 m/s2 ?
Solution
Weight is the force acting on the mass, which from Newton’s second law is
F = mg = 1 kg × 9.75 m∕s2 × [1 N s2 ∕kg m] = 9.75 N
.............. 10 CHAPTER.......................................................
Example 1.1E
What is the weight of a 1-lbm mass at an altitude where the local acceleration of gravity
is 32.0 ft/s2 ?
Solution
Weight is the force acting on the mass, which from Newton’s second law is
F = mg = 1 lbm × 32.0 ft∕s2 × [lbf s2 ∕32.174 lbm ft] = 0.9946 lbf
In-Text Concept Questions

a. Make a control volume around the turbine in the steam power plant in Fig. 1.2 and
list the flows of mass and energy located there.
b. Take a control volume around your kitchen refrigerator, indicate where the compo-
nents shown in Fig. 1.3 are located, and show all energy transfers.
1.6 SPECIFIC VOLUME AND DENSITY

The specific volume of a substance is defined as the volume per unit mass and is given
the symbol v. The density of a substance is defined as the mass per unit volume, and it
is therefore the reciprocal of the specific volume. Density is designated by the symbol 𝜌.
Specific volume and density are intensive properties.
The specific volume of a system in a gravitational field may vary from point to point.
For example, if the atmosphere is considered a system, the specific volume increases as
the elevation increases. Therefore, the definition of specific volume involves the specific
volume of a substance at a point in a system.
Consider a small volume 𝛿V of a system, and let the mass be designated 𝛿m. The
specific volume is defined by the relation
𝛿V
v ≡ lim (1.2)
𝛿V→𝛿V ′ 𝛿m
where 𝛿V ′ is the smallest volume for which the mass can be considered a continuum. Vol-
umes smaller than this will lead to the recognition that mass is not evenly distributed in
space but is concentrated in particles as molecules, atoms, electrons, and so on. This is
tentatively indicated in Fig. 1.7, where in the limit of a zero volume the specific volume
may be infinite (the volume does not contain any mass) or very small (the volume is part of
a nucleus).
Thus, in a given system, when we speak of the specific volume or density at a point
in the system we recognize that this may vary with elevation. However, most of the systems
that we consider are relatively small, and the change in specific volume with elevation is not
significant. Therefore, we can assign one value of specific volume or density to the entire
system.
SPECIFIC VOLUME AND DENSITY 11 .............
............................................................................................................................... .....................................
V
m
FIGURE 1.7 The

continuum limit for the
specific volume. V´ V
Gases Solids
Gas in Atm. Fiber Wood Al Lead
vacuum air
Cotton Ice
Wool Rock Ag Au
Liquids
Propane Water Hg
10 –2 10 –1 10 0 10 1 10 2 10 3 10 4
FIGURE 1.8 Density Density [kg/m3]
of common substances.
In this book, the specific volume and density will be given either on a mass or a mole
basis. A bar over the symbol (lowercase) will be used to designate the property on a mole
basis. Thus, v will designate molal specific volume and 𝜌 will designate molal density. In
SI units, those for specific volume are m3 /kg and m3 /mol (or m3 /kmol); for density the
corresponding units are kg/m3 and mol/m3 (or kmol/m3 ). In English units, those for spe-
cific volume are ft3 /lbm and ft3 /lb mol; the corresponding units for density are lbm/ft3 and
lb mol/ft3 .
Although the SI unit for volume is the cubic meter, a commonly used volume unit is
the liter (L), which is a special name given to a volume of 0.001 m3 , that is, 1 L = 10−3 m3 .
The general ranges of density for some common solids, liquids, and gases are shown
in Fig. 1.8. Specific values for various solids, liquids, and gases in SI units are listed in
Tables A.3, A.4, and A.5, respectively and in English units in Tables F.2, F.3, and F.4.
Example 1.2
A 1-m3 container, shown in Fig. 1.9, is filled with 0.12 m3 of granite, 0.15 m3 of sand,
and 0.2 m3 of liquid 25∘ C water; the rest of the volume, 0.53 m3 , is air with a density of
1.15 kg/m3 . Find the overall (average) specific volume and density.
.............. 12 CHAPTER.......................................................
Air
FIGURE 1.9 Sketch for Example 1.2.
Solution
From the definition of specific volume and density, we have
v = V∕m and 𝜌 = m∕V = 1∕v
We need to find the total mass, taking density from Tables A.3 and A.4:
mgranite = 𝜌Vgranite = 2750 kg∕m3 × 0.12 m3 = 330 kg
msand = 𝜌sand Vsand = 1500 kg∕m3 × 0.15 m3 = 225 kg
mwater = 𝜌water Vwater = 997 kg∕m3 × 0.2 m3 = 199.4 kg
mair = 𝜌air Vair = 1.15 kg∕m3 × 0.53 m3 = 0.61 kg
Now the total mass becomes
mtot = mgranite + msand + mwater + mair = 755 kg
and the specific volume and density can be calculated:
v = Vtot ∕mtot = 1 m3 ∕755 kg = 0.001325 m3 ∕kg
𝜌 = mtot ∕Vtot = 755 kg∕1 m3 = 755 kg∕m3
Remark: It is misleading to include air in the numbers for 𝜌 and V, as the air is separate
from the rest of the mass.
In-Text Concept Questions

c. Why do people float high in the water when swimming in the Dead Sea as compared
with swimming in a freshwater lake?
d. The density liquid water is 𝜌 = 1008 − T/2 (kg/m3 ) with T in ∘ C. If the temperature
increases, what happens to the density and specific volume?
PRESSURE 13 .............
............................................................................................................................... .....................................
1.7 PRESSURE
When dealing with liquids and gases, we ordinarily speak of pressure; for solids, we speak
of stresses. The pressure in a fluid at rest at a given point is the same in all directions, and
we define pressure as the normal component of force per unit area. More specifically, if 𝛿A
′
is a small area, 𝛿A is the smallest area over which we can consider the fluid a continuum,
and 𝛿Fn is the component of force normal to 𝛿A, we define pressure, P, as
𝛿Fn
P = lim (1.3)
𝛿A→𝛿A′ 𝛿A
where the lower limit corresponds to sizes as mentioned for the specific volume, shown in
Fig. 1.7. The pressure P at a point in a fluid in equilibrium is the same in all directions. In
a viscous fluid in motion, the variation in the state of stress with orientation becomes an
important consideration. These considerations are beyond the scope of this book, and we
will consider pressure only in terms of a fluid in equilibrium.
The unit for pressure in the International System is the force of one newton acting on
a square meter area, which is called the pascal (Pa). That is,
1 Pa = 1 N∕m2
Two other units, not part of the International System, continue to be widely used.
These are the bar, where
1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa
and the standard atmosphere, where
1 atm = 101 325 Pa = 14.696 lbf∕in.2
which is slightly larger than the bar. In this book, we will normally use the SI unit, the pascal,
and especially the multiples of kilopascal and megapascal. The bar will be utilized often
in the examples and problems, but the atmosphere will not be used, except in specifying
certain reference points.
Consider a gas contained in a cylinder fitted with a movable piston, as shown in
Fig. 1.10. The pressure exerted by the gas on all of its boundaries is the same, assum-
ing that the gas is in an equilibrium state. This pressure is fixed by the external force acting
on the piston, since there must be a balance of forces for the piston to remain stationary.
Thus, the product of the pressure and the movable piston area must be equal to the external
force. If the external force is now changed in either direction, the gas pressure inside must
accordingly adjust, with appropriate movement of the piston, to establish a force balance
at a new equilibrium state. As another example, if the gas in the cylinder is heated by an
outside body, which tends to increase the gas pressure, the piston will move instead, such
that the pressure remains equal to whatever value is required by the external force.
FIGURE 1.10 The

balance of forces on a Gas
Fext
P
movable boundary
relates to inside gas
pressure.
.............. 14 CHAPTER.......................................................
Example 1.3
The hydraulic piston/cylinder system shown in Fig. 1.11 has a cylinder diameter of
D = 0.1 m with a piston and rod mass of 25 kg. The rod has a diameter of 0.01 m with an
outside atmospheric pressure of 101 kPa. The inside hydraulic fluid pressure is 250 kPa.
How large a force can the rod push with in the upward direction?
Arod
P0
Pcyl
FIGURE 1.11 Sketch for Example 1.3.
Solution
We will assume a static balance of forces on the piston (positive upward), so
Fnet = ma = 0
= Pcyl Acyl − P0 (Acyl − Arod ) − F − mp g
Solve for F:
F = Pcyl Acyl − P0 (Acyl − Arod ) − mp g
The areas are
𝜋 2 2
Acyl = 𝜋r2 = 𝜋D2 ∕4 =
0.1 m = 0.007 854 m2
4
𝜋
Arod = 𝜋r2 = 𝜋D2 ∕4 = 0.012 m2 = 0.000 078 54 m2
4
The force becomes
F = [250 kPa × 0.007 854 m2 − 101 kPa (0.007 854 − 0.000 078 54) m2 ] 1000 Pa∕kPa
−25 kg × 9.81 m∕s2 = [1963.5 − 785.32 − 245.25] N = 932.9 N
Note that we must convert kPa to Pa to get units of N.
In most thermodynamic investigations, we are concerned with absolute pressure.

Most pressure and vacuum gauges, however, read the difference between the absolute
pressure and the atmospheric pressure existing at the gauge. This is referred to as gauge
pressure.
Pgauge = ΔP = P − Po (1.4)
PRESSURE 15 .............
............................................................................................................................... .....................................
Pabs,1
Ordinary pressure gauge

P = Pabs,1 – Patm
Patm
Ordinary vacuum gauge

P = Patm – Pabs,2
Pabs,2
Barometer reads
atmospheric pressure
FIGURE 1.12
Illustration of terms used
in pressure
measurement. O
It is shown graphically in Fig. 1.12, and the following examples illustrate the principles.
Pressures below atmospheric and slightly above atmospheric, and pressure differences (for
example, across an orifice in a pipe), are frequently measured with a manometer, which
contains water, mercury, alcohol, oil, or other fluids.
Consider the column of fluid of height H standing above point B in the manometer
shown in Fig. 1.13. The force acting downward at the bottom of the column is
P0 A + mg = P0 A + 𝜌AgH
where m is the mass of the fluid column, A is its cross-sectional area, and 𝜌 is its density.
This force must be balanced by the upward force at the bottom of the column, which is
PB A. Therefore,
PB − P0 = 𝜌gH
Patm = P0
Fluid
P H
g
FIGURE 1.13 A B
Example of pressure
measurement using a
column of fluid.
.............. 16 CHAPTER.......................................................
Since points A and B are at the same elevation in columns of the same fluid, their pressures
P≈0 must be equal (the fluid being measured in the vessel has a much lower density, such that
its pressure P is equal to PA ). Overall,
ΔP = P − P0 = 𝜌gH (1.5)
H0
For distinguishing between absolute and gauge pressure in this book, the term pascal
Patm g will always refer to absolute pressure. Any gauge pressure will be indicated as such.
Consider the barometer used to measure atmospheric pressure, as shown in Fig. 1.14.
Since there is a near vacuum in the closed tube above the vertical column of fluid, usually
mercury, the height of the fluid column gives the atmospheric pressure directly from Eq. 1.5:
Patm = 𝜌gH0 (1.6)
If the density is variable, we should consider Eq. 1.5 in differential form as
FIGURE 1.14
Barometer. dP = −𝜌g dh
including the sign, so pressure drops with increasing height. Now the finite difference
becomes H
P = P0 − 𝜌g dh (1.7)
∫0
with the pressure P0 at zero height. Consider a volume of liquid at some depth from the
surface. The net force on that volume equals the normal force, F = mg, to have static equi-
librium. That force is the net force up from the pressure distribution around the volume
regardless of its shape which is a buoyancy effect. We normally do not notice this except
when we place an object instead of the liquid volume that has a different mass in that volume
(𝜌object ≠ 𝜌liq ). Now there will be a net force up as
Fnet = Fbuoyancy − mobject g = (𝜌liq − 𝜌object )Vg = (mliq − mobject )g (1.8)
If the object is heavier the force is down and if it is lighter the force is up which is what we
experience when we swim in water or float in a boat.
Example 1.4
A mercury barometer located in a room at 25∘ C has a height of 750 mm. What is the atmo-
spheric pressure in kPa?
Solution
The density of mercury at 25∘ C is found from Table A.4 to be 13 534 kg/m3 . Using Eq. 1.6,
Patm = 𝜌gH0 = 13 534 kg∕m3 × 9.807 m∕s2 × 0.750 m
= 99 540 Pa = 99.54 kPa
PRESSURE 17 .............
............................................................................................................................... .....................................
Example 1.5
A mercury (Hg) manometer is used to measure the pressure in a vessel as shown in Fig. 1.13.
The mercury has a density of 13 590 kg/m3 , and the height difference between the two
columns is measured to be 24 cm. We want to determine the pressure inside the vessel.
Solution
The manometer measures the gauge pressure as a pressure difference. From Eq. 1.5,
ΔP = Pgauge = 𝜌gH = 13 590 kg∕m3 × 9.807 m∕s2 × 0.24 m
= 31 985 Pa = 31.985 kPa = 0.316 atm
To get the absolute pressure inside the vessel, we have
PA = Pvessel = PB = ΔP + Patm
We need to know the atmospheric pressure measured by a barometer (absolute pressure).
Assume that this pressure is known to be 750 mm Hg. The absolute pressure in the vessel
becomes
Pvessel = ΔP + Patm = 31 985 Pa + 13 590 kg∕m3 × 0.750 m × 9.807 m∕s2
= 31 985 + 99 954 = 131 940 Pa = 1.302 atm
Example 1.5E
A mercury (Hg) manometer is used to measure the pressure in a vessel as shown in
Fig. 1.13. The mercury has a density of 848 lbm/ft3 , and the height difference between
the two columns is measured to be 9.5 in. We want to determine the pressure inside the
vessel.
Solution
The manometer measures the gauge pressure as a pressure difference. From Eq. 1.5,
ΔP = Pgauge = 𝜌gH
[ ]
lbm ft 1 ft3 1 lbf s2
= 848 3 × 32.174 2 × 9.5 in. × × = 4.66 lbf∕in.2
ft s 1728 in.3 32.174 lbm ft
To get the absolute pressure inside the vessel, we have
PA = Pvessel = P0 = ΔP + Patm
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356); 27. 3 (347); viii. 23. 11 f. (the plebiscite for prolonging the
consular imperium, 327); x. 6. 9 (Ogulnian plebiscite, 300); 21. 9
(plebiscite ordering the praetor to appoint triumviri for conducting
colonies, 296). Cf. also Dion. Hal. x. 26. 4 f. (457); 30. 1; 48. 1
(454); 50. 3; xi. 54. 4 (444); Mommsen, Röm. Forsch. i. 208 ff. All
the citations from Dionysius, excepting the last, refer to pre-
decemviral time, and hence are anticipations of a later condition.
The first triumph by order of the people, without the consent of
the senate, according to Livy iii. 63. 11 (cf. Dion. Hal. xi. 50. 1),
took place in 449. It is to be noticed, however, that a magistrate
always had a right to triumph without permission either of the
senate or of the people (Mommsen, Röm. Forsch. i. 214 f.),
provided he paid his own expenses; Polyb. vi. 15. 8; Livy xxxiii.
23. 8. The resolution of the people on this occasion, if historical,
may have been a mere pledge of sympathy and confidence; cf. p.
293. But Herzog, Röm. Staatsverf. i. 194, doubts its reality.
The “ancient law long ago abolished,” which required the
consent of the senate to proposals brought before the people,
and which Sulla is said to have renewed (Appian, B. C. i. 59. 266;
cf. p. 406), is ordinarily referred, as by Mommsen, Röm. Staatsr.
iii. 158; Herzog, Röm. Staatsverf. i. 193, to the condition on the
validity of the plebiscite under discussion. Appian may have had
this restriction in mind, for we know at least that under the
constitution as reformed by Sulla the tribunes did propose laws de
senatus sententia; CIL. i. 204 (year 71); Bruns, Font. Iur. 94;
Girard, Textes, 66; Lange, Röm. Alt. iii. 154; Mommsen, Röm.
Staatsr. iii. 158; Fröhlich, in Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encycl. iv.
1559.
[1684] Cf. Mommsen, Röm. Staatsr. iii. 157.
[1685] Lange’s idea (Röm. Alt. ii. 619; cf. i. 611, 614, 642) that
there was no statute which made the consent of the senate
essential to the validity of the plebiscite does not appear to be
well considered. Had the tribunes not been bound by written
enactment, they would have felt themselves free to legislate
without the senate’s coöperation, and even the law they tried in
vain to disregard.
[1686] Livy iii. 55. 13.
[1687] Cf. Mommsen, Röm. Staatsr. iii. 158.
[1688] Diod. xii. 25. 3: Ἐὰν δὲ οἱ δήμαρχοι μὴ συμφωνῶσι πρὸς
ἀλλήλους, κύριοι εἶναι τὸν ἀνὰ μέσον κείμενον μὴ κωλύεσθαι; Livy
iv. 48. 10-16 (416); 53. 6; v. 25. 1 (395); vi. 36. 8; 37. 3; 38. 5. The
same passages show the dependence of the government upon
the tribunes for checking innovations.
[1689] Livy iii. 69. 5 f.; iv. i. 6; 30. 15; 53. 2, 6 (407); 55. 1-5
(406); 60. 5 (403); v. 12. 3, 7 (397); vi. 27. 9 f. (376); 31. 4 (cf. 31.
1 f., year 374); vi. 36. 3 f.; Dion. Hal. xi. 54. 3 (444).
[1690] It is true that Livy (iv. 50. 6, 8; 56. 10-13, year 408; v. 9. 4
ff., year 402; vi. 35. 9) assigns the tribune this right; but on one
occasion (vii. 17. 12, year 356) he informs us that such a protest
was disregarded by the magistrate. We may suppose that in this
period they often attempted the power, but usually without
success. They possessed a growing influence in the right to
address the people, which must often have added an
overwhelming force to their protests; cf. Livy iv. 25. 1 (434); 58. 14
(406); v. 2. 2 ff. (403); ch. 6 (403). This kind of obstruction may be
meant by Livy iv. 36. 3 (424); 43. 3 (421); v. 17. 5 (397); vii. 21. 1
ff. (353). The government, on the other hand, continued to use the
levy for the obstruction of tribunician bills; Livy iv. 55. 1 (409); v.
11. 9 (401).
[1691] The principal recorded seditions are (1) the revolt
against the decemvirate in 449 (Livy iii. 50 ff.); (2) a plebeian
secession to the Janiculum in the struggle for the Canuleian law
(Florus i. 25); (3) a state of anarchy in 376 (Diod. xv. 61. 1),
which, according to Matzat (Röm. Chron. ii. 110), lasted about
four months; (4) a state of anarchy in the struggle for the Licinian-
Sextian laws (Diod. xv. 75. 1; Livy vi. 35. 10), which, according to
Matzat (ibid. ii. 112), continued three years, 376-373; (5) a
secession of the plebs to the Janiculum in the struggle which
resulted in the Hortensian legislation, 287 (Livy, ep. xi; Dio Cass.
Frag. 37; Zon. viii. 2. 1).
[1692] P. 104, 110, 116 f.
[1693] X. 47. 1.
[1694] P. 116 f.
[1695] P. 230.
[1696] Cf. Livy vi. 3. 2 (389); 33. 7 f. (377); vii. 19. 7 (353).
[1697] Livy vi. 14. 1: “Dictator ... minime dubius bellum cum his
populis patres iussuros” (385). In 381 the senate decreed that the
Tusculans should be punished with war (Livy vi. 25. 5), no
mention being made of the people; and the declaration of war
against the Latins in 340 appears to have been merely acclaimed
by the people who chanced at the time to be in front of the
senate-house; Livy viii. 6. 4-8.
[1698] Livy v. 49. 2 (390).
[1699] Livy iv. 58. 1 f.; v. 28. 5 (394); 50. 3 (390); vi. 10. 9 (382);
vii. 19. 4 (353); 22. 5 (351); 38. 1 (343); viii. 2. 1 (341); 19. 1-3
(330); x. 11. 13 with 12. 1, 13 (298); 45. 4 (293); p. 302.
[1700] Livy viii. 11 f., 14 (340, 338). It punished for revolt; ibid.
viii. 20. 7 (329).
[1701] Livy vi. 26. 8; viii. 11. 16; p. 304.
[1702] P. 273.
[1703] Livy v. 19. 6 (396); cf. iv. 27. 1 (431).
[1704] Livy v. 50 (390).
[1705] Cf. Livy vii. 28. 5 f. (345).
[1706] Livy iv. 59. 11 (406); p. 367. The statement of Diodorus,
xiv. 16. 5, that the Romans voted to pay for military service does
not necessarily point to an act of the assembly; and the
opposition of the tribunes to the measure indicates that at least in
Livy’s opinion it was an act of the senate alone.
[1707] Cf. the tributum for the new wall; Livy vi. 32. 1.
[1708] Cf. Livy v. 30. 8 (393); p. 295, 310.
[1709] Livy iv. 11; 47. 6; v. 24. 4; 30. 8; ix. 28. 8 (313); Vell. i.
14. 1; p. 310.
[1710] Livy vi. 4. 5 (389).
[1711] Livy v. 13. 5 (399).
[1712] Livy iv. 30. 9 (428).
[1713] Livy x. 1. 3 (303).
[1714] Livy iv. 46. 10; 56. 8; vi. 11. 10; vii. 6. 12; 21. 9; vii. 3. 4;
viii. 17. 3; 29. 9 (325).
[1715] Livy v. 9. 6 (402).
[1716] Livy v. 9; 17. 2 f. (397); 31 f. (392, 391); viii. 3. 4 (341).
[1717] Livy viii. 16. 11; 20. 7; 39. 15 (322).
[1718] P. 277, n. 4.
[1719] Livy vi. 19. 3 (384).
[1720] Livy iii. 54. 5, 9, 11 (449).
[1721] Livy iii. 65. 1 (448). That the coöptation of tribunes was
once legal is proved by a formula quoted by Livy iii. 61. 10. That
the coöpted tribunes were patrician is now generally disbelieved
(cf. Herzog, Röm. Staatsverf. i. 195) because it does not accord
with the conventional view of a constitution kept in perfect working
order from the beginning to the end of Roman history. The
irregular is possible and is less likely to be invented.
[1722] Livy iii. 65. 1-4; Diod. xii. 25. 3. Diodorus, who mentions
the penalty, connects the law closely in time, as does Livy, with
the reëstablishment of the constitution.
[1723] V. 10. 11; 11. 1-3.
[1724] Livy iv. 16. 3 (439).
[1725] Continuous fasti tribunicii, however, did not exist.
[1726] Thereafter when a vacancy occurred during the year, it
was filled by election; Appian, B. C. i. 13. 54; Plut. Ti. Gracch. 13.
[1727] Tac. Ann. xi. 22; Cic. Fam. vii. 30. 1; cf. Gell. xiii. 15. 4.
[1728] Livy ix. 46. 1 f.; xxv. 2. 7; Varro, R. R. iii. 17. 1; Cic.
Planc. 20. 49; Piso, in Gell. vii. 9. 2.
[1729] Sall. Iug. 63.
[1730] Gell. xiii. 15. 4.
[1731] P. 280.
[1732] P. 241, 268.
[1733] Cf. Cic. Leg. iii. 19. 45; Livy xxvi. 3. This subject is
admirably presented by Lange, Röm. Alt. ii. 578-80.
[1734] Cic. Inv. i. 38. 68.
[1735] Cf. Livy v. 11. 4; 12. 2; 29. 6 f.; viii. 33. 17; xxvi. 3. 6.
[1736] Livy xxvi. 3. 6-9; p. 307 f., 322 above.
[1737] P. 234, 269 above; Cic. Rep. ii. 35. 60; Livy iv. 30. 3. The
equivalents are mentioned in connection with the lex Aternia
Tarpeia; Gell. xi. 1. 2; Fest. 202. 11; 237. 13; ep. 144; Lange,
Röm. Alt. i. 622; Herzog, Röm. Staatsverf. i. 172, 639. The law is
no proof of the existence of coins at that time.
[1738] Cato, Orig. v. 5; Fest. 246 (lex Silia); Cic. Rep. 35. 60;
Livy iv. 30. 3; Karlowa, Röm. Rechtsgesch. i. 409; Lange, Röm.
Alt. ii. 580.
[1739] Livy viii. 37. 8 ff. A tribune of the plebs brought before
the tribes certain Tusculans, accused of having incited
neighboring states against Rome, 323. They were acquitted; p.
310.
[1740] Livy iv. 11. 3-7. This is one of the few prosecutions of
inferior officials for maladministration; Mommsen, Röm. Staatsr. ii.
323, n. 2. The event is too early to be certain.
[1741] Livy iv. 40. 4; 41. 10 f.; Lange, Röm. Alt. ii. 581.
[1742] Livy v. 11. 4 ff.; 12. 1.
[1743] P. 244 f.
[1744] Livy vi. 1. 6.
[1745] Livy vii. 3-5.
[1746] Off. ii. 31. 112.
[1747] Livy x. 37. 7; cf. xxix. 19. 6 f.; Mommsen, Röm. Staatsr.
ii. 320, n. 3.
[1748] Livy x. 46. 16.
[1749] Livy, ep. xi; cf. p. 306 below.
[1750] Livy, ep. xi; Dion. Hal. xvii. 4 f.; Dio Cass. Frag. 36. 32.
Dionysius states the fine at 50,000 denarii.
[1751] Livy v. 29. 6 f. Lange, Röm. Alt. i. 823; ii. 581, looks with
suspicion on this case because it is the only one of the kind in the
period. Mommsen, Röm. Staatsr. ii. 323, n. 1, considers it an
anticipation of the condemnation of the tribunes in 84 for having
taken the side of Sulla.
[1752] Livy iv. 21. 3 f.
[1753] Livy vi. 38. 9; Plut. Cam. 39.
[1754] P. 247, 248, n. 1.
[1755] Cf. Mommsen, Röm. Staatsr. ii. 282, 475. In time the
aediles themselves received viatores through a lex Papiria of
unknown date; CIL. vi. 1933.
[1756] Dion. Hal. vii. 35. 4; Plut. Cor. 18. For this reason
tribunician sentences continued to the end to be executed by a
tribune or an aedile; Mommsen, Röm. Staatsr. i. 146.
[1757] Dion. Hal. vi. 90. 2; cf. 95. 4; Zon. vii. 15. 10.
[1758] Livy iii. 31. 4-6; Dion. Hal. x. 48; Pliny, N. H. vii. 29. 201.
[1759] P. 264, 272. Mommsen, Röm. Staatsr. ii. 475, n. 3,
however, who looks upon it as a legally credible tradition, remarks
that the competence of the aediles, at that time coextensive with
that of the tribunes, must afterward have been limited by the
Twelve Tables.
[1760] As in 204, when an aedile was sent to arrest Scipio,
should circumstances favor his apprehension: Livy xxix. 20. 11;
xxxviii. 52. 7. More frequently they executed the sentence; p. 290,
n. 5.
[1761] Livy vii. 16. 9; Dion. Hal. xiv. 12 (22); Pliny, N. H. xviii. 3.
17; Plut. Cam. 39; Val. Max. viii. 6. 3.
[1762] Livy x. 13. 14; cf. Greenidge, Leg. Proced. 341.
[1763] Livy x. 23. 13. We are not informed whether these cases
came before the assembly.
[1764] Livy x. 47. 4.
[1765] Livy vii. 28. 9. The rank of the prosecutor cannot be
more definitely stated.
[1766] Pliny, N. H. xxxiii. (6.) 19. The accuser, Cn. Flavius, was
curule aedile; Livy ix. 46. 1.
[1767] Livy x. 23. 11 f. The prosecutors were curule aediles.
[1768] Livy viii. 22. 3; Val. Max. viii. 1. 7. Fourteen of the twenty-
nine tribes then existing had declared against him, when the
prosecuting aedile by an unintentional expression turned the vote
in his favor. This result is to be explained on the supposition that
the proceedings were at that point interrupted, and the whole vote
taken again; Lange, Röm. Alt. ii. 486.
[1769] Mommsen, Röm. Staatsr. ii. 493, n. 3; Lange, Röm. Alt.
ii. 584. From the nature of the process we infer that it was
aedilician; and as the accuser was a patrician, his aedileship must
have been curule.
[1770] P. 233, 269, 287.
[1771] P. 264.
[1772] P. 103.
[1773] P. 102, n. 1.
[1774] P. 273 ff.
[1775] Livy iii. 54. 14.
[1776] Ibid. § 15.
[1777] Livy iii. 55. 14.
[1778] Mommsen, Röm. Staatsr. ii. 279, n. 1, 302.
[1779] We have no means of testing the historical truth of these
three alleged plebiscites. The first Icilian was of transient
character, and the first Duillian was unnecessary, though not
especially suspicious on that account. The second Duillian
represents constitutional principles known to have been early
established. They are doubted by Herzog, Röm. Staatsverf. i. 149
f.
[1780] XII. 25. 2. He does not state that this arrangement was
embodied in a law, although otherwise it could not have been
effective.
[1781] Pais, Stor. di Rom. I. i. 558 f. The fact that Fabius Pictor
(in Gell. v. 4. 3) places the election of the first plebeian consul in
the twenty-second year after the Gallic conflagration indicates (1)
that Diodorus did not depend upon Fabius, (2) that Livy’s view of
this constitutional change is essentially that of Fabius; cf. Pais,
ibid. I. ii. 136, n. 2.
[1782] Livy iii. 63. 8-11; Dion. Hal. xi. 50. 1; Act. Triumph.
Capit., in CIL. i². p. 44; cf. Herzog, Röm. Staatsverf. i. 194.
[1783] Livy vii. 17. 9; Act. Triumph. Capit., in CIL. i². p. 44. In
this case it is possible that the senate for a time resisted, to yield
finally under pressure.
[1784] Cf. Polyb. vi. 15. 8; Dio Cass. Frag. 74. 2; Lange, Röm.
Alt. ii. 623.
[1785] Postumius, consul in 294, when refused a triumph by the
senate, refrained from bringing the case before the people
because he foresaw tribunician resistance, but declared his
intention to triumph by right of his consular imperium; Livy x. 37.
6-12; Dion. Hal. xvii, xviii. 5. 3 (18); Act. Triumph. Capit. in CIL. i².
p. 45. Q. Minucius, consul in 197, when refused by the senate,
asserted that he would triumph on the Alban Mount, also by right
of his consular imperium and after the example of many illustrious
men; Livy xxxiii. 23. 3; CIL. i². p. 48; cf. Mommsen, Röm. Forsch.
i. 214 f.; Röm. Staatsr. iii. 134.
[1786] P. 273, 284.
[1787] Cf. Livy iv. 20. 1; vi. 42. 8.
[1788] P. 285; cf. p. 301.
[1789] Cic. Rep. ii. 37. 63; Livy iv. 1-6; Flor. i. 17. 25. The
commonly accepted theory that this decemviral enactment merely
confirmed a custom which had existed from the beginning of
Rome is supported neither by the sources nor by a comparison of
early usage in other states.
[1790] P. 234.
[1791] P. 286.
[1792] Livy iii. 71 f.; Dion. Hal. xi. 52. Herzog, Röm. Staatsverf.
i. 198, n. 4, finds difficulties in the details; but we are not
warranted in denying the truth of the event on the ground of
irregularity in the proceedings, even while we admit that much is
uncertain in the history of the period to which the act is assigned.
[1793] P. 230, 283.
[1794] The institution of new offices and the increase in number
within existing magisterial colleges by act of the centuries (cf. p.
234) is merely the application of a long-recognized popular right.
[1795] Livy iv. 12. 8. This alleged act of the tribes is suspicious
because of its isolation; for in this period offices were instituted by
the centuries. It is either exceptional or an anticipation of later
usage; cf. p. 306.
[1796] Livy iv. 25. 13 f. The same author, vii. 15. 12 f., states
that the first lex de ambitu was enacted in 358; p. 296.
[1797] Livy iv. 51. 2 f.; Flor. i. 17. 2 (22); Zon. vii. 20. 5. The act,
like that of 440, is either exceptional or an anticipation of later
usage; cf. p. 309.
[1798] Livy vi. 20. 13. The context indicates that in Livy’s
opinion it was a resolution of the plebs. Dio Cass. Frag. 25.
Whether the order of the people, 437, directing the dictator at
public expense to present a golden crown of a pound weight to
Jupiter was dictatorial or tribunician cannot be determined; Livy iv.
20. 4.
[1799] Cf. iv. 48. 1; 53. 6; v. 12. 3; vi. 5. 2; 6. 1.
[1800] Livy iv. 36. 2 (424).
[1801] Livy iv. 59. 11; Diod. xiv. 16. 5; Zon. vii. 20. 6; Flor. i. 6
(12). 8; cf. Lange, Röm. Alt. i. 540, 668 f.; ii. 627; Herzog, Röm.
Staatsverf. i. 212 f.; p. 284 above.
[1802] Livy vi. 42. 2; cf. Wissowa, Relig. u. Kult. d. Röm. 461.
[1803] The word utique, “at least,” inserted in this article by Livy,
vi. 35. 5, belongs to the Genucian law of 342; p. 299.
[1804] Livy vi. 35. 4 f.; 42. 9; xxxiv. 4. 9.
[1805] In his account of the Licinian-Sextian legislation he
makes no mention of this last regulation, but assumes its
existence for the following period; cf. p. 291 f., on aedilician
prosecutions for violations of this article.
Other sources for the second Licinian-Sextian plebiscite are
Varro, R. R. i. 2. 9; Plut. Cam. 39; Ti. Gracch. 8; Appian, B. C. i. 8.
33; Vell. ii. 6. 3; Val. Max. viii. 6. 3; (Aurel. Vict.), Vir. Ill. 20.
The statute, especially the agrarian portion, is discussed by
Meyer, in Rhein. Mus. xxxvii (1882). 610-27; Niese, in Hermes,
xxiii (1888). 410-23; Röm. Gesch. 55, 148; Soltau, in Hermes, xxx
(1895). 624-9; Pais, Stor. di Rom. I. ii. 72 ff., 134 ff. Niese refuses
to believe that this agrarian legislation came so early, and prefers
a date shortly after the close of the war with Hannibal. Soltau,
controverting Niese’s view, insists that the chief regulation
mentioned by Livy—the limitation of occupation to five hundred
iugera—belongs to Licinius and Sextius, and that the article was
afterward renewed, with the addition of the other provisions stated
by Appian, probably about the time of the Hortensian legislation.
Against the earlier date is especially urged the circumstance that
the large number of iugera allowed to the individual is
incongruous with the narrow limits of the Roman territory at that
time. The provision for the relief of debtors, too, has the
appearance of an anticipation of a plebiscite on the same subject
passed in 447; p. 298 below; cf. Matzat, Röm. Chron. ii. 113, n. 9;
128, n. 6.
[1806] Livy vii. 15. 12 f.; Isler, Ueber das poetelische Gesetz de
ambitu, in Rhein. Mus. xxviii (1873). 473-7; Lange, Kleine
Schriften, ii. 195-213; Röm. Alt. i. 716; Herzog, Röm. Staatsverf. i.
241 f.; Ihm, in Pauly-Wissowa, Real-Encycl. i. 1801; cf. p. 295
above.
[1807] P. 202.
[1808] P. 235, 314.
[1809] Livy vii. 16. 7 f.; cf. Herzog, Röm. Staatsverf. i. 246-8;
Lange, Röm. Alt. i. 191; ii. 26, 621.
[1810] Livy vii. 16. 8.
[1811] Livy vii. 16. 1. Two laws of 356 have a certain degree of
financial interest: the dictatorial law which made provision for an
impending war (Livy vii. 17. 7); and the alleged resolution of the
people (p. 293) to grant the same dictator the privilege of a
triumph.
[1812] Tac. Ann. vi. 16; cf. Herzog, Röm. Staatsverf. i. 183, n.
3.
[1813] Livy vii. 21, 5; cf. Herzog. Röm. Staatsverf. i. 245. That
the bank commission owed its existence to a law is an inference
from the circumstances. The form of assembly is unknown. With
this Valerian-Marcian law, 352, Lange, Röm. Alt. ii. 621 f.,
conjecturally identifies the lex Marcia against usurers; Gaius iv.
23. In his opinion also (ibid. ii. 622; cf. Rudorff, Röm.
Rechtsgesch. i. 51) the lex Furia de sponsu mentioned by Gaius,
iii. 121; iv. 22, “discharging the sponsor and fide-promissor of
liability in two years and limiting the liability of each to a
proportionate part” (Poste’s interpretation) belongs to L. Furius,
dictator in 345 (Livy vii. 28. 2); whereas others assign it to the
year 95 (cf. Poste, Gai. Inst. 359) and others to a time
subsequent to Cicero (cf. Roby, Rom. Priv. Law, ii. 30). It was
later than the lex Appuleia de sponsu, which is referred to by
Gaius iii. 122, and which must have been enacted after the
establishment of the provincial system. It is to be attributed,
accordingly, to the famous tribune of 103, 100 (Poste, ibid. 359)
rather than to the like-named tribune of 390 (Livy v. 32. 8; Lange,
Röm. Alt. ii. 621). These considerations render the later dating of
the lex Furia the more probable. The lex Publilia de sponsu, the
date of which is also unknown, granted the surety (sponsor) an
action against the principal debtor in case the latter failed to
reimburse him within six months; Gaius iii. 127; iv. 22, cf. 171.
[1814] Livy vii. 27. 3; Tac. Ann. vi. 16. The author is not named.
[1815] P. 238.
[1816] Livy vii. 42. 1-3. Appian, B. C. i. 54, testifies to the
existence of an ancient law forbidding interest; cf. Tac. Ann. vi.
16.
[1817] Pais, Stor. di Rom. I. ii. 270, with his usual acumen has
argued against the existence of the Genucian as well as of the
Publilian statute; but the reasons urged by this eminent scholar
do not seem to me to be convincing. The period in which they fall
is certainly within the reach of tradition. The abolition of debts
through the Valerian law was in keeping with the populistic spirit
of the masses in that age, as was the prohibition of interest.
[1818] Pais, Stor. di Rom. I. ii. 278, n. 4: “Thus C. Junius
Bubulcus and Aemilius Barbula, consuls in 317, reappear in 311
b.c.; L. Papirius Cursor is consul in 320, 319, 315, 313; P. Decius
is consul in 312 and in 308,” etc.; cf. further Mommsen, Röm.
Staatsr. i. 519, n. 5. It is true that on one occasion Livy, x. 13. 8 f.
(298), speaks of the law and of a proposal of the tribunes to
obtain a dispensation for the candidate Fabius by a vote of the
people, oblivious of the violation of the law by this same Fabius
as well as by many others.
[1819] Livy xxiii. 31. 13 f.; Plut. Marc. 12 (215). On that
occasion when the people were told that the election of two
plebeians as colleagues in the consulship was displeasing to the
gods, they proceeded to choose a patrician in place of the second
plebeian; cf. Herzog, Röm. Staatsverf. i. 253, n. 2. The first
definitive election of two plebeians was in 172; Fast. Cos. Capit.,
in CIL. i². p. 25: “Ambo primi de plebe.”
[1820] Cf. Herzog, Röm. Staatsverf. i. 253.
[1821] Livy viii. 12. 14-16.
[1822] P. 235.
[1823] P. 237.
[1824] P. 307.
[1825] P. 274, 313.
[1826] The most detailed study of this subject, including a
critique of the principal modern views, is made by Soltau,
Gültigkeit der Plebiscite, in Berl. Stud. ii (1885). 1-176. His
criticism is more satisfactory than his construction.
[1827] This point is established by the circumstances (1) that
no writer of the period refers to the principle mentioned; (2) that
Cicero regards the thirty-five tribes under tribunician presidency
as the universus populus Romanus—a definition which is
incompatible with the legal exclusion of the patricians from that
form of assembly (p. 129 f.); (3) that on one occasion, 209, after
the Hortensian legislation Livy (xxvii. 21. 1-4) represents the
voting assembly under tribunician presidency as composed not
only of plebs but of all ranks (concursu plebisque et omnium
ordinum), and that the patricians were evidently free to take part
in the debates of the concilium; cf. Livy xliii. 16. 8; (4) Caesar, B.
C. iii. 1, seems to represent the praetors and tribunes as
presiding together over the same comitia (“praetoribus tribunisque
plebis rogationes ad populum ferentibus”)—which would prove
that no difference of composition existed between the pretorian
and the tribunician assemblies of tribes.
[1828] P. 230.
[1829] Livy ix. 5. 2.
[1830] Inv. ii. 30. 92.
[1831] Livy ix. 8. 14: the tribunes protested against breaking it.
[1832] Livy ix. 10. 10: the circumstance that he assaulted the
Roman fetialis is sufficient evidence of his view.
[1833] IX. 9. 4. Gellius, xvii. 21. 36, less credibly states that the
treaty was repudiated by order of the people.
[1834] Livy ix. 5-11; Cic. Off. iii. 30. 109; Inv. ii. 30. 92; Zon. vii.
26. 15.
[1835] Livy ix. 9. 4.
[1836] Livy viii. 36. 11 f. (ambassadors of the Samnites,
applying for peace to the dictator, are ordered by him to address
the senate, which replies that it will accept the arrangements of
the magistrate, 324); ix. 20. 8 (an unequal alliance with Apulia
negotiated by the consul, 317); ix. 43. 6 f. (the Hernicans, beaten
in war, apply to the senate, and are referred to the consuls, who
accept their submission, 307); ix. 45. 1-3 (Samnite ambassadors
ask peace of the senate, which replies that the consul will pass
through their country and will report to the senate on the
conditions which he finds there, 304); x. 3. 5 (the dictator, fining
the Marsians of a part of their territory, grants them a renewal of
the treaty, 302). In none of these instances is mention made of
the people; and most of them preclude a popular vote.
[1837] Sall. Iug. 39.
[1838] Cf. Livy ix. 20. 2 f. (318), in which a proposal of peace
was rejected by the people. In the treaty with the Lucanians, 298,
Livy, x. 11. 13; 12. 1, mentions the senate only; Dionysius, xvii,
xviii (xvi. 12). 1. 3, speaks of both senate and assembly.
[1839] Cf. Livy ix. 20. 2 f.
[1840] Polyb. vi. 14. 10 f.; 15. 9.
[1841] P. 181.
[1842] Röm. Alt. i. 514; ii. 638; p. 283 above.
[1843] Livy viii. 13. 10 ff.; ch. 14.
[1844] The gift of citizenship, adprobantibus cunctis, to L.
Mamilius, dictator of Tusculum, 458, does not necessarily imply a
public vote; Livy iii. 29. 6. Even if this were the opinion of Livy, it
need be no more than an anticipation of later usage. In 381 the
Tusculans received the citizenship, how we are not informed; Livy
vi. 26. 8; Dio Cass. Frag. 28. 2. In the account of the settlement of
Latium and Campania in 340, involving the grant of citizenship to
the Capuan equites, no mention is made of either senate or
people; Livy viii. 11. 13-16. The sources are likewise silent as to a
popular vote in the grant of citizenship sine suffragio to the
Caerites; Livy vii. 20. 8; Dio Cass. Frag. 33 (Boissevain i. p. 138);
Strabo v. 2. 3, p. 220; Gell. xvi. 13. 7. From Livy and Dio Cassius
it may be reasonably inferred that the event took place after 353,
though Boissevain’s date, 273, seems to be too late. Probably
they were admitted between 353 and 332—before the hundred
years’ peace had far advanced.
[1845] Livy viii. 17. 12.
[1846] Röm. Alt. ii. 638.
[1847] I. 14. 4.
[1848] Livy viii. 21. 10. Nothing is said as to the chairmanship of
the assembly. The event is referred to by Dio Cass. Frag. 35. 11.
[1849] Livy ix. 43. 24.
[1850] P. 352.
[1851] Lange, Röm. Alt. ii. 610 f., 638.
[1852] P. 234. The only exception is the creation of a prefecture
of the market by a plebiscite in 440; p. 295.
[1853] Livy viii. 23. 11 f.
[1854] Livy x. 22. 9.
[1855] Livy ix. 42. 2.
[1856] Livy x. 16. 1.
[1857] Dion. Hal. xvii, xviii (xvi. 16). 4. 4.
[1858] Lange, Röm. Alt. ii. 640.
[1859] Livy x. 24. 18; cf. Willems, Sén. Rom. ii. 531. For other
versions of the event, see Livy x. 26. 5 f.
[1860] Livy, ep. xi; p. 359 above. Probability favors the
tribunician assembly.
[1861] Livy ix. 20. 5.
[1862] Fest. 233. 14.
[1863] Mommsen, Röm. Staatsr. ii. 609.
[1864] Lange, Röm. Alt. ii. 73, 632. Cuq, in Daremberg et
Saglio, Dict. iii. 1144, assumes that it was proposed by L. Furius,
praetor in that year.
[1865] Livy ix. 30. 3.
[1866] P. 234.
[1867] Livy ix. 30. 3 f. In ix. 38. 2 he refers to a naval
commander whom the senate placed in charge of the coast, and
whom Mommsen, Röm. Staatsr. ii. 580, n. 1, supposes to have
been a duovir. That a duovir commanded a fleet in 282 is proved
by Livy, ep. xii; Dio Cass. Frag. 39. 4. Probably the triumviri
capitales, 289, were created by a similar act of the tribes; Livy, ep.
xi; p. 312.
[1868] P. 309.
[1869] P. 311.
[1870] Lange, Röm. Alt. ii. 534, 636.
[1871] Fest. 246. 19.
[1872] The brief statement of Festus, ibid., is here interpreted in
the light of Livy xxiii. 23. 6. In general on the Ovinian plebiscite,
see Lange, Kleine Schriften, ii. 393-446; Willems, Sén. Rom. i.
153-173, 668-89; Herzog, Röm. Staatsverf. i. 259 ff.; Mommsen,
Röm. Staatsr. ii. 418; iii. 873, 879.
[1873] Cf. Livy iv. 5. 2; p. 287 above.
[1874] Cf. Gell. x. 20. 4, 9 f.
[1875] Cf. Livy viii. 16. 4; ix. 7. 15; 28. 2; Diod. xix. 66. 1; p.
299, n. 3.
[1876] Livy x. 13. 8 f.
[1877] Röm. Alt. ii. 641.
[1878] Livy x. 22. 9.
[1879] It is the only instance mentioned for this early time.
[1880] Livy x. 13. 10: “Iam regi leges, non regere”; cf. Appian,
Lib. 112; Lange, Röm. Alt. ii. 641.
[1881] P. 295 f.
[1882] P. 293, 295, n. 6.
[1883] Div. i. 26. 55; Macrob. Sat. i. 11. 13 (on the reading, see
Mommsen, in Hermes iv (1870). 7; Lange, Röm. Alt. ii. 634.
[1884] Livy viii. 13. 1.
[1885] Macrob. Sat. i. 11. 5; Cuq, in Daremberg et Saglio, Dict.
iii. 11. 54. On these games, see Marquardt, Röm. Staatsv. iii. 497;
Wissowa, Relig. u. Kult. d. Röm. 111 f., 385 f.
[1886] Livy ii. 36; Dion. Hal. vii. 68; Plut. Cor. 24; Val. Max. i. 7.
4; cf. Lange, Röm. Alt. ii. 634.
[1887] Livy ix. 46. 7.
[1888] Röm. Alt. i. 828; ii. 634.
[1889] Cic. Dom. 49. 127 f.; Att. iv. 2. 3.
[1890] Livy x. 6 f. He has evidently made a mistake in
supposing the number of pontiffs to have been increased to only
eight (chs. 6. 6; 8. 3; 9. 2; cf. Bardt, Priester der vier grossen
Collegien, 32 f.; Wissowa, Relig. u. Kult. d. Röm. 432, n. 4.)
[1891] P. 240, 241, 269, 280.
[1892] P. 241 f.
[1893] P. 295.
[1894] Livy viii. 18. 3 ff.; Val. Max. ii. 5. 3; Oros. iii. 10; August.
Civ. Dei, iii. 17. p. 124 Domb. The lex de veneficio mentioned by
Livy, ep. viii, may refer to the act which established this court; but
it would not be legitimate to argue from this expression a popular
vote. The epitomator undoubtedly drew all his information from
the text.
[1895] Livy ix. 26. 6 ff.; cf. however, Lange, Röm. Alt. ii. 637.
[1896] Livy viii. 37. 8; Val. Max. ix. 10. 1; Pliny, N. H. vii. 42. 43.
136; p. 288, n. 1.
[1897] Lange, Röm. Alt. ii. 637.
[1898] Livy ix. 16. 10; xxvi. 33. 10.
[1899] Cic. Rep. ii. 34. 59; Livy viii. 28; Varro, L. L. vii. 105;
Dion. Hal. xvi. 5 (9); Suidas, s. v. Γάιος Λαιτώριος; cf. Kleineidam,
in Festg. f. F. Dahn, ii. 1-30.
[1900] Varro, ibid., assigns the law to a dictator, C. Popillius,
which may be a mistake for C. Poetelius, dictator in 313; Livy ix.
28. 2.
[1901] Greenidge, Leg. Proced. 74.
[1902] P. 238.
[1903] P. 284.
[1904] Livy, iv. 11. 3-7, represents the tribunes of 442 as
attempting to call to account the colonial commissioners of that
year (cf. p. 288). In 418 they planned to offer a bill for colonizing
Labici (Livy iv. 47. 6). In 415 a bill for colonizing Bolae, introduced
by a tribune of the plebs, was vetoed by a colleague; Livy iv. 49.
6; cf. Diod. xiii. 42. 6. Many similar instances are given for the
time immediately following; cf. Lange, Röm. Alt. ii. 626 f. with
citations. Although we may question the truth of these individual
cases, we have no ground for doubting that such agitation
continued long before the tribunes succeeded in carrying a
colonial law.
[1905] Livy x. 21. 9; p. 307.
[1906] Livy viii. 36. 9 f.; ix. 42. 5.
[1907] Cf. Livy x. 6. 3; 21. 9; Herzog, Röm. Staatsverf. i. 282 f.
[1908] Cf. Livy x. 17. 10; 20. 16; 25. 3; 30. 10: “Praemia illa
tempestate militiae haudquaquam spernenda”; 31. 4; 44. 1; 45.
14; 46. 15.
[1909] Livy x. 13. 14; 23. 13; 47. 4.
[1910] Livy x. 46. 5 f.
[1911] Livy x. 31. 8; 47. 6; ep. xi; Zon. viii. 1. 10; Val. Max. i. 8.
2.
[1912] Livy x. 23. 11 f.
[1913] P. 307, n. 1, 332.
[1914] P. 279.
[1915] Boissevain’s reading.
[1916] The chief source is a mutilated fragment of Dio Cassius
viii. 37. 2-4, which is paraphrased in the text above. The account
given by Zonaras viii. 2 is a brief epitome of the fragment, adding
the circumstance of the foreign war. The restoration of the
fragment is due chiefly to Niebuhr, Rhein. Mus. ii (1828). 588 ff.
See also the edition of Dio Cassius by Boissevain, i. 110 f. and by
Melber, i. 108 f. The secession to the Janiculum is mentioned by
Livy, ep. xi, and by Pliny, N. H. xvi. 10. 37.
[1917] Pliny, N. H. xvi. 10. 37: “Q. Hortensius dictator, cum
plebes secessisset in Ianiculum, legem in aesculeto tulit, ut quod
ea iussisset omnes quirites teneret”; Gaius i. 3: “Unde olim patricii
dicebant plebiscitis se non teneri, quia sine auctoritate eorum
facta essent; sed postea lex Hortensia lata est, qua cautum est ut
plebiscita universum populum tenerent; itaque eo modo legibus
exaequata sunt”; Laelius, in Gell. xv. 27. 4: “Ita ne leges quidem
proprie, sed plebisscita appellantur, quae tribunis plebis
ferentibus accepta sunt, quibus rogationibus ante patricii non
tenebantur, donec Q. Hortensius dictator legem tulit, ut eo iure,
quod plebs statuisset, omnes quirites tenerentur”; Pomponius, in
Dig. i. 2. 2. 8: “Quia multae discordiae nascebantur de his plebis
scitis, pro legibus placuit et ea observari lege Hortensia: et ita
factum est, ut inter plebis scita et legem species constituendi
interesset, potestas eadem esset.”
[1918] P. 235, 372.
[1919] This fact is clearly expressed by Gaius; see p. 313, n. 2
above.
[1920] Before acquiring this right they had been accustomed to
sit on their bench at the door of the curia, in order to watch the
proceedings within. Though as yet without an unrestricted legal
right of intercession, they had attempted to force their veto upon
the senate; Val. Max. ii. 2. 7; Zon. vii. 15. 8; cf. Mommsen, Röm.
Staatsr. ii. 316 f. The wording of the law of 304 regarding the
dedication of a temple or altar indicates that the tribunes had not
yet acquired the right to convoke the senate and bring measures
formally before it; Mommsen, ibid. p. x, n. 2.
[1921] P. 270.
[1922] Granius Licinianus, in Macrob. Sat. i. 16. 30: “Lege
Hortensia effectum, ut fastae essent (nundinae), uti rustici, qui
nundiniandi causa in urbem veniebant, lites componerent.
Nefasto enim die praetori fari non licebat”; § 29: “Iulius Caesar
sexto decimo auspiciorum libro negat nundinis contionem
advocari posse, id est cum populo agi: ideoque nundinis
Romanorum haberi comitia non posse”; cf. p. 471 below.
[1923] P. 139.
[1924] P. 471 below; cf. Lange, Röm. Alt. ii. 644; Herzog, Röm.
Staatsverf. i. 287 f.; Mommsen, Röm. Staatsr. iii. 372 f.
[1925] P. 243, 287 f.
[1926] P. 247, 289.
[1927] P. 309.
[1928] P. 290.
[1929] p. 248 ff.
[1930] P. 330 ff.
[1931] P. 248.
[1932] (Aurel. Vict.) Vir. Ill. 50. 1.
[1933] Livy xxii. 35. 3; 40. 3; 49. 11; xxvii. 34. 3 f.; xxix. 37. 13 f.
[1934] P. 62.
[1935] Livy xxiv. 18. 3, 6.
[1936] Livy xxii. 53. 4 f.
[1937] Livy xxiv. 43. 1-3; cf. Klebs, in Pauly-Wissowa, Real-
Encycl. ii. 2093.
[1938] A similar attempt in 204 by Cn. Baebius, tribune of the
plebs, to prosecute the censors C. Claudius and M. Livius while in
office was quashed by the senate; Livy xxix. 37; Val. Max. vii. 2. 6;
cf. Mommsen, Röm. Staatsr. ii. 322, n. 4.
[1939] P. 249. The state agreed to insure from the enemy and
from storms cargoes shipped for the use of the army; Livy xxiii.
49. 1-3; xxv. 3. 10. Postumius took advantage of this insurance to
send out old, unseaworthy ships with cargoes of little value, and
after wrecking them, to report many times the real amount of the
loss; ibid. § 10 f. The senate, fearing to give offence to the
powerful order of publicans, failed to act when informed by the
praetor; § 12. Thereupon the tribunes brought the accusation. For
the trial, see ibid. § 13-9 and ch. 4; cf. Lange, Röm. Alt. ii. 177,
588. The weight of the as in which the fine was estimated is not
given by Livy xxv. 3. 13.
For a similar transfer of the case against Cn. Fulvius, retired
praetor, from the tribes to the centuries, 211, see p. 249.
[1940] Val. Max. viii. 1. damn. 5. Here, too, should be
mentioned the condemnation of a member of the same board in a
similar action for neglect to inspect the watchmen; Val. Max. ibid.
§ 6.
[1941] Cato, Orat. i: “Dierum dictarum de consulatu suo.”
[1942] Livy xxvii. 46. 1 f.
[1943] Cato, Orat. xiii; Livy xxxviii. 57. 10; cf. Mommsen, Röm.
Forsch. ii. 459 ff.
[1944] For the cognomen, see Münzer, in Pauly-Wissowa,
Real-Encycl. iv. 1475.
[1945] Polyb. xxiii. 14; Gell. iv. 3-5, 7-12; Diod. xxix. 24 (from
Polyb.); Livy xxxviii. 54; Val. Max. iii. 7. 1 d; (Aurel. Vict.) Vir. Ill.
49. 16-9.
[1946] Mommsen, Röm. Forsch. ii. 464 f.
[1947] In the story of the trial given by Antias the two Petilii
were the prosecutors of Publius (Livy xxxviii. 50 f.). In ch. 54 f.
Livy, again following Antias, represents these tribunes as authors
of a plebiscite for the appointment of a special court to inquire
concerning the money received from King Antiochus, and states
that L. Scipio was condemned by this court. The story may not be
without foundation; but if such a plebiscite was adopted, it could
not have had the desired result.
[1948] This incident is considered doubtful by Bloch, in Rev. d.
étud. anc. viii. (1906). 109.
[1949] According to Diod. xxix. 21, Scipio was threatened with
the death penalty; but the trial actually took the form described
above in the text.
[1950] Gell. vi. 19. 2. It was probably in connection with this trial
that Cato delivered his speech “Concerning the money of King
Antiochus”; Livy xxxviii. 54. 11; Plut. Cat. Mai. 15; Cato, Orat. xv.
[1951] The edicts of these conflicting tribunes are given by Gell.
vi. 19. 5, 7; cf. Livy xxxviii. 56. 10; Cic. Prov. Cons. 8. 18. The
dissenting edict states that the fine was imposed nullo exemplo,
yet it was within the competence of the tribune; Mommsen, Röm.
Staatsr. ii. 322, n. 2.
[1952] The account here given closely follows Mommsen, Röm.
Forsch. ii. 417-510. For other authorities on the trial, see p. 329.
[1953] Plut. Cat. Mai. 19; Lange, Röm. Alt. ii. 590; Mommsen,
Röm. Staatsr. ii. 322, n. 4.
In 142 P. Scipio Aemilianus when censor had deprived Ti.
Claudius Asellus of his public horse. Afterward this man as
tribune of the plebs brought against him an accusation for
malversation in his censorship; Gell. iii. 4. 1; cf. ii. 20. 6. It was a
finable case (ibid. vi. 11. 9), in which was charged against him a

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