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Use of Recycled Plastics in Eco-efficient
Concrete
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Woodhead Publishing Series in Civil and
Structural Engineering
Edited by
Fernando Pacheco-Torgal
Jamal Khatib
Francesco Colangelo
Rabin Tuladhar
Woodhead Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier
The Officers’ Mess Business Centre, Royston Road, Duxford, CB22 4QH, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described
herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and
the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of
products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods,
products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
List of contributors xi
Index 461
List of contributors
market. For instance, as contradicting as it may seem, Dunant et al. (2018) showed that
reused steel is somewhat more expensive than new steel elements. Fig 1.1 shows plas-
tic post-consumer waste rates of recycling, energy recovery, and landfill per country in
2016 and also the group of 10 countries that have implemented landfill restrictions.
The figure illustrates in a very clear way the effort that needs to be taken to close
the gap between the state-of-the-art plastic waste recycling and the new recycling tar-
gets. Of course energy recovery is nothing more than incineration (Eriksson and Finn-
veden, 2017).
Also the proof that the new and ambitious waste plastic recycling approved by the
European Parliament could be hard to achieve is given by Karl-H. Foerster, executive
director of industry organization Plastics Europe, who responded to the parliamentary
proposals, saying that: “Taking into account today’s recycling technology, we already
Figure 1.1 Plastic waste rates of recycling, energy recovery, and landfill per country (Plastics, 2017).
4 Use of Recycled Plastics in Eco-efficient Concrete
consider that the 55% plastics packaging preparing for re-use and recycling target pro-
posed by the Commission is challenging. We would therefore like to call on the Pres-
idency of the Council to carefully assess the impact prior to adopting any substantive
amendment to the rules on the calculation initially proposed by the Commission.” That
position however must be seen in the light of the interests of the associates of Plastics
Europe which are in the business of plastic manufacture and not in the business of
waste plastic recycling. Of course, some European countries like the Netherlands,
which in 2014 already recycled 50% of (packaging) plastics, aiming for 52% in
2022 (Gradus et al., 2017) will be in a better position to achieve this requirements.
Be there as it may, the truth is that even countries with top performance concerning
plastic waste recycling like Austria recognized that in order to achieve the proposed
increased target major steps will be needed with respect to both collection and sorting
of waste plastic (Van Eygen et al., 2018). This also means that even in Europe there’s
still much to do in order to aim at a 100% recycling target (zero plastic waste scenario).
In January 16 of 2018 the European Strategy for Plastics in a Circular Economy was
released (COM, 2018). The document confirmed that more than 85% of plastic was
sent to China. The document mentions that internalizing the environmental costs of
landfilling and incineration through high or gradually rising fees or taxes could
improve the economics of plastic recycling. However, this is just wishful thinking
lacking a sound study. More likely it could constitute an incentive for illegal dumping
or for exportation of plastic wastes to Africa as was mentioned in a United Nations
University study (PiP, 2017) meaning that at this moment it is not possible to forecast
how increasing recycling targets and the use of internalizing the environmental costs
through rising fees or taxes may lead to an increase of smuggling waste to third world
countries. The concept of eco-efficiency was firstly coined in the book Changing
Course (Schmidheiny, 1992) in the context of 1992 Earth Summit process. This
concept includes "the development of products and services at competitive prices
that meet the needs of humankind with quality of life, while progressively reducing
their environmental impact and consumption of raw materials throughout their life cy-
cle, to a level compatible with the capacity of the planet.” All of these give an impor-
tant value to the option of recycling waste plastics through concrete, which is the most
consumed material in our planet, about 25 gigatonnes per year around 3.5 ton per
capita (Hossain et al., 2018). Not to mention the several billion tons of asphalt concrete
used by the pavement industry each year. The use of recycled plastics in eco-efficient
concrete can be done mainly by replacing natural aggregates, as binders and also as
recycled fibers, allowing for improvements in the ductility of concrete composites.
Those are the areas covered by this book.
Chapter 2 concerns techniques for the separation of plastic waste namely gravity
separation, electrostatic separation, magnetic density separation, flotation, and
sensor-based sorting. Auxiliary technologies usually found in plastic recycling plants
are also described: magnetic and Eddy current separators. The importance of recycled
plastic quality control and product certification is strongly pointed out, reporting both
traditional and advanced quality measurement techniques.
Chapter 3 discusses hydraulic separation of plastic waste. This chapter presents an
original device for the hydraulic separation of plastic polymers from mixtures. An
extensive experimental campaign was conducted to investigate the effectiveness of
the apparatus, using two geometric arrangements, nine hydraulic configurations, and
three selections of polymers at three stages of a material’s life cycle. Experimental
data were also employed to validate a numerical model developed within the frame-
work of Computation Fluid Dynamics. The separation results were evaluated in terms
of grade and recovery of a useful material.
Chapter 4 presents the case for the production of recycled plastic fibers. The pro-
duction process includes melt-spinning and hot-drawing processes, which increase
crystallinity of the plastic polymer fibers and improve its mechanical properties.
Part II concerns the case of concrete with recycled plastic as aggregate or binder
(Chapters 5e15).
Chapter 5 reviews the fresh properties of concrete with plastic aggregates. The
chapter also reviews the case for fresh properties of self-compacting concrete.
Chapter 6 covers mostly the mechanical strength of concrete with polyvinyl chlo-
ride (PVC) aggregates including compressive and tensile strength and modulus of
elasticity.
Chapter 7 provides a comprehensive review of concrete containing Expanded Poly-
styrene (EPS), covers recent research, including some recent research by the authors,
with some details on the compositions of concrete mixes, presentation, and discussion
of the results obtained. The review includes the influence of different amounts of EPS
as a replacement for natural aggregates on the different mechanical, physical, and dura-
bility properties of lightweight aggregate concretes (LWAC). The chapter also in-
cludes the methods and techniques for recycling waste EPS to be utilized in concrete.
Chapter 8 deals with the use of polyolefin waste aggregates (PWA) obtained from
recycled plastics and used as plastic aggregates to replace the natural ones to produce
lightweight aggregate concrete (LWAC). The mechanical properties (compressive and
tensile strength) and physical properties (porosity, density, and thermal stability) are
determined. Furthermore, the postfire residual mechanical performance, ultrasonic
testing, and compression force are evaluated.
Chapter 9 is concerned with waste polypropylene-based aggregates, in terms of its
physical, mechanical, and hygric properties and, in particular, of thermal attributes and
optimum energy performance in building construction.
Chapter 10 addresses polymers for enhancing neutron radiation shielding of con-
crete. Past research in the field is reviewed. The feasibility issues and concerns while
using virgin and waste pulverized High-density polyethylene (HDPE) polymeric ma-
terials as partial replacement to fine aggregates for making concrete mixes with
enhanced neutron radiation shielding characteristics are discussed. The fresh and
6 Use of Recycled Plastics in Eco-efficient Concrete
hardened properties of these mixes and their effect on neutron radiation shielding are
also discussed.
Chapter 11 reviews the reuse of dioctyl terephthalate (DOTP) obtained from waste
PET into concrete. Fresh properties as well as mechanical properties of hardened con-
crete are reviewed, along with thermal conductivity. Performance comparisons be-
tween DOTP concrete and PET concrete are also reviewed.
Chapter 12 covers studies investigated in the usage of PET wastes in asphalt
mixture. The volume and mechanical properties of asphalt mixtures containing PET
wastes along with the physical characteristic of the PET-modified binder are examined.
Chapter 13 discloses results on a case study of asphalt concrete performance with
different plastic wastes. Mechanical properties and durability parameters are covered.
Emissions footprint is also covered.
Chapter 14 discusses the need of stabilization of asphalt concrete and different sta-
bilizer materials using recycling plastics. Suitable methods for incorporating waste
plastics, advantages of each, performance of waste plastic added mixtures are dis-
cussed in detail with brief information on some field evaluations.
Chapter 15 reviews the use of recycled plastic as partial replacement of bitumen in
asphalt concrete. The need for stabilization of asphalt concrete is reviewed. The per-
formance of asphalt concrete with plastics is also addressed.
Finally, Part III covers concrete with recycled plastic fibers (Chapters 16e22).
Chapter 16 surveys the usage of metalized plastic waste (MPW) as a cement con-
crete constituent in a macrofibrous form. The chapter focuses on how to obtain the op-
timum quantity of MPW fibers with a suitable size to be used in concrete and changes
in the deformation response due to the axial compression along with the evaluation of
preliminary material properties.
Chapter 17 addresses concrete with PVC fibers in the fresh and hardened state. It is
suggested that the use of PVC fibers, either 0.8% (by weight of cement) or 0.2% (by
volume of concrete), could significantly improve the performances of concrete. Lim-
itations and practical issues on the utilization of PVC fibers in concrete mixes are iden-
tified. Hence, recommendations and future research needs on the practical implications
of the use of PVC fibers are given at the end of the chapter.
Chapter 18 addresses the case of polymers added to concrete in the form of binder
or as discrete elements (fibers) or continuous (strips) can limit the presence of cracks
and especially avoid the corrosion processes in reinforced concrete structural elements.
In more detail, the effect of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) on concrete mix is espe-
cially considered. Laboratory results of concrete reinforced with PET fibers derived
from recycled water bottles and with different shapes are analyzed.
Chapter 19 presents an overview of physical and mechanical properties of concrete
containing recycled carpet waste fibers, as well as the carpet structure and fiber
properties.
Chapter 20 gives details of a case study on the performance of asphalt concrete rein-
forced with recycled PET fibers.
Chapter 21 closes Part III with a chapter on the life cycle assessment. The produc-
tion of 100% recycled polypropylene fibers is compared with the environmental im-
pacts of virgin PP fibers and steel reinforcing mesh.
Introduction to the use of recycled plastics in eco-efficient concrete 7
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Techniques for separation of
plastic wastes 2
Silvia Serranti, Giuseppe Bonifazi
Department of Chemical Engineering, Materials & Environment, Sapienza University of
Rome, Rome, Italy
2.1 Introduction
Mechanical recycling, which is the processing of waste by physical means, represents
the main approach to follow in order to recover plastics. This process typically
includes different actions, such as collection, screening, manual and/or automatic
sorting, size reduction, washing, extrusion, and granulation that may occur in different
sequences and more than one at a time, according to the characteristics of the feed plas-
tic waste, in terms of origin, size, shape, and composition (Hopewell et al., 2009;
Ragaert et al., 2017).
Foundation of each mechanical process, finalized to separate a specific material
inside a flow stream containing other materials also, is to know the different properties
of the target material, with respect to the actions to be applied (i.e., comminution,
classification, separation). Important material properties useful to select the best
separation strategies for segregation of plastic waste include: particle size, class
distribution, density, magnetic and electric properties, color, shape, etc. Density
usually represents one of the most utilized properties to perform material separation.
Unfortunately, some polymers are characterized by very close values of density
(Al-Salem et al., 2009); in these cases this property cannot be successfully utilized,
especially to obtain high-quality single polymer streams.
The need of powerful technologies to perform plastic waste separation, being at the
same time cost-effective and able to guarantee high quality of products in terms of pu-
rity is more and more stringent in order to produce secondary plastics that are compet-
itive in the market in comparison with the virgin polymers. In fact, the actual economic
and environmental constraints dramatically increase the interest of many players (i.e.,
industries, recyclers, technology developers, engineers, etc.) both in waste-sorting
technologies, for the production of high-quality secondary polymers, and in devel-
oping automatic sensors for quality assessment of waste-derived secondary polymers.
On December 2015 plastic was in fact identified by the European Commission as a key
priority in the “EU Action Plan for a circular economy” (COM, 2015) and in January
2018 a “European strategy for plastics in a circular economy” (COM, 2018) was
adopted in order to use such a resource in a more sustainable way, including measures
for the improvement in plastic sorting and recycling capacity and in quality of recycled
plastics.
A mechanical process aimed to perform plastic waste recycling is based on the uti-
lization of fast, accurate, and reliable tools and equipment specifically addressed to
separate and recover single polymer streams, eliminating polluting elements (i.e., other
polymers or other materials) present in the feed. As already stated, recycling plant
layout has to be developed and managed taking into account the different polymers
in the feed as well as the presence of other materials, both aspects in relation to the
plastic waste sources (Ignatyev et al., 2014), that is: virgin and used ones. The
polymer-based products that belong to the first source class (i.e., virgin waste) never
reached the consumer (i.e., runners from injection molding, waste from production,
changeovers, fall-out products, cuttings, and trimmings). These start-of-life plastic
wastes are usually uncontaminated both from other polymers and/or nonpolymers.
Obviously, they represent the higher-quality grades of polymer waste. End-of-life plas-
tic wastes belong to the second source class (i.e., postconsumer waste). These latter can
strongly vary both in quantity and in quality according to the collecting source and/or
the adopted collecting strategies.
Mechanical recycling can be applied to plastic waste sorting following two different
approaches, that is, at macro- or microscale.
Plastic macrosorting is usually performed when the waste flow stream contains the
polymers to be recovered as macroobjects easy to be identified and separated. In this
case, any specific mechanical action (i.e., size reduction/screening) has to be prelimi-
nary applied and waste plastics, usually bottles and containers, are separated. Specific
polymer attributes are first detected by specialized sensing devices and according to
their characteristics further separated, usually following air-blowebased strategies.
Manual separation strategies are also applied and human knowledge is at the base
of the separation, It is a labor-intensive, costly, and inefficient option, even if today
plastic containers are labeled according to the constituting polymer and/or blend of
polymers.
Plastic microsorting is usually applied when waste plastics are recovered as flakes,
that is, individuals resulting from milling actions, inside a flow stream of mixed waste
characterized by different physical chemical attributes. In this case, handling costs
decrease and the quantity of waste strongly increases, but more complex, and often
also sophisticated technologies have to be designed, implemented, set up, and applied.
These technologies (e.g., size reduction, screening, separation, etc.) are usually
sequentially applied. In the latter case, sorting units and related logics, both addressed
to separation and/or recovered polymer flow stream quality assessment play a preem-
inent role.
2016. The largest plastic producers are China (29%), followed by Europe (19%) and
NAFTA (18%).
Despite the global increase in plastic production, the potential for recycling plastic
waste is still largely unexploited. The reuse and recycling of plastic at the end of life
are very low, especially compared to other materials such as paper, glass, and metal.
The European plastics converter demand by segment in 2016 is reported in Fig. 2.1,
showing that the packaging sector accounts for 39.9%, followed by building and con-
struction (19.7%); automotive (10%); electrical and electronic equipment (6.2%);
household, leisure, and sports (4.2%), agriculture (3.3%). Other sectors, including ap-
pliances, mechanical engineering, furniture, medical, etc., account for the remaining
16.7% (Plastics The Facts, 2017).
In Fig. 2.2 the European distribution of plastic waste generation by segment in 2015
is reported. It is evident that the main source of plastic waste is packaging, accounting
for 59% of the total plastic waste. It can be noticed that from production to waste,
different plastic products are characterized by different life cycles, depending on their
use, for example, plastic packaging has a service life of less than 1 year, plastic for in-
dustrial equipment can have a service life of 40 years or more. That is the reason why
the volume of collected plastic waste in 1 year usually does not match the volume of
plastic production.
About 27.1 million tonnes of plastic waste were collected in Europe in 2016
(Plastics The Facts, 2017), of which 31.1% was collected for recycling, 41.6% for
energy recovery and 27.3% still went to landfill. Even if the percentage of recycled
plastics is quite low, a positive aspect is that in the past 10 years (from 2006 to
2016) plastic waste recycling has increased by 79% and landfill has decreased by
43%. Unfortunately, even if the EU situation is improving, in many countries landfill
is still the first or second option for plastic waste.
Concerning plastic packaging waste treatment, in 2016 recycling was the first
option accounting for 40.9%, followed by energy recovery (38.8%) and landfill
(20.3%).
Building &
construction 19.70%
Automotive 10.00%
Agriculture 3.30%
Others 16.70%
Agriculture 5.00%
Non packaging
household 4.00%
Packaging 59.00%
Automotive 5.00%
It was estimated that plastic production and the incineration of plastic waste
generate a total of about 400 million tonnes of CO2 per year (Ellen MacArthur
Foundation, 2016). Increased use of recycled plastics can reduce dependence on fossil
fuel extraction for plastic production and contain CO2 emissions. According to esti-
mates (Rahimi and García, 2017), recycling of plastic waste from around the world
could result in annual energy savings of 3.5 billion barrels of oil.
Alternative types of raw materials are also being developed (for example, bio-based
plastics or plastics produced from carbon dioxide or methane), which offer the same
functionalities of traditional plastics with a potentially lower environmental impact,
but currently represent a very small slice of the market.
Very large quantities of plastic waste, generated both on land and at sea, are
dispersed in the environment, causing considerable economic and environmental dam-
age. Worldwide, between 5 and 13 million tonnes of plastics end up in the oceans each
year, representing between 1.5% and 4% of the world production of this material
(Jambeck et al., 2015). Plastic is estimated to account for over 80% of marine litter.
The plastic residues are transported by sea currents, sometimes even for very long dis-
tances, and can be deposited on land, break up into microplastics, or form dense areas
trapped in oceanic gyres.
The phenomenon is accentuated by the increasing amount of plastic waste gener-
ated every year, also due to the growing diffusion of “single-use” plastic products,
for example, packaging or other consumer products thrown away after only one short
use, rarely recycled, and subject to being dispersed in the environment. These products
include small packaging, bags, disposable cups, lids, straws, and cutlery, in which the
plastic is widely used for its lightness, low costs, and practical features.
New sources of plastic dispersion are also increasing, generating further potential
risks to the environment and human health. Microplastics, defined as tiny plastic frag-
ments smaller than 5 mm, accumulate in the sea, where, due to their small size, they
can be easily ingested by marine fauna, and can also enter the food chain. Recent
studies have found the presence of microplastics in the air, in drinking water, and in
foods, and their impact on human health is still unknown.
Techniques for separation of plastic wastes 13
Furthermore, the increase in the market share of plastics with biodegradable prop-
erties creates new opportunities but also generates risks. In the absence of a clear
labeling for consumers and without proper collection and processing of waste, it could
lead to an increase in the dispersion of plastics and create problems for mechanical
recycling. On the other hand, biodegradable plastics can certainly be useful for
some applications and innovation in this sector is welcomed.
12.3%
10.0%
7.4% 7.5%
6.7%
Each step of the chain affects the others. For example, the selection of the sorting
technology will depend on the characteristics of collected plastic waste (types,
composition, etc.) and the final destination of the recovered product will depend
on its quality.
Collection is carried out adopting different systems, depending also on the different
sources, such as plastics from household waste and from industrial waste. Collection
can be, for example, monomaterial, if plastic is collected as source-separated fraction,
or multimaterial, if plastic is collected with other packaging materials (aluminum,
glass, etc.).
Manual sorting is usually necessary at the beginning of the recycling process for the
preliminary removal of films, cardboard, and bulky items and is usually carried out by
operators checking the waste stream on the conveyor belt.
Screening is applied to remove small objects such as glass and stones. Typical
screening equipment are drum or vibrating screens. Usually waste is divided into three
fractions: undersize (<50 mm), middle size (from 50 to 300 mm), and oversize
(>300 mm). Usually plastic is concentrated in the middle size fraction.
Material/Polymer Sorting has the aim to obtain high-quality recycled plastic
products, preferably single polymer stream. Sorting technologies are based on
different physical-chemical properties of waste materials, such as shape, density,
size, color, or chemical composition of objects. Material sorting consists in the
removal of the unwanted contaminants such as pieces of metals, glass, paper, etc.,
from the plastic waste stream. Polymer sorting is applied to separate polymers by
type; this step is of paramount importance in order to obtain high-quality single
polymer stream. The different plastic waste separation technologies are described
in Section 2.4.
Size reduction is usually carried out by shredding or cutting techniques; such oper-
ations can be present before or after the sorting step, depending on the plant layout and
on the typology of plastic waste stream. Plastics are usually shredded in flakes having a
size of 5e10 mm.
Extrusion and granulation: this step is necessary to produce a granulate which is
easier to use for converters than flakes. The polymer flakes are fed into the extruder,
are heated, and then forced through a die to form a continuous polymer product
(strand) which can then be cooled in a water bath before being pelletized. The granu-
lation process is used to reduce the strands to pellets which can then be used for the
manufacture of new products.
Ballistic separator
Ballistic separation is based on a simple principle, that is, the different movement char-
acteristics of particles of different size, shape, and weight, spatially defined as 2D or
3D structures (Christensen and Fruergaard, 2011). Ballistic separation can be success-
fully utilized both for mixed waste containing plastics and for plastic waste streams. In
the first case, film, paper, cardboard, textiles, and fibrous materials can be assigned to a
2D flat and light class of products; on the contrary, plastic containers, bottles, stone,
Light
Feed
Air stream
Heavy
Figure 2.4 Schematic representation of an air classifier.
Techniques for separation of plastic wastes 17
wood, cans, and ferrous materials can be assigned to a 3D class of rolling and heavy
products. In the second case, films and flakes belong to 2D individual domains; on the
contrary, containers and/or crumpled containers belong to 3D individual domains. In
both cases separation occurs thanks to the utilization of a so-called ballistic separator,
or ballistic screen. Such a device is usually constituted by a series of screening paddles,
or perforated plates, whose number, size, and shape profile can vary according to the
feed rate and physical characteristics of the waste materials, affected by an orbital
motion and characterized by an inclined position, usually ranging from 10 degrees
to 20 degrees. The materials fed to this separator, according to their 2D or 3D structure
and physical characteristics (i.e., weight, morphological and morphometrical charac-
teristics) follow different trajectories with respect to the orbital blades movement.
The 2D and light materials are conveyed to the upper part of the ballistic separator,
whereas 3D, heavier, and “rolling” individuals move toward the lower part of the sepa-
rator. The continuous shaking of the waste produces also a screening effect: particles
characterized by a size smaller than the distance between the different screening pad-
dles pass through, generating a third flow stream.
2.4.1.2 Wet
Sink-float separation
Sink-float separation processes are based on the utilization of the different density
properties of materials. Separation is based on the fact that when materials are intro-
duced in a tank containing a fluid of a specific density, lighter materials will float
and heavier ones will sink (Fig. 2.5). A sink-float separation unit is efficient when
materials are characterized by quite different density values (Callister and Rethwisch,
2010). Therefore this method can be used to separate plastics from heavier materials,
or polymers characterized by different densities (i.e., PET from PP/PE or ABS from
Jigging
Jigging is one of the oldest methods of gravity concentration (Hori et al., 2009).
Jigging can be defined as an “enhanced gravity based separation” method: a water
stream is pulsed, or moved by pistons upward and downward, through the material
bed. Individuals are separated according to their densities, but also thanks to the sys-
tematic and repetitive applied pulsation, whose frequency and amplitude is strictly
related to physical, morphological, and morphometrical attributes of materials. With
reference to plastic waste, this procedure is quite efficient in many cases, allowing
to enhance polymer separation with respect to their relatively low density differences.
Thanks to the repetitions of these actions, particles stratify, across the bed height, ac-
cording to their specific density: the heaviest form the lowest layer and the lightest
constitute the highest.
Hydrocycloning
Hydrocycloning is a density sorting technology based on the centrifugal/centripetal
forces and fluid resistance of different particles having different characteristics
(Bradley, 1965).
A slurry is usually fed to the cyclone. A selected solid/liquid ratio and operative
pressure is adopted. As a result, the fluid pressure transfer produces, inside the device,
a rotational fluid motion, thus permitting separation among the different materials (i.e.,
polymer-contaminant or polymer-polymer characterized by different densities).
Lighter fractions will be transported to the upper part of the cyclone, the heavier
ones to the bottom (Fig. 2.6).
Light plastics
stream
Plastic waste
feed
Heavy plastics
stream
Figure 2.6 Plastic hydrocyclone separator.
Techniques for separation of plastic wastes 19
When two plastics in this sequence are rubbed against each other, the plastic closer
to the positive end is charged positively and the one closer to the negative end is
charged negatively. For example, if PVC is rubbed against PET, PVC is charged nega-
tively and PET positively. On the contrary, when PET is rubbed against PP, PET is
charged positively and PP negatively.
Main disadvantages of this separation are linked to: (1) the operative conditions
(i.e., plastics and more in general the waste stream have to be dry), (2) particle
size and shape (i.e., particle surface characteristics and particle size affect the “char-
geability”), (3) presence of additives/fillers (Albrecht et al., 2011) and, finally, (4)
presence of dirtiness on particle surface that can change or inhibit particle surface
charging.
20 Use of Recycled Plastics in Eco-efficient Concrete
Plastics waste
Tribocharger
feed
Positive Negative
electrode electrode
(+) (–)
Output products
Figure 2.7 Schematic representation of a triboelectric separation process.
Magnet
PP
Plastic waste Splitter
feed
PE
PP Ferro fluid
PE Mixing zone Separation zone Collection zone
Figure 2.8 Schematic representation of a magnetic density separation system for PP and PE.
2.4.4 Flotation
Flotation processes are based on the different surface wettability properties of mate-
rials (Wang et al., 2015). In principle, flotation works very similarly to a sink and float
process, where the density characteristics of the materials, with respect to that of the
medium where they are placed are at the base of the separation. Sometimes a centrif-
ugal field is applied to enhance separation. Flotation works in a different way in the
sense that in a liquid medium, usually water, a “carrier” is introduced, air bubbles,
responsible to float hydrophobic particles that adhere to the bubbles with respect to
the hydrophilic ones that sink. According to surface plastic characteristics, this tech-
nique can be profitably applied, in principle, to separate waste polymers (Fraunholcz,
2004). To enhance or reduce plastic surface characteristics (i.e., hydrophobic or hydro-
philic) appropriate collectors, conditioners (Singh, 1998; Shen et al., 2002), and flota-
tion cell operative conditions (i.e., air flow rate, agitation) can be utilized. Usually
plastic flotation is carried out in alkaline conditions (Takoungsakdakun and
Pongstabodee, 2007). Once floated, hydrophobic polymers are recovered as well as
the sunk ones (i.e., hydrophilic) at the bottom of the cell. This technique, even if it
is well-known (Buchan and Yarar, 1995) and in principle quite powerful is not widely
used mainly for three reasons: (1) it is a wet technique, this means that water has to be
recovered and processed before reutilization, due to the presence of the reagents and
contaminants, (2) polymer surface status (i.e., presence of dirtiness/pollutants and/or
of physical/chemical alteration) can strongly affect floatability, and (3) large variation
of waste plastics feed in terms of composition. Flotation allows to separate PS, PVC,
PET, PC, and mixed polyolefins (MPO).
equipment) designed and set up in order to enhance how waste particles behave in
respect of the selected property to perform separation. This behavior is usually accom-
plished, as previously stated, through particle trajectory changes at the device output/s
and/or through concentration in different section of the separation equipment. The
mechanical removal of these different streams generates concentrates, wastes and, in
some cases, one or more intermediate compositional product classes, called “mid-
dlings.” Material physical property can be thus considered as the “direct” responsible
of separation.
The adoption of sensors to perform sorting means to follow a different approach,
requiring the utilization and the implementation of online analytical logics and robotic
units to perform the separation. Materials in fact, have to be first detected, then
identified and topologically assessed in the stream; after these steps automated devices
realize the sorting.
Following this approach, it substantially means to take into account two aspects.
The first one is linked to the sensing principle selected to perform materials identifica-
tion and the second one is related to the required actuators logics/architectures utilized
to collect the materials of interest from the investigated waste flow stream. Sensor-
based sorting techniques are thus substantially classified according to these principles
(i.e., sensing and collection). In all cases there are three main components of the
sorting architecture: a conveyor belt for materials feeding, a sensor connected to a
computer analyzing data collected from the waste stream on the conveyor belt, and
a pneumatic system to mechanically separate materials (Fig. 2.9). Sensors do not
require contact with the materials and are nondestructive.
Air gun
Conveyor belt
Material 1 Material 2
Both the approaches are not very efficient to perform polymer sorting; for this reason,
they are not widely utilized except sometimes at the beginning of the process and when
polymers are constituted by large products (i.e., several centimeters) whose color and/
or shape (Zhu and Basir, 2006) can be associated to a known specific polymer-based
manufactured product (i.e., container, pipe, frame, etc.). They can be used also at the
end of a plastic recycling process to sort by color a monomaterial stream of plastics, as
for example, green, blue, and transparent PET.
from concrete (Serranti and Bonifazi, 2014; Bonifazi et al., 2015, 2018b) and charac-
terization of different plastic waste (Serranti et al., 2012a,b; Hu et al., 2013; Ulrici
et al., 2013).
This large use is intimately linked to some intrinsic characteristics of the HSI
sensing device (Bonifazi and Serranti, 2014) as: (1) the possibility to perform a contin-
uous monitoring of waste large flow streams as disposed on a conveyor belt thanks to
the scan line camera architecture, (2) easy topological definition of the individual to
sort, (3) utilization of different time scaleerelated sampling strategies, in case of
specific product oriented control/quality actions to develop, (4) implementation of
fast and reliable recognition logics, strongly linked to HSI detectors characteristics
(e.g., possibility handle spectra, images, or both spectra and images), (5) total absence
of environmental impacts and/or safety constraints related to the HSI utilized device,
and finally (6) relatively low cost of the device. With reference to polymer recycling,
HSI is particularly powerful (Jansen et al., 2012) allowing to implement online sorting
and/or quality control strategies, thanks to the possibility to identify the spectral
regions, in the NIR/SWIR range (1000e1700 or 1000e2500 nm), where polymer
molecules absorb light by overtone or combination vibrations (Workman and Weyer,
2007). This behavior produces spectral signature characteristics of the polymer thus
allowing its identification (Bonifazi et al., 2018a). In the last years, high-speed spectral
cameras working in the MWIR wavelength range were introduced in the market in
order to sort black polymers that are not classified by sensors working in the
commonly investigated spectral ranges (400e2500 nm) due to the higher light absorp-
tion and the consequent low reflectance (e.g.,: Rozenstein et al., 2017).
HSI-based sorting architectures are usually constituted by a conveyor unit (i.e., belt)
carrying materials to sort (Serranti et al., 2006). A sensing unit inspects and continu-
ously acquires spectra at a fixed rate. Spectra are then processed by a classification
engine previously set up, according to a material spectral reference library, and indi-
vidual/s recognition is performed. An array of compressed air nozzles mounted at
the end of the conveyor belt provides to separate through a shot of air the recognized
individuals (Tatzer et al., 2005; Picon et al., 2010).
Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence (EDXRF) (Bezati et al., 2011) adding tracers to the
polymer matrix.
Sorting architectures are similar in both cases (i.e., XRF and EDXRF). Referring to
EDXRF, the operative unit is constituted by an X-ray beam energizing the waste flow
stream (i.e., particles transported on a conveyor belt) to analyze and sort. X-ray beam is
focused and passed through the material until it reaches the detector. The signal
collected by the detector is processed, the presence of tracers identified, their amount
evaluated, and according to predetermined rules, the corresponding plastic individuals
blow out by air.
XRF does not require any sample preparation/collection; it can identify black and/
or very dark polymers, as well the presence of contaminants on polymers surface and
as individuals. The disadvantages of this technique in plastic sorting is that it is not able
to distinguish between polymers. Furthermore, there are some safety constraints
related to the utilization of X-ray sources.
Belt magnet
Feed waste
(a)
Conveyor belt
Magnetic particles
Non magnetic particles
Feed waste
Conveyor belt
Magnetic particles
Non magnetic particles
Feed waste
(c)
Conveyor belt
Magnetic particles
Non magnetic particles
Magnetic
drum
Figure 2.10 Different typologies of magnetic separators. (a) Overbelt magnetic separator; (b)
Magnetic head pulley separator; (c) Magnetic drum separator.
Techniques for separation of plastic wastes 27
The overhead magnetic field has a belt moving across its surface at approximately a
90 degree angle to the material flow. Ferrous metal particles are thus attracted,
removed from plastics, and discharged, as the moving belt of the separator turns
away from the magnetic field. Magnetic head pulleys are usually installed at the end
of a conveyor belt, beneath the belt (Fig. 2.10b). Ferrous metal particles are thus
held to the belt, while plastics can be downloaded. Drum magnets are commonly
installed inside feeder chutes, between chutes and conveyors (Fig. 2.10c). Ferrous
metals are held by the drum, until a divider provides to its discharge; on the contrary,
plastic wastes continue their flow. All the previous mentioned devices are normally
positioned at the beginning of the plastics recycling plant having the aim to remove
large magnetic polluting individuals. To perform a strong refining/control of the final
products, high-intensity permanent magnets are usually utilized (Svoboda and Fujita,
2003.).
Feed waste
Magnetic
high-speed rotor
Conveyor belt
Non metal particles
Non ferrous metal particles
Figure 2.11 Schematic representation of an eddy current separator.
28 Use of Recycled Plastics in Eco-efficient Concrete
for example, the presence of small amounts of PVC in a PET stream will make it brittle
and yellowish when recycled (Hahladakis and Iacovidou, 2018). It follows that plastic
must be recycled as much as possible in single polymer streams. For a plastic producer,
stability in composition of the plastic raw material fed to the plant is very important,
since even small variations in melting point or other properties can affect the produc-
tion, in terms of functionality, strength, or durability of products that is not acceptable
for some high-tech applications such as medical devices or automobile components.
This means that a constant and stable composition of a recycled plastic stream must
be assured.
The methods commonly utilized to check the quality of a single polymer recycled
stream in terms of presence of other polymers are applied at laboratory scale, which
means time-consuming operations, involving the presence of a trained operator, a
sample collection, and preparation step. Examples of commonly adopted techniques
at laboratory scale are DSC (Differential Scanning Calorimetry) and FT-IR (Fourier-
Transform Infrared Spectroscopy). An alternative solution to check the quality of the
recycled plastic products is the use of hyperspectral imaging that can be applied
online directly on the conveyor belt without any sample preparation (Serranti
et al., 2011; Luciani et al., 2015) (Fig. 2.12). Polymer mixing evaluation can be
achieved through the definition of classification models, allowing the identification
of different plastics at the same time. HSI in the NIR/SWIR wavelengths ranges
(1000e1700/2500 nm) coupled with chemometrics were successfully applied to
set up fast and reliable quality control strategies at recycling plant scale (i.e., better
and more strict control of sorting and separation process stages) with reference to
many different polymers, including PP, HDPE, LDPE, PET, PVC, etc. (Bonifazi
et al., 2018a).
Spectral-imaging
instrumentation Monitor
Illuminant Moving
belt
Console
PC
Figure 2.12 HSI platform working in the NIR range (1000e1700 nm) developed for quality
control of different recycled polymers.
30 Use of Recycled Plastics in Eco-efficient Concrete
The possible presence of harmful substances can also limit the use of recycled
plastic as secondary raw materials, especially in applications related to food pack-
aging, due to possible dangerous contamination. X-ray fluorescence can be used to
check the presence of hazardous materials and elements, such as brominated flame
retardants and chlorine-containing materials, both of which can only be detected at
the elemental level through X-ray analysis. Other analytical techniques can be
used to determine the presence of additives in plastics, such as inductively coupled
plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) or LIBS (Vilaplana and Karlsson,
2008).
Standing there alone, he was not ashamed of his emotion, not ashamed
that hot tears welled up involuntarily to his eyes. But with a half-impatient
gesture and a smile at his own folly, he brushed these with his hand
resolutely away.
When the mist of tears was cleared from his eyes, he suddenly saw her—
his dream—standing before him. She was in the window embrasure, with
the flood of sunshine wrapping her like a mantle of gold. On the window
sill beside her lay a bunch of white lilies. Her little hand—Gilles thought he
had never seen such an exquisite little hand—held back the curtain, behind
which she had apparently been sitting. A soft breeze blew in through the
half-open window and stirred with its delicate breath the soft tendrils of her
ardent hair. Her face against the light was in a tender, grey shadow, through
which her eyes shone like a peep of azure sky, and on her cheek that tiny
mole was provocatively asking for a kiss.
The apparition had come upon Gilles so suddenly, the transition from
dark melancholy to joy was so abrupt, that he—poor man!—weak, sick,
unnerved by weariness and constant strain, not only found nothing to say,
but he clean forgot all the amenities of social life which the equerry of a
prince of the House of Valois should have had at his finger-tips.
Therefore it was not the fear of what Messire de Crohin might think or
guess that kept Jacqueline momentarily speechless and shy, rather was it a
curious and undefinable sense of something strange—familiar yet
mysterious—about the personality of this man who stood, equally silent,
before her. It took her several seconds to free herself from this spell which
appeared to have been cast over her, several seconds of fighting angrily
with herself for the constraint which rendered her tongue-tied and shy.
Fortunately he appeared quite unaware of her embarrassment, waited
somewhat awkwardly, she thought, for her to speak.
She gave a little start. Somehow his tone—that bantering smile, had
accentuated that feeling of familiarity which rendered his person so
strangely mysterious.
'That was not Madame's opinion of him last night——' he broke in dryly.
Then, seeing that his tone had caused her to turn her eyes on him with
unfeigned surprise he added somewhat lamely: 'At least ... that is ... that is
what Monseigneur gave me to understand last night——'
'It was all a misunderstanding,' she said gently. 'Will you say that to
Monseigneur?'
'I do desire it. And since you know all about the incident, Messire, will
you, I pray you, tell your master how deeply I regret the erroneous
judgment which I formed of his conduct? Those abominable varlets all
crowding round him——'
'Do not jest, Messire,' she rejoined more earnestly. 'I was shrewish last
night and ill-tempered and unjust. Will you tell your master that this
morning——'
'I will tell him, Madame, that this morning you are perfect, whatever you
may have been last night.'
Poor Gilles by now would have given all that he possessed in the world
to be allowed to go. He felt that this interview, which he had neither sought
nor hoped for, was like a dangerous trap into which Fate and his own
temperament might hurl him headlong. Every minute that he spent in this
woman's company rendered her more desirable to him, rendered him more
completely a slave to her charm. But for some strange and subtle reason she
seemed disinclined to let him go just yet, and even now when, remembering
his best manners, Gilles started on the preliminaries of a most elaborate
farewell bow, she went on with a quick catching of her breath and a slight
hesitation, which brought a soft glow to her cheeks:
'Messire Gilles——'
'No, by the Lord!' exclaimed Gilles with a loud laugh. Then he caught
her look: it was not one of surprise, rather of amusement not unmixed with
quaint, roguish mischief. He could not interpret that look rightly, and began
to stammer, worse confused than before.
'Madame—I—that is——'
'You are no judge of your master's looks, shall we say?' she retorted with
an enigmatic little smile. 'But you must remember that, though I found
Monseigneur of noble bearing, I have no notion how he looks, for I have
never seen him without a mask—that is——'
This time Gilles was quite sure that she was doing her best to suppress a
laugh.
'Do you think,' she said, 'that you could persuade His Magnificence to
pay his respects to me unmasked?'
'I do,' she replied with a little sigh of sympathy, and looked with those
enchanting blue eyes of hers straight on poor Gilles. 'I do. It is very sad.'
'I—Madame—that is——'
Gilles had, quite instinctively, drawn the lace of his sleeve over his left
hand, even while Madame still looked at him with that tantalizing glance
which had the effect of turning his brain to putty and his knees to pulp. Now
she laughed—that merry, rippling laugh of hers—and I do verily assure you
that the poor man was on the verge of making a complete fool of himself.
Indeed, it were difficult to say whether or no the next second would have
witnessed his complete surrender to Jacqueline's magic charm, his total loss
of self-control and the complete downfall of Madame la Reyne de Navarre's
cherished plan, for poor Gilles had lost consciousness of every other feeling
and thought save that of a wild longing to fall on his knees and to kiss the
tiny foot which peeped beneath the hem of that exquisite woman's gown, a
wild longing, too, to hold out his arms and to fold her to his breast, to kiss
her hair, her eyes, her lips, that tiny mole which had wrought the whole
mischief with his soul. For the moment he forgot his past life, his present
position, the Duc d'Anjou and Madame la Reyne: he had forgotten that he
was a penniless adventurer, paid to play an unworthy trick upon this
innocent girl, sworn to infamy on pain of greater infamy still! He had
forgotten everything save that she was adorable and that an altogether new
and ardent love had taken possession of his soul.
'I was glad,' she said quietly to d'Inchy, 'to have had an opportunity of
seeing Messire de Crohin and of begging him to offer to Monseigneur le
Prince de Froidmont, his master, my sincere regrets for what occurred last
night.'
'A journey, Madame,' he replied, looking her boldly between the eyes
this time, 'which his thoughts took skywards, astride upon a sunbeam.'
She smiled.
'Where we sow our dreams? You speak in metaphors, Messire. If, as you
say, we sow our dreams, what do we reap?'
'A perfect being such as you, Madame, can only reap joy and happiness.'
'Happy memories, I trust,' she said gently, as she finally extended her
dainty hand for his kiss.
The moment went by like a flash: the next, Monsieur le Baron d'Inchy
was already bidding him farewell with many an unctuous word, which
Gilles never even heard. He had eyes and ears only for Jacqueline—
Jacqueline, whom he had seen and loved at first sight, when she had been
alternately proud and dignified, demure and arch, reproachful and
contemptuous; but before whom he could now bend the knee in adoration
when a softened mood filled her eyes with tears and caused her perfect lips
to quiver with unexpressed sympathy.
'I entreat you, Messire,' she said finally, 'when you return to your master,
to urge upon him the necessity of extreme prudence. Strangers are none too
welcome in Cambray these days, and Monseigneur de Froidmont hath
already made many enemies, some of whom are unscrupulous, others
merely hot-headed; but all, alas! dangerous. Guard him with your life,
Messire,' she urged, with a quaint little catch in her throat. 'And, above all, I
pray you to assure him that Jacqueline de Broyart would give much to undo
the miserable work of the past night.'
She bowed her head in token that he was dismissed at last, and he—poor
wretch!—could not at that moment have uttered a single word in response,
for his throat was choked and his very sinews ached with the effort to
appear calm and unconcerned before Monseigneur the governor.
So, I fear me, that Gilles de Crohin defied every social rule laid down by
the aforesaid Maître Calviac, and that Monseigneur the governor was
seriously shocked when he saw a mere equerry taking an unduly hasty leave
from himself and from Madame Jacqueline de Broyart, who was Duchesse
et Princesse de Ramèse, in rank far above any Sire de Crohin.
And yet, all that there was to see down the corridor was the retreating
figure of that somewhat ill-mannered equerry, Messire Gilles de Crohin.
CHAPTER XIV
De Landas was sick of his wounds, feverish and in the leech's hands; but
the order to present himself before the governor was so peremptory that he
dared not refuse. He knew well that nothing but unbridled anger would
cause Monseigneur to issue such an arbitrary order and that it would neither
be wise nor even safe to run counter to his will.
'I have sent for you, José,' he began sternly, 'and for you alone, rather
than for the whole of your gang, because you have constituted yourself their
leader, and they invariably follow you like so many numskulls, in any
mischief which you might devise.'
De Landas, forgetting his wounds and his sickness, jumped to his feet as
if he had been cut with a lash.
'In what form, I pray you?' queried d'Inchy with a short ironical laugh.
'Sticks!' thundered d'Inchy, who at the words had jumped to his feet and
in his wrath brought down his clenched fist with a crash upon the table.
'Sticks!! You had thought ... you would dare ... to raise your hands against ...
against ... Oh, my God!' he exclaimed in horror as he sank down once more
into his chair and, resting his elbows on the table, he buried his face in his
hands. Evidently he was quite unnerved.
But this was obviously not the moment for demanding an explanation.
De Landas, ere he left his own fatherland in order to seek fortune in
Flanders, had already been well schooled in those arts of diplomacy and
procrastination for which Spanish statesmen were famous. He scented a
mystery here, which he then and there vowed to himself that he would
fathom; but this was not the time to betray his own suspicions. He knew
well enough that these wooden-headed Flemings were for ever hatching
plots for the overthrow of their Spanish conquerors, that His Majesty the
King of Spain had hardly one faithful or loyal subject among these boors,
who were for ever prating of their independence and of their civil and
religious liberties. De Landas' quick, incisive mind had already jumped to
the conclusion that, in this mystery which surrounded the personality of this
enigmatic Prince de Froidmont, there was no doubt the beginnings of one of
those subtle intrigues, which had already filched from the kingdom of Spain
more than one of her fair Flemish provinces. But the young man had up to
now been too indolent and too self-indulgent to trouble himself much about
the dangers which threatened his country through the brewing of these
intrigues. He was of a truth ready to find fortune in Flanders and to marry
the richest heiress in the land if he could, and then to remain loyal to the
country of his adoption if it continued to suit his purpose so to do; but if, as
he began now vaguely to fear, his plans with regard to Jacqueline were
thwarted for the sake of some unknown suitor, however highly placed, if the
golden apple which he had hoped to gather in this mist-laden land turned to
dead-sea fruit in his hand, then he would no longer consider himself bound
by allegiance to this alien country; rather would his loyalty to King Philip
of Spain demand that he should combat every machination which these
abominable Flemings might set afoot, for the overthrow of Spanish power.
But all this was for the future. De Landas was astute enough not to
betray a single one of his thoughts at the moment—not until he had
surveyed the whole situation in cold blood and discussed it with his friends.
For the nonce, conciliation was the only possible—the only prudent—
course of action, and humility and resignation the only paths thereto.
'As it is, I am humbled in the dust at thought that it put a spoke in the
wheel of some deep-laid political plans.'
'It is my duty——'
'To expel six noble gentlemen from their homes for laying hands on an
unknown adventurer? Fie, Monseigneur! Your estimate of my reasoning
powers must of a truth be a very low one.'
'I will offer him my abject excuses, tell him that I mistook him for a
caitiff.'
'Is he such a high and mighty prince as all that?' retorted de Landas.
It was an arrow shot into the air, but it evidently hit the mark, for d'Inchy
had winced at the taunt.
'Let me try them, at any rate,' riposted de Landas, almost servilely now.
Again d'Inchy winced. He felt his secret escaping from the safe haven of
his own keeping. He sat on in silence, meditating for awhile. After all,
Monsieur's equerry had assured him that His Highness was disposed to look
leniently on the episode, and who could be more royalist then the King?
more Catholic than the Pope? Gradually the tensity of his attitude relaxed,
the dark frown disappeared from between his brows; he still looked sternly
on his young kinsman, but the latter saw that the look was no longer
menacing.
A few minutes later Monseigneur d'Inchy had spoken the word which
caused de Landas to give a deep sigh of relief.
'Very well!' he said. 'You may try. But understand,' he added inflexibly.
'If Monsieur—I mean, if M. le Prince de Froidmont does not accept your
apology, if he demands your punishment, you leave Cambray to-night.'
'And if the Prince does accept your apology, and I do condone your
offence this time, your punishment will be all the more severe if you
transgress again. It would not be a sentence of expulsion then, but one of
death. Now you may go!' he concluded curtly. 'My leniency in the future
will depend upon your conduct.'
II
But right through the wild medley of hypotheses which ran riot in de
Landas' mind there raged also furious, unbridled wrath—wrath at his own
humiliation, his own impotence—hatred against the man who had brought
him to this pass, and mad, ungovernable jealousy whenever his thoughts
turned to Jacqueline.
Somehow—it was only instinct, no doubt—he felt that all this pother
about the masked stranger centred round the personality of Jacqueline. The
first hint which Monseigneur had of last night's affray must of necessity
have come from Jacqueline. She alone was there—varlets and wenches did
not count—she alone could have a personal interest in putting Monseigneur
on the scent.
A personal interest?
Yes! That was it. Jacqueline, capricious, hot-headed, impulsive, had been
attracted by the mysterious personality of the stranger, and for the moment
was forgetting the lover of her youth, the man who felt that he had an
inalienable claim upon her allegiance. De Landas had heard rumours of a
masked minstrel having serenaded Madame beneath her windows. Pierre,
his own henchman, had received a broad hint to that effect from Nicolle,
who was Madame's waiting-woman. Was it possible that the masked
troubadour and the enigmatic Prince de Froidmont were one and the same
person? and was it likely that Jacqueline's romantic fancy had been captured
by his wiles?