Pests of Crops and Stored Grain

and their Management

Comprehensive Study on Arthropod Pests of Cereals: Focus
on Rice (Oryza sativa)
Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa) is a staple food crop for more than half of the world's population, making
its protection from pests critical for global food security. Various arthropod pests can
significantly reduce rice yields through direct feeding damage and as vectors of plant
pathogens. This document provides a comprehensive account of the scientific name, order,
family, host range, distribution, biology, nature of damage, and management strategies for
key insect pests of rice, specifically focusing on the paddy stem borer, green leaf hopper,
brown plant hopper, and white-backed plant hopper.

1. Paddy Stem Borer (Scirpophaga incertulas)

Scientific Name

Scirpophaga incertulas

Order

Lepidoptera

Family

Crambidae

Host Range

Primarily attacks rice, but also infests other grasses such as wild rice and some weeds.

Distribution

Widespread in Asia, particularly in India, China, Japan, Indonesia, and the Philippines.

Biology

Eggs: Laid in masses on the leaf blade, usually covered with brownish hairs.
Larvae: Pale yellow to creamy white, bore into the stem and feed internally.
Pupae: Form within the stem or inside leaf sheaths.
Adults: Moths are pale yellow with distinctive markings.
Nature of Damage

Deadheart: Caused by larval feeding in the early stages, resulting in the death of central
leaves.
Whiteheads: Occur when larvae feed on the panicle, preventing grain formation.
Yield Loss: Can be severe, with up to 60-70% yield reduction in heavy infestations.

Management

Cultural Control: Use of resistant varieties, timely planting, removal of stubble, and
destruction of infested plants.
Biological Control: Introduction of natural enemies such as parasitoids (e.g.,
Trichogramma spp.) and predators (e.g., spiders).
Chemical Control: Application of insecticides like chlorpyrifos, carbofuran, and fipronil,
with careful monitoring to avoid resistance development.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM): Combines cultural, biological, and chemical control
methods for sustainable pest management.

2. Green Leaf Hopper (Nephotettix virescens)

Scientific Name

Nephotettix virescens

Order

Hemiptera

Family

Cicadellidae

Host Range

Prefers rice but can also attack other grasses.

Distribution

Common in rice-growing regions of Asia, including India, Bangladesh, and the

Philippines.

Biology

Eggs: Laid in groups within leaf sheaths.

Nymphs: Green and wingless, undergo several molts before becoming adults.
Adults: Small, green hoppers that can fly and disperse over short distances.

Nature of Damage
 Direct Feeding: Nymphs and adults suck sap from leaves, causing stippling, yellowing,
and potential wilting.
Disease Transmission: Vectors of viral diseases such as tungro virus, leading to stunted
growth and yellowing of plants.
Yield Loss: Direct damage and disease transmission can lead to significant yield
reductions.

Management

Cultural Control: Planting resistant varieties, synchronized planting, and maintaining

field sanitation.
Biological Control: Conservation and augmentation of natural enemies like predators
(e.g., spiders) and parasitoids (e.g., Anagrus spp.).
Chemical Control: Use of systemic insecticides such as imidacloprid and thiamethoxam,
applied judiciously to avoid resistance.
IPM: Integrates multiple control strategies, emphasizing the use of resistant varieties
and biological control.

3. Brown Plant Hopper (Nilaparvata lugens)

Scientific Name

Nilaparvata lugens

Order

Hemiptera

Family

Delphacidae

Host Range

Primarily rice, occasionally other grasses.

Distribution

Widespread in tropical and subtropical Asia, including China, Vietnam, Thailand, and
India.

Biology

Eggs: Laid in leaf sheaths or stems.

Nymphs: Brownish, wingless, undergo multiple molts.
Adults: Brown, with long hind legs adapted for hopping.

Nature of Damage
 Direct Feeding: Both nymphs and adults suck sap, causing hopper burn (yellowing and
wilting of plants).
Virus Transmission: Vectors of grassy stunt and ragged stunt viruses.
Yield Loss: Severe infestations can lead to total crop failure.

Management

Cultural Control: Use of resistant varieties, balanced fertilization to avoid excessive

nitrogen, and maintaining water levels to discourage hopper movement.
Biological Control: Introduction and conservation of natural enemies such as spiders
and mirid bugs.
Chemical Control: Insecticides like buprofezin and pymetrozine are effective but should
be used as part of an IPM program to prevent resistance.
IPM: Combines cultural practices, biological control, and selective chemical treatments
for sustainable management.

4. White-Backed Plant Hopper (Sogatella furcifera)

Scientific Name

Sogatella furcifera

Order

Hemiptera

Family

Delphacidae

Host Range

Primarily rice, but also other grasses.

Distribution

Found in rice-growing regions across Asia, including India, China, Japan, and Southeast
Asia.

Biology

Eggs: Laid in clusters on leaf sheaths.

Nymphs: White to brownish, wingless, and go through several molts.
Adults: Brown with a distinctive white band on the back, capable of flying and
dispersing over long distances.

Nature of Damage

Direct Feeding: Nymphs and adults suck sap, causing plant stunting, yellowing, and
hopper burn.
 Virus Transmission: Potential vectors of rice grassy stunt virus.
Yield Loss: Can cause significant reductions in yield due to direct damage and disease
transmission.

Management

Cultural Control: Planting resistant varieties, maintaining proper field sanitation, and
optimizing planting times.
Biological Control: Conservation of natural enemies like spiders and parasitoids.
Chemical Control: Use of selective insecticides like pymetrozine and dinotefuran,
applied as part of an IPM strategy.
IPM: Emphasizes the integration of resistant varieties, biological control agents, and
judicious use of chemicals.

Gall Midge (Orseolia oryzae)

Scientific Name: Orseolia oryzae

Order: Diptera

Family: Cecidomyiidae

Host Range: Primarily affects rice (Oryza sativa), but can also infest other grasses.

Distribution: Gall midge is found in rice-growing regions across Asia, particularly in India,
Bangladesh, Thailand, and China.

Biology: The gall midge undergoes complete metamorphosis with egg, larval, pupal, and
adult stages. Females lay eggs on the leaf sheaths of rice plants. Larvae burrow into the
plant tissue, inducing the formation of galls, which are abnormal plant growths that provide
shelter and food for the larvae.

Nature of Damage: The larvae feed on the inner tissues of rice plants, causing the formation
of tubular galls commonly known as “silver shoots” or “onion shoots”. These galls disrupt
normal plant growth, leading to stunted plants, reduced tillering, and significant yield loss.

Management:

Cultural Control: Use resistant varieties, adjust planting dates, and destroy infested
plant debris.
Biological Control: Encourage natural enemies such as parasitoids and predators.
Chemical Control: Apply insecticides judiciously, focusing on early larval stages.

Paddy Grasshopper (Hieroglyphus banian)

Scientific Name: Hieroglyphus banian

Order: Orthoptera
Family: Acrididae

Host Range: Mainly affects rice, but can also attack other cereal crops and grasses.

Distribution: Common in South and Southeast Asia, especially in India, Pakistan, and
Bangladesh.

Biology: Paddy grasshoppers undergo incomplete metamorphosis with egg, nymph, and
adult stages. Females lay eggs in the soil near the base of host plants. Nymphs and adults
feed on the leaves and stems of rice plants.

Nature of Damage: Both nymphs and adults chew on the leaves and stems, causing
defoliation, stunted growth, and in severe cases, plant death. Damage is more pronounced
during the early stages of crop growth.

Management:

Cultural Control: Implement crop rotation and deep plowing to destroy eggs.
Biological Control: Introduce natural predators like birds and parasitic wasps.
Chemical Control: Use insecticides targeting nymphal stages to reduce populations.

Blue Beetle (Leptispa pygmaea)

Scientific Name: Leptispa pygmaea

Order: Coleoptera

Family: Chrysomelidae

Host Range: Primarily infests rice, but can also affect other grass species.

Distribution: Found in rice-growing areas of South and Southeast Asia, including India, Sri
Lanka, and the Philippines.

Biology: The blue beetle undergoes complete metamorphosis with egg, larval, pupal, and
adult stages. Females lay eggs on rice leaves. Larvae feed on leaf tissues, creating mines or
tunnels, while adults feed on the leaf surface.

Nature of Damage: Larvae mining the leaves cause them to wither and die, leading to
reduced photosynthetic capacity. Adult feeding results in characteristic "windowing"
damage, where only the leaf veins remain.

Management:

Cultural Control: Remove and destroy infested plant material.

Biological Control: Utilize parasitoids and predators such as spiders and lady beetles.
Chemical Control: Apply appropriate insecticides during peak infestation periods.
Caseworm (Nymphula depunctalis)

Scientific Name: Nymphula depunctalis

Order: Lepidoptera

Family: Pyralidae

Host Range: Primarily targets rice, but can also infest other aquatic plants.

Distribution: Widespread in rice-growing regions of Asia, including India, Bangladesh, and

Thailand.

Biology: Caseworm larvae build protective cases from plant materials and feed on
submerged leaves. The life cycle includes egg, larval, pupal, and adult stages. Eggs are laid
on leaves near water.

Nature of Damage: Larvae feeding on submerged leaves cause skeletonization, where only
the veins remain. This damage reduces photosynthesis and plant vigor, leading to yield
losses.

Management:

Cultural Control: Maintain proper water levels and remove infested plants.
Biological Control: Encourage natural predators like fish and aquatic insects.
Chemical Control: Apply insecticides judiciously to manage larval populations.

Armyworm (Mythimna separata)

Scientific Name: Mythimna separata

Order: Lepidoptera

Family: Noctuidae

Host Range: Affects a wide range of crops, including rice, maize, wheat, and sorghum.

Distribution: Found throughout Asia, Africa, and parts of Australia.

Biology: The armyworm undergoes complete metamorphosis with egg, larval, pupal, and
adult stages. Females lay eggs in clusters on leaves. Larvae are highly voracious and migrate
in large groups, feeding on foliage.

Nature of Damage: Larvae cause extensive defoliation, chewing leaves down to the midrib.
Severe infestations can lead to total crop loss.

Management:

Cultural Control: Implement crop rotation, timely planting, and field sanitation.
 Biological Control: Use natural enemies such as parasitoid wasps and predatory beetles.
Chemical Control: Apply insecticides targeting early larval stages to prevent outbreaks.

Gundhi Bug (Leptocorisa acuta)

Scientific Name: Leptocorisa acuta

Order: Hemiptera

Family: Alydidae

Host Range: Primarily infests rice, but can also affect other cereals and grasses.

Distribution: Common in rice-growing regions of Asia, particularly in India, Bangladesh, and

Myanmar.

Biology: Gundhi bug undergoes incomplete metamorphosis with egg, nymph, and adult
stages. Eggs are laid on rice leaves. Nymphs and adults feed by sucking plant sap from grains
and stems.

Nature of Damage: Feeding causes grains to become shriveled and discolored, reducing
yield and quality. Infestations during the grain-filling stage are particularly damaging.

Management:

Cultural Control: Practice timely planting and maintain field hygiene.

Biological Control: Encourage predators such as spiders and birds.
Chemical Control: Use insecticides during peak population periods, focusing on early
instars.

Hispa (Dicladispa armigera)

Scientific Name: Dicladispa armigera

Order: Coleoptera

Family: Chrysomelidae

Host Range: Primarily infests rice, but can also attack other grasses.

Distribution: Found in rice-growing regions of Asia, particularly in India, Bangladesh, and

Nepal.

Biology: Hispa undergoes complete metamorphosis with egg, larval, pupal, and adult stages.
Females lay eggs on the leaf surface. Larvae mine into leaves, creating tunnels, while adults
feed on leaf surfaces.

Nature of Damage: Larvae create extensive leaf mines, causing leaves to dry and turn brown.
Adult feeding results in "skeletonization," where leaves appear as lace-like structures with
only veins remaining.

Management:

Cultural Control: Practice field sanitation and remove infested leaves.

Biological Control: Use parasitoids and predators like lady beetles and spiders.
Chemical Control: Apply insecticides during larval stages to control populations.

Leaf Folder (Cnaphalocrocis medinalis)

Scientific Name: Cnaphalocrocis medinalis

Order: Lepidoptera

Family: Crambidae

Host Range: Primarily targets rice, but can also infest other grasses.

Distribution: Widespread in rice-growing regions of Asia, including India, China, Japan, and
the Philippines.

Biology: Leaf folder larvae fold leaves longitudinally and feed on the internal tissues. The
life cycle includes egg, larval, pupal, and adult stages. Eggs are laid on the undersides of
leaves.

Nature of Damage: Larvae create folded leaves that dry out and turn brown. This damage
reduces photosynthesis and plant vigor, leading to yield losses.

Management:

Cultural Control: Adjust planting times, maintain proper irrigation, and practice field
sanitation.
Biological Control: Introduce natural enemies like parasitoid wasps and predatory
beetles.
Chemical Control: Use insecticides during early larval stages to contol infestations.

Comprehensive Examination of Arthropod

Pests of Sorghum: Shoot Fly, Stem Borer,
Aphids, and Delphacids
Introduction
Sorghum, a critical staple crop in many parts of the world, faces significant threats from
various arthropod pests. This document provides a detailed examination of four major
pests: Shoot Fly, Stem Borer, Aphids, and Delphacids. We will discuss their scientific names,
order, family, host range, distribution, biology, nature of damage, and integrated pest
management strategies.

1. Shoot Fly (Atherigona soccata)

Scientific Name:

Atherigona soccata

Order:

Diptera

Family:

Muscidae

Host Range:

Shoot fly primarily infests sorghum but can also attack maize and other cereal crops under
certain conditions.

Distribution:

Shoot fly is widely distributed across Africa, Asia, and parts of the Mediterranean region. It
thrives in tropical and subtropical climates where sorghum is cultivated.

Biology:

Shoot fly undergoes complete metamorphosis. Females lay eggs on the undersides of
sorghum leaves, close to the plant's growing point. The lifecycle includes egg, larval, pupal,
and adult stages:

Eggs: Hatch within 1-3 days.

Larvae: Bore into the central whorl of young sorghum plants, feeding on the internal
tissues for about 10-14 days.
Pupae: Larvae pupate in the soil near the plant base, with pupation lasting 7-10 days.
Adults: Emerge and are ready to reproduce shortly thereafter.

Nature of Damage:

Shoot fly larvae feed on the central whorl, causing the central leaf to wither and die, a
condition known as "deadheart." The affected plants exhibit stunted growth, and their yield
potential is significantly reduced. Severe infestations can lead to high crop losses.

Management:

Integrated pest management (IPM) strategies for shoot fly include:

 Cultural Control: Early sowing and uniform planting to escape peak fly activity. Use of
high seed rates and rogueing infested plants can also help.
Biological Control: Introduction of natural enemies such as parasitoids (e.g.,
Trichogramma spp.) and predators (e.g., spiders and beetles).
Chemical Control: Application of insecticides like carbofuran and imidacloprid. Seed
treatment with systemic insecticides can provide early protection.

2. Stem Borer (Chilo partellus)

Scientific Name:

Chilo partellus

Order:

Lepidoptera

Family:

Crambidae

Host Range:

Stem borer primarily targets sorghum and maize but can also infest other grasses like millet
and sugarcane.

Distribution:

Chilo partellus is found throughout Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. It prefers warm, humid
climates conducive to sorghum growth.

Biology:

Stem borer undergoes complete metamorphosis. The lifecycle stages include:

Eggs: Laid in clusters on the undersides of leaves, hatching in about 5-7 days.
Larvae: Bore into the stem and feed internally, passing through several instars over 21-
28 days.
Pupae: Pupation occurs within the stem or in the soil, lasting around 7-14 days.
Adults: Moths emerge and are active during the night.

Nature of Damage:

Stem borer larvae tunnel into the stem, causing structural damage. This leads to symptoms
like "deadheart" in young plants and "stem breakage" in mature plants. Infested plants
exhibit poor growth, reduced tillering, and significant yield loss.

Management:
IPM strategies for stem borer include:

Cultural Control: Crop rotation, destruction of crop residues, and planting resistant
varieties.
Biological Control: Use of natural enemies such as parasitoids (e.g., Cotesia flavipes)
and predators (e.g., ants and birds).
Chemical Control: Targeted application of insecticides such as lambda-cyhalothrin and
cypermethrin, particularly during peak larval activity.

3. Aphids (Rhopalosiphum maidis)

Scientific Name:

Rhopalosiphum maidis

Order:

Hemiptera

Family:

Aphididae

Host Range:

Aphids infest a variety of cereals including sorghum, maize, wheat, and barley. They also
attack some grasses and other plants.

Distribution:

Rhopalosiphum maidis is cosmopolitan, found in all sorghum-growing regions worldwide.

Biology:

Aphids undergo incomplete metamorphosis, with the following stages:

Eggs: Aphids typically reproduce asexually through parthenogenesis, producing live

young rather than laying eggs.
Nymphs: Pass through several instars over a span of 7-10 days before becoming adults.
Adults: Can be winged or wingless and have a high reproductive rate, allowing rapid
population buildup.

Nature of Damage:

Aphids damage plants by sucking sap from leaves and stems, causing curling, yellowing, and
stunted growth. They also excrete honeydew, which fosters sooty mold growth, further
reducing photosynthesis. Additionally, aphids can transmit viral diseases like maize dwarf
mosaic virus.
Management:

IPM strategies for aphids include:

Cultural Control: Early planting and use of resistant varieties. Maintaining field
sanitation by removing weeds that serve as alternate hosts.
Biological Control: Conserving natural enemies such as lady beetles, lacewings, and
parasitoid wasps (e.g., Aphidius colemani).
Chemical Control: Application of insecticides like neem oil, imidacloprid, and pirimicarb
when aphid populations reach economic thresholds.

4. Delphacids (Peregrinus maidis)

Scientific Name:

Peregrinus maidis

Order:

Hemiptera

Family:

Delphacidae

Host Range:

Delphacids infest sorghum, maize, rice, and other grasses.

Distribution:

Peregrinus maidis is found in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide, particularly where
sorghum and maize are grown.

Biology:

Delphacids undergo incomplete metamorphosis, with the following stages:

Eggs: Laid in plant tissue and hatch in 5-10 days.

Nymphs: Pass through five instars over 2-3 weeks before becoming adults.
Adults: Can reproduce rapidly, leading to multiple generations per year.

Nature of Damage:

Delphacids feed on plant sap using piercing-sucking mouthparts, causing direct damage
such as yellowing, wilting, and stunted growth. They are also vectors for plant diseases like
the maize stripe virus and rice hoja blanca virus, compounding their impact on crop health.
Management:

IPM strategies for delphacids include:

Cultural Control: Crop rotation, use of resistant varieties, and maintaining field hygiene
to remove alternate hosts.
Biological Control: Introduction of natural enemies such as parasitic wasps (e.g.,
Anagrus spp.) and predatory insects (e.g., spiders and coccinellids).
Chemical Control: Use of insecticides like buprofezin and pymetrozine, ensuring timely
application based on pest monitoring.

Grasshopper
Scientific Classification

Scientific Name: Various species, primarily from the genera Schistocerca, Locusta, and
Hieroglyphus.
Order: Orthoptera
Family: Acrididae

Host Range

Grasshoppers have a broad host range, feeding on various cereal crops, including sorghum,
maize, millet, rice, and wheat, as well as several grasses and weeds.

Distribution

Grasshoppers are cosmopolitan pests found in diverse habitats worldwide, including Africa,
Asia, the Americas, and Australia. They thrive in both temperate and tropical climates.

Biology

Grasshoppers undergo incomplete metamorphosis, which includes three life stages: egg,
nymph, and adult. The eggs are laid in the soil in pods. Depending on the species and
environmental conditions, eggs hatch within a few weeks to several months. Nymphs
resemble adults but are smaller and wingless. They undergo several molts (typically five to
six instars) before becoming adults. Adult grasshoppers have strong hind legs for jumping
and wings for flying.

Nature of Damage

Grasshoppers are polyphagous feeders, causing damage primarily through defoliation. They
consume the foliage of sorghum, reducing photosynthetic capacity and overall plant vigor.
In severe infestations, they can strip entire fields of vegetation, leading to substantial yield
losses. Grasshoppers also feed on developing grains, causing direct damage to the crop.

Management
Cultural Control

1. Field Sanitation: Removing weeds and crop residues that serve as food and breeding
sites for grasshoppers.
2. Tillage: Plowing fields to expose and destroy grasshopper eggs.
3. Trap Crops: Planting trap crops like millet to attract and manage grasshopper
populations.

Biological Control

1. Natural Enemies: Encouraging predators such as birds, spiders, and beneficial insects
(e.g., parasitic wasps and flies) that prey on grasshoppers.
2. Pathogens: Utilizing entomopathogenic fungi and nematodes that infect and kill
grasshoppers.

Chemical Control

1. Insecticides: Applying insecticides such as carbamates, organophosphates, and

pyrethroids during the early stages of infestation. Use of biopesticides like neem-based
products can also be effective.
2. Baiting: Using insecticidal baits to target grasshopper populations in the early nymphal
stages.

Earhead Midge
Scientific Classification

Scientific Name: Contarinia sorghicola

Order: Diptera
Family: Cecidomyiidae

Host Range

Earhead midge primarily infests sorghum but can also affect other related crops and wild
grasses.

Distribution

The earhead midge is found in most sorghum-growing regions worldwide, including Africa,
Asia, the Americas, and Australia.

Biology

Earhead midge undergoes complete metamorphosis with four life stages: egg, larva, pupa,
and adult. Adults are small, delicate flies that lay eggs in sorghum florets during the
flowering stage. Eggs hatch into larvae, which feed on developing grains. Larvae develop
inside the grains, pupate, and emerge as adults.
Nature of Damage

The larvae feed on the developing grains, causing significant damage to the sorghum heads.
Infested grains are often deformed, shriveled, and unmarketable, leading to substantial
yield losses. Damage is typically more severe during wet and humid conditions favorable for
midge development.

Management

Cultural Control

1. Planting Date Adjustment: Synchronizing planting dates to avoid peak midge activity
during the flowering stage.
2. Field Sanitation: Removing crop residues and alternate hosts that serve as breeding
sites for midges.

Biological Control

1. Natural Enemies: Promoting the presence of parasitoids and predators that attack
midge larvae and adults.

Chemical Control

1. Insecticides: Applying systemic insecticides at the flowering stage to protect

developing grains. Foliar sprays may also be used to target adult midges.
2. Seed Treatments: Using insecticide-treated seeds to protect seedlings from early midge
infestations.

Earhead Caterpillars
Scientific Classification

Scientific Name: Various species, including Helicoverpa armigera and Mythimna

separata
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae

Host Range

Earhead caterpillars have a broad host range, affecting sorghum, maize, millet, rice, wheat,
and several other crops.

Distribution

These pests are widespread in tropical and subtropical regions, including Africa, Asia, and
the Americas.

Biology
Earhead caterpillars undergo complete metamorphosis, with four life stages: egg, larva,
pupa, and adult. Adults are nocturnal moths that lay eggs on the sorghum heads. Larvae, or
caterpillars, hatch from the eggs and feed on developing grains and floral parts. They pass
through several instars before pupating in the soil or plant debris.

Nature of Damage

Larvae feed on the grains and floral parts of sorghum, causing direct damage and reducing
yield and grain quality. Infested grains are often hollowed out or consumed entirely. Severe
infestations can lead to significant economic losses.

Management

Cultural Control

1. Field Sanitation: Removing crop residues and alternate hosts to reduce caterpillar
breeding sites.
2. Crop Rotation: Rotating sorghum with non-host crops to break the life cycle of earhead
caterpillars.

Biological Control

1. Natural Enemies: Encouraging the presence of parasitoids and predators, such as

parasitic wasps, tachinid flies, and predatory beetles, which attack caterpillars.
2. Pathogens: Using entomopathogenic fungi, bacteria, and viruses to infect and kill
caterpillars.

Chemical Control

1. Insecticides: Applying insecticides such as pyrethroids, carbamates, and

organophosphates during the early larval stages. Insect growth regulators (IGRs) and
biopesticides like Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) can also be effective.
2. Baiting: Using pheromone traps and bait stations to monitor and reduce caterpillar
populations.

Maize (Zea mays L.) is a crucial crop grown globally for food, feed, and industrial purposes.
However, its cultivation is threatened by numerous arthropod pests that can cause
significant yield losses. This comprehensive examination provides a detailed account of the
nature and type of damage caused by key arthropod pests of maize, including Shoot fly,
Stem borer, Armyworm, and Cob earworm. We will cover their scientific names, order, family,
host range, distribution, biology, nature of damage, and management strategies.

1. Shoot Fly (Atherigona soccata Rondani)

Scientific Name: Atherigona soccata Rondani

Order: Diptera
Family: Muscidae

Host Range:

Shoot fly primarily targets maize but can also infest other crops like sorghum, pearl millet,
and certain grasses.

Distribution:

Shoot fly is prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions, particularly in Africa and Asia.

Biology:

Shoot fly undergoes complete metamorphosis with four stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult.
Adult flies lay eggs on young maize seedlings, usually at the base of the central leaf whorl.
The larvae, upon hatching, burrow into the central shoot, causing characteristic damage.
The larval stage lasts about 6-10 days, followed by the pupal stage which lasts around 8-10
days before emerging as adults.

Nature of Damage:

The larvae feed on the central growing shoot of maize seedlings, resulting in the "deadheart"
symptom where the central shoot dries up and can be easily pulled out. This damage
typically occurs within the first 3-4 weeks of plant growth and can lead to significant plant
mortality or stunted growth.

Management:

Cultural Control: Early sowing and proper seedbed preparation can help reduce shoot
fly infestations. Crop rotation and maintaining field sanitation by removing infested
plants and plant debris also help.
Biological Control: Introducing natural enemies like parasitoids (e.g., Eulophus spp.) can
help control shoot fly populations.
Chemical Control: Seed treatment with insecticides (e.g., carbofuran, imidacloprid) and
foliar sprays of systemic insecticides can be effective in managing shoot fly infestations.
1. Stem Borer (Chilo partellus Swinhoe)

Scientific Name: Chilo partellus Swinhoe

Order: Lepidoptera

Family: Crambidae

Host Range:

Stem borers, particularly Chilo partellus, infest maize and other cereal crops such as
sorghum, millet, and rice.
Distribution:

Stem borers are found in Africa, Asia, and other tropical and subtropical regions.

Biology:

Stem borers undergo complete metamorphosis. The female moths lay eggs on the leaves of
maize plants. After hatching, the larvae initially feed on leaf surfaces before boring into the
stems. The larval stage lasts 2-4 weeks, followed by a pupal stage that lasts around 7-10
days. The life cycle is completed in about 4-6 weeks, depending on environmental
conditions.

Nature of Damage:

Stem borer larvae tunnel into maize stems, disrupting the flow of nutrients and water,
leading to the formation of "deadhearts" in young plants and "stem tunneling" in older
plants. This damage weakens the plant structure, leading to lodging, and reduces grain yield
and quality.

Management:

Cultural Control: Adjusting planting dates, removing and destroying infested crop
residues, and practicing crop rotation can reduce stem borer infestations.
Biological Control: Natural enemies such as parasitoids (e.g., Cotesia flavipes) and
predators (e.g., spiders and beetles) play a significant role in controlling stem borer
populations.
Chemical Control: Application of systemic insecticides (e.g., carbofuran, chlorpyrifos)
can be effective. Granular insecticides applied at the base of the plants can also help
manage stem borers.
1. Armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda)

Scientific Name: Spodoptera frugiperda

Order: Lepidoptera

Family: Noctuidae

Host Range:

Armyworms, particularly the Fall Armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda), have a broad host
range, including maize, sorghum, rice, cotton, and various grasses.

Distribution:

Native to the Americas, the Fall Armyworm has spread to Africa, Asia, and Oceania.

Biology:
Armyworms undergo complete metamorphosis. Female moths lay clusters of eggs on the
leaves of host plants. Larvae, upon hatching, feed gregariously on leaf tissues and can move
en masse to new plants, causing significant defoliation. The larval stage lasts about 14-30
days, followed by pupation in the soil which lasts around 7-10 days. Adults emerge and
continue the cycle, with multiple generations per year.

Nature of Damage:

Armyworm larvae feed on maize leaves, creating large, irregular holes and stripping the
foliage. Severe infestations can result in complete defoliation. The larvae may also attack
maize ears, feeding on kernels and causing direct yield losses.

Management:

Cultural Control: Planting early and synchronizing planting dates can help reduce
armyworm pressure. Regular field scouting and destroying egg masses and young larvae
can also be effective.
Biological Control: Predators such as birds and beneficial insects (e.g., Trichogramma
spp., and tachinid flies) can help control armyworm populations.
Chemical Control: Insecticides such as pyrethroids, organophosphates, and newer
classes like diamides (e.g., chlorantraniliprole) can be used to manage armyworm
infestations. Monitoring for resistance development is crucial.
1. Cob Earworm (Helicoverpa zea)

Scientific Name: Helicoverpa zea

Order: Lepidoptera

Family: Noctuidae

Host Range:

Cob earworms, also known as corn earworms, infest maize and other crops like cotton,
tomatoes, and various legumes.

Distribution:

Corn earworms are found in North and South America, but they have also spread to parts of
Africa, Asia, and Europe.

Biology:

Cob earworms undergo complete metamorphosis. Female moths lay eggs on maize silks.
Larvae feed on the silks and then bore into the ear, feeding on kernels. The larval stage lasts
about 14-21 days, followed by pupation in the soil, which lasts around 7-14 days. Adults
emerge and the cycle continues, with multiple generations per year.
Nature of Damage:

Larvae feed on maize silks, impairing pollination and reducing kernel development. They
then bore into ears, feeding on developing kernels and causing direct yield losses and
contamination with frass, which can promote fungal infections.

Management:

Cultural Control: Early planting and synchronized planting dates can help reduce
earworm pressure. Removing and destroying infested plant debris also helps.
Biological Control: Natural enemies such as parasitoids (e.g., Trichogramma spp.),
predators (e.g., lady beetles), and entomopathogenic nematodes can help control
earworm populations.
Chemical Control: Insecticides such as pyrethroids, spinosad, and Bt-based products
can be used to manage earworm infestations. Targeting larvae before they enter the ear
is crucial for effective control.

Insect Pests of Bajra (Pearl Millet) and Wheat: Nature and

Type of Damage, Biology, and Management
Bajra (Pearl Millet) Insect Pests

1. Shoot Fly (Atherigona soccata)

Scientific Name: Atherigona soccata

Order: Diptera
Family: Muscidae
Host Range: Primarily infests pearl millet (Bajra), but can also attack other millets like
sorghum.

Distribution: Shoot fly is widely distributed in Asia and Africa, particularly in regions where
pearl millet is cultivated extensively.

Biology:

Egg: Eggs are laid singly on the undersides of leaves near the central whorl. Each female
can lay up to 100 eggs during her lifetime.
Larva: The larva, upon hatching, bores into the central shoot of the plant, feeding on the
inner tissues.
Pupa: Pupation occurs inside the stem.
Adult: Adult flies are small, greyish, and resemble houseflies.

Nature of Damage:

The larva bores into the central shoot of young seedlings, leading to the death of the
growing point.
 This results in characteristic "deadhearts," where the central leaf whorl dries out and
can be easily pulled out.
Damage is most severe during the early stages of crop growth, affecting plant vigor and
yield.

Management:

Cultural Control: Early sowing to escape peak shoot fly activity, use of high seed rates,
and intercropping with non-host crops.
Mechanical Control: Removal and destruction of infested plants.
Biological Control: Conservation and augmentation of natural enemies like parasitoids
(e.g., Trichogramma spp.).
Chemical Control: Seed treatment with insecticides such as imidacloprid and soil
application of systemic insecticides.

2. Blister Beetle (Mylabris pustulata)

Scientific Name: Mylabris pustulata

Order: Coleoptera
Family: Meloidae
Host Range: Attacks a variety of crops including bajra, sorghum, maize, and legumes.

Distribution: Blister beetles are found in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia and Africa.

Biology:

Egg: Eggs are laid in the soil near host plants.

Larva: Larvae develop in the soil, feeding on grasshopper eggs.
Pupa: Pupation occurs in the soil.
Adult: Adults are brightly colored beetles, often with black and red or yellow markings.

Nature of Damage:

Adults feed on the flowers and tender parts of the plant.

Severe infestation can lead to significant flower drop and reduced seed set.
The beetles release a toxic substance called cantharidin, which can cause blisters on
human skin.

Management:

Cultural Control: Early sowing and maintaining field sanitation by removing weeds and
alternative host plants.
Mechanical Control: Hand-picking and destroying adult beetles.
Biological Control: Encouraging natural predators and parasites.
Chemical Control: Application of contact insecticides like malathion or carbaryl to
control adult beetles.

Wheat Insect Pests

1. Stem Borer (Sesamia inferens)

Scientific Name: Sesamia inferens

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae
Host Range: Primarily attacks wheat, but can also infest rice, maize, sorghum, and
sugarcane.

Distribution: Widely distributed in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and parts of Africa.

Biology:

Egg: Eggs are laid in clusters on the leaf sheath or the stem.
Larva: Larvae bore into the stem, feeding on the pith and creating tunnels.
Pupa: Pupation occurs within the stem or in the soil.
Adult: Adults are nocturnal moths with pale yellow or brownish wings.

Nature of Damage:

Larvae bore into the stem, causing internal damage that leads to the weakening and
lodging of the plant.
Damaged stems exhibit characteristic "deadhearts" or drying of the central whorl.
Infestation results in reduced plant vigor and significant yield losses.

Management:

Cultural Control: Use of resistant varieties, crop rotation, and removal of crop residues
to reduce larval survival.
Mechanical Control: Destruction of infested stems and maintaining field hygiene.
Biological Control: Introduction of parasitoids like Trichogramma spp. and predators
such as Cotesia spp.
Chemical Control: Application of systemic insecticides like chlorpyrifos or carbofuran to
the soil and foliage.

2. Aphids (Sitobion avenae, Rhopalosiphum padi)

Scientific Name: Sitobion avenae, Rhopalosiphum padi

Order: Hemiptera
Family: Aphididae
Host Range: Infests wheat, barley, oats, and other cereal crops.

Distribution: Cosmopolitan distribution, found in almost all wheat-growing regions

worldwide.

Biology:

Egg: Eggs are laid on the host plant, typically on the undersides of leaves or stems.
Nymph: Nymphs resemble adults and undergo several molts before reaching maturity.
 Adult: Adults can be winged or wingless and reproduce parthenogenetically.

Nature of Damage:

Aphids feed on plant sap, causing chlorosis, stunted growth, and reduced vigor.
They excrete honeydew, which promotes the growth of sooty mold, reducing
photosynthesis.
Aphids are vectors for various plant viruses, exacerbating the damage.

Management:

Cultural Control: Timely planting, removal of volunteer plants, and maintaining field
sanitation.
Mechanical Control: Use of reflective mulches and water sprays to dislodge aphids.
Biological Control: Conservation and augmentation of natural enemies like lady beetles,
lacewings, and parasitoid wasps.
Chemical Control: Application of insecticides such as imidacloprid, acetamiprid, or
lambda-cyhalothrin, particularly during early infestations.

3. Termites (Odontotermes spp.)

Scientific Name: Odontotermes spp.

Order: Isoptera
Family: Termitidae
Host Range: Termites have a broad host range, attacking wheat, sugarcane, maize, and other
crops, as well as decaying wood and organic matter.

Distribution: Termites are widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions.

Biology:

Colony: Termites live in large, organized colonies with distinct castes (workers, soldiers,
reproductives).
Nesting: They build nests or mounds in the soil or wood.
Feeding: Workers forage for food, feeding on cellulose-containing materials.

Nature of Damage:

Termites attack the roots and lower stems of wheat plants, hollowing them out and
causing lodging.
Infested plants show wilting, stunted growth, and eventually die.
Damage is more severe during drought conditions or in sandy soils.

Management:

Cultural Control: Crop rotation with non-host crops, deep plowing to destroy nests, and
maintaining field hygiene.
Mechanical Control: Removal and destruction of infested plant material.
 Biological Control: Use of entomopathogenic fungi and nematodes to target termite
colonies.
Chemical Control: Soil application of termiticides like chlorpyrifos or fipronil around the
plant base and in furrows before planting.

Detailed Examination of Pest Management Strategies

Cultural Control: This involves practices aimed at making the environment less favorable for
pests. Examples include:

Crop Rotation: Alternating different crops each season to break pest life cycles.
Sanitation: Removing plant debris and weeds that may harbor pests.
Timely Planting: Planting at times when pest populations are low.
Trap Cropping: Planting trap crops to lure pests away from the main crop.

Mechanical Control: Involves physical methods to control pests, such as:

Hand-Picking: Manually removing and destroying pests.

Barriers: Using physical barriers like nets or screens to protect plants.
Traps: Setting up traps to capture pests.

Biological Control: Utilizing natural enemies to control pest populations, including:

Predators: Insects or animals that feed on pests (e.g., lady beetles, lacewings).
Parasitoids: Insects that lay eggs on or in pests, eventually killing them (e.g.,
Trichogramma spp.).
Pathogens: Microorganisms that cause diseases in pests (e.g., fungi, bacteria).

Chemical Control: The use of pesticides to manage pest populations. Important

considerations include:

Selection of Insecticides: Choosing effective and appropriate insecticides for specific

pests.
Application Timing: Applying insecticides at the most vulnerable stage of the pest's life
cycle.
Resistance Management: Rotating insecticides with different modes of action to prevent
resistance development.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM): Combines multiple control strategies to achieve

effective and sustainable pest management. Key components include:

Monitoring: Regularly checking pest populations and damage levels.

Thresholds: Establishing action thresholds to determine when control measures are
needed.
Combination of Methods: Using a combination of cultural, mechanical, biological, and
chemical controls.
Sustainability: Emphasizing long-term pest control with minimal environmental impact.
Comprehensive Study on Arthropod Pests of Pulses: Nature
and Type of Damage, Biology, and Management
Pulses, including pigeon pea, chickpea, mungbean, urdbean, cowpea, and pea, are vital
leguminous crops widely cultivated for their protein-rich seeds. These crops are, however,
susceptible to various arthropod pests that can cause significant yield losses. This
comprehensive study covers the nature and type of damage caused by different arthropod
pests, along with their scientific names, orders, families, host ranges, distributions, biology,
and management strategies.

1. Pigeon Pea (Cajanus cajan)

Pod Borer (Helicoverpa armigera)

Scientific Name: Helicoverpa armigera

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae
Host Range: Wide host range including pigeon pea, chickpea, tomato, cotton, and other
crops
Distribution: Cosmopolitan, prevalent in Asia, Africa, Australia, and Europe

Biology:

Egg: Spherical, yellowish-white, laid singly on flower buds and tender pods.
Larva: Greenish with dark stripes, highly active and voracious feeder.
Pupa: Brown, pupates in soil.
Adult: Moth with brownish forewings and pale hindwings.

Nature of Damage:

Larvae bore into pods, feeding on developing seeds.

Causes direct yield loss and quality reduction.
Damage is more severe at the podding stage.

Management:

Cultural: Deep plowing, timely sowing, crop rotation.

Biological: Release of Trichogramma spp., and use of parasitoids like Campoletis
chlorideae.
Chemical: Application of insecticides like spinosad and emamectin benzoate.

2. Chickpea (Cicer arietinum)

Pod Borer (Helicoverpa armigera)

Scientific Name: Helicoverpa armigera

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae
Host Range: Wide host range including chickpea, pigeon pea, tomato, cotton, and other
crops
Distribution: Cosmopolitan, prevalent in Asia, Africa, Australia, and Europe

Biology:

Same as described for pigeon pea.

Nature of Damage:

Similar to pigeon pea, with larvae boring into pods and feeding on seeds.
Causes significant yield loss and reduces seed quality.

Management:

Cultural: Intercropping with non-host crops, use of resistant varieties.

Biological: Predators like Chrysoperla carnea and parasitoids like Habrobracon hebetor.
Chemical: Neem-based products, synthetic insecticides like chlorantraniliprole.

3. Mungbean (Vigna radiata)

Bean Fly (Ophiomyia phaseoli)

Scientific Name: Ophiomyia phaseoli

Order: Diptera
Family: Agromyzidae
Host Range: Mungbean, soybean, cowpea, and other legumes
Distribution: Asia, Africa, Australia

Biology:

Egg: Laid in stems and petioles.

Larva: Maggot-like, bores into stem tissue.
Pupa: Pupates within the stem.
Adult: Small black fly.

Nature of Damage:

Larvae tunnel into stems causing wilting and plant death.

Reduces plant vigor and yield, especially in seedlings.

Management:

Cultural: Early sowing, destruction of infested plants.

Biological: Use of parasitoids like Opius spp.
Chemical: Soil application of insecticides like imidacloprid, seed treatment with
thiamethoxam.
4. Urdbean (Vigna mungo)

Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci)

Scientific Name: Bemisia tabaci

Order: Hemiptera
Family: Aleyrodidae
Host Range: Wide host range including urdbean, cotton, vegetables, and other crops
Distribution: Cosmopolitan, prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions

Biology:

Egg: Laid on the undersides of leaves.

Nymph: Flat, scale-like, sedentary.
Pupa: Yellowish, immobile.
Adult: Small, white, winged insect.

Nature of Damage:

Nymphs and adults feed on phloem sap, causing yellowing, stunting, and leaf drop.
Excrete honeydew, leading to sooty mold growth.
Vector of several plant viruses.

Management:

Cultural: Remove infested plant debris, avoid planting near susceptible crops.
Biological: Release of predatory beetles (Delphastus catalinae), parasitoids like Encarsia
formosa.
Chemical: Insect growth regulators, systemic insecticides like acetamiprid.

5. Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata)

Aphid (Aphis craccivora)

Scientific Name: Aphis craccivora

Order: Hemiptera
Family: Aphididae
Host Range: Cowpea, chickpea, mungbean, and various other legumes
Distribution: Worldwide

Biology:

Egg: Overwinters on host plants.

Nymph: Undergoes several instars.
Adult: Winged or wingless, greenish-black.

Nature of Damage:
 Nymphs and adults suck plant sap from leaves, stems, and pods.
Causes curling, yellowing of leaves, and stunted growth.
Excretes honeydew, fostering sooty mold.
Vectors for plant viruses.

Management:

Cultural: Use resistant varieties, crop rotation, and destruction of weeds.

Biological: Predators like ladybird beetles (Coccinellidae) and lacewings (Chrysopidae).
Chemical: Insecticidal soaps, neem oil, and systemic insecticides like imidacloprid.

6. Pea (Pisum sativum)

Pea Aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum)

Scientific Name: Acyrthosiphon pisum

Order: Hemiptera
Family: Aphididae
Host Range: Pea, alfalfa, clover, and other legumes
Distribution: Cosmopolitan, particularly in temperate regions

Biology:

Egg: Overwinter on host plants.

Nymph: Several instars before becoming adults.
Adult: Winged or wingless, green to pink in color.

Nature of Damage:

Sucks sap from stems, leaves, and pods.

Causes yellowing, wilting, and stunted growth.
Excretes honeydew, leading to sooty mold.
Transmits plant viruses.

Management:

Cultural: Early planting, use of resistant varieties.

Biological: Natural enemies like parasitoids (Aphidius ervi) and predators (ladybird
beetles).
Chemical: Insecticidal soaps, neem oil, and systemic insecticides like imidacloprid.

Comprehensive Account on Arthropod Pests of Pigeon Pea: Pod Borer, Plume Moth, and Pod
Fly

Introduction:

Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) is an important legume crop grown for its edible seeds and is a
staple in many parts of the world. However, pigeon pea cultivation faces significant
challenges from various arthropod pests, which can cause severe damage and yield losses.
This comprehensive account focuses on the scientific name, order, family, host range,
distribution, biology, nature of damage, and management strategies for three key insect pests
of pigeon pea: the pod borer, plume moth, and pod fly.

1. Pod Borer (Helicoverpa armigera)

Scientific Name: Helicoverpa armigera

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae

Host Range: Helicoverpa armigera is highly polyphagous, attacking a wide range of crops,
including pigeon pea, chickpea, cotton, tomato, maize, sorghum, sunflower, and several
vegetables and ornamental plants.

Distribution: This pest is cosmopolitan, found in Asia, Africa, Europe, Australia, and the
Americas. It thrives in diverse climatic conditions and is particularly prevalent in tropical and
subtropical regions.

Biology:

Egg: Female moths lay spherical, creamy white eggs singly on flower buds, leaves, and
pods. Eggs hatch in about 3-5 days.
Larva: The larvae pass through five to six instars over a period of 15-20 days. They exhibit
color variation, ranging from green to brown, with prominent dark stripes along the body.
Pupa: Pupation occurs in the soil within a silken cocoon. The pupal stage lasts for about
10-14 days.
Adult: The adult moths are medium-sized, with a wingspan of 30-40 mm. They are
nocturnal and are attracted to light.

Nature of Damage: The larval stage is the most damaging. Young larvae feed on tender leaves,
flower buds, and flowers, but older larvae primarily target the pods, boring into them and
consuming the developing seeds. This results in direct yield losses and reduced seed quality.

Management:

1. Cultural Control:
Crop Rotation: Rotating pigeon pea with non-host crops to break the pest life cycle.
Intercropping: Intercropping with cereals like sorghum or millet can help reduce pest
infestation.
Sanitation: Removing and destroying infested plant parts and crop residues to reduce
pest population.
2. Biological Control:
Natural Enemies: Encouraging natural enemies such as Trichogramma spp. (egg
parasitoids) and Chrysoperla carnea (green lacewing) can help control pod borer
populations.
 Microbial Control: Use of biopesticides like Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) formulations
and NPV (nuclear polyhedrosis virus) specific to H. armigera.
3. Chemical Control:
Insecticides: Application of insecticides like spinosad, emamectin benzoate, or
indoxacarb can be effective. However, these should be used judiciously to prevent
resistance development and minimize environmental impact.

2. Plume Moth (Exelastis atomosa)

Scientific Name: Exelastis atomosa

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Pterophoridae

Host Range: Exelastis atomosa primarily attacks pigeon pea but can also infest other
leguminous crops like cowpea and common bean.

Distribution: The plume moth is found in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, Africa, and
the Americas.

Biology:

Egg: Eggs are laid singly on flower buds and tender pods. They are small, yellowish, and
hatch in about 3-5 days.
Larva: Larvae pass through four instars, feeding on floral parts and developing seeds. The
larval stage lasts for about 10-12 days.
Pupa: Pupation occurs within the damaged pods or on the plant surface. The pupal stage
lasts for 7-10 days.
Adult: Adult moths have a wingspan of about 20-25 mm. They are characterized by their
distinctive T-shaped posture when at rest.

Nature of Damage: The larvae of the plume moth cause damage by boring into flower buds
and young pods, feeding on the seeds and causing them to wither. This results in flower drop,
pod deformity, and significant yield losses.

Management:

1. Cultural Control:
Timely Sowing: Adjusting sowing times to avoid peak pest populations can help
reduce infestations.
Field Hygiene: Regular removal and destruction of infested plant parts and crop
residues.
2. Biological Control:
Natural Enemies: Conservation of natural enemies such as predatory beetles and
parasitoid wasps that attack plume moth larvae.
Entomopathogenic Fungi: Use of fungi like Beauveria bassiana for biological control.
3. Chemical Control:
Insecticides: Application of selective insecticides like flubendiamide or
chlorantraniliprole can be effective. These should be applied based on pest scouting
 and economic threshold levels.

3. Pod Fly (Melanagromyza obtusa)

Scientific Name: Melanagromyza obtusa

Order: Diptera
Family: Agromyzidae

Host Range: Melanagromyza obtusa is a major pest of pigeon pea but can also infest other
leguminous crops like chickpea and black gram.

Distribution: The pod fly is prevalent in South and Southeast Asia, where pigeon pea is widely
cultivated.

Biology:

Egg: Eggs are laid inside the pods, usually near the developing seeds. The eggs hatch in
about 2-3 days.
Larva: The larvae are maggots that feed on the seeds within the pods. The larval stage
lasts for 8-10 days.
Pupa: Pupation occurs inside the damaged pods. The pupal stage lasts for 7-10 days.
Adult: Adult flies are small, about 3-4 mm long, and are black with a shiny appearance.

Nature of Damage: Pod fly larvae bore into developing pods and feed on the seeds, causing
them to become shriveled and discolored. Infested pods may show exit holes made by
emerging adults. This leads to direct yield losses and reduces the marketability of the seeds.

Management:

1. Cultural Control:
Early Sowing: Sowing early-maturing varieties to escape peak pod fly infestation
periods.
Field Sanitation: Removal and destruction of infested pods and plant debris to reduce
overwintering populations.
2. Biological Control:
Parasitoids: Introducing and conserving parasitoids like Euderus lividus that attack
pod fly larvae.
Predators: Encouraging natural predators like spiders and predatory beetles that help
control pod fly populations.
3. Chemical Control:
Insecticides: Application of systemic insecticides such as dimethoate or imidacloprid
during flowering and pod formation stages can be effective. Care should be taken to
avoid excessive use and follow integrated pest management guidelines.

Spotted Pod Borer (Maruca vitrata)

Scientific Name: Maruca vitrata

Order: Lepidoptera

Family: Crambidae

Host Range: Maruca vitrata primarily infests leguminous crops, including pigeon pea,
cowpea, mung bean, black gram, and common beans.

Distribution: Maruca vitrata is widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia,
Africa, and the Americas.

Biology:

Egg: Eggs are laid singly or in small groups on flowers, buds, and young pods. The
incubation period lasts 2-4 days.
Larva: Larvae are creamy white to yellowish with brown spots. They undergo five instars
over a period of 2-3 weeks.
Pupa: Pupation occurs in the soil or within plant debris. The pupal stage lasts 7-10 days.
Adult: Adults are small moths with a wingspan of about 20 mm, featuring white
forewings with brown patches.

Nature of Damage:

Larvae feed on flowers, buds, and pods, causing webbing and formation of
characteristic ‘bored’ pods.
Feeding results in direct loss of flowers and pods, leading to reduced seed production
and lower yields.
Infestation also facilitates secondary infections by pathogens.

Management:

Cultural Control: Practice crop rotation with non-leguminous crops, remove and destroy
crop residues, and implement timely sowing to avoid peak pest populations.
Biological Control: Utilize natural enemies such as parasitoids (e.g., Trichogramma spp.)
and predators (e.g., spiders, lady beetles).
Chemical Control: Apply insecticides judiciously, targeting the early larval stages.
Recommended insecticides include spinosad, indoxacarb, and emamectin benzoate.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM): Combine cultural, biological, and chemical control
methods to achieve sustainable pest management.

Leaf Webber (Grapholita critica)

Scientific Name: Grapholita critica

Order: Lepidoptera

Family: Tortricidae

Host Range: Grapholita critica infests pigeon pea, black gram, green gram, soybean, and
other legumes.

Distribution: The pest is commonly found in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and parts of Africa.

Biology:

Egg: Eggs are laid on the leaves or flower buds. The incubation period is about 3-5 days.
Larva: Larvae are greenish with a reddish-brown head. They pass through five instars
over a period of 2-3 weeks.
Pupa: Pupation occurs within the webbed leaves or in soil litter. The pupal stage lasts
about 7-10 days.
Adult: Adults are small moths with a wingspan of 15-20 mm, characterized by brownish
forewings with distinctive markings.

Nature of Damage:

Larvae web together leaves and flowers, creating protective shelters where they feed.
Feeding within webbed foliage and buds causes significant damage, leading to
defoliation and reduced photosynthesis.
Heavy infestations can result in stunted plant growth and poor pod formation.

Management:

Cultural Control: Remove and destroy infested plant parts, practice crop rotation, and
maintain proper field sanitation.
Biological Control: Encourage natural enemies such as parasitoids (e.g., Bracon spp.,
Apanteles spp.) and predators (e.g., lacewings, predatory beetles).
Chemical Control: Use insecticides such as chlorantraniliprole, flubendiamide, and
lambda-cyhalothrin. Apply treatments at early larval stages.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM): Integrate cultural practices, biological control
agents, and selective use of insecticides to manage leaf webber populations effectively.

Mites (Tetranychus spp.)

Scientific Name: Tetranychus spp. (commonly Tetranychus urticae, Tetranychus ludeni)

Order: Acari

Family: Tetranychidae

Host Range: Tetranychus spp. have a broad host range, infesting pigeon pea, soybean,
cotton, vegetables, and various ornamental plants.

Distribution: Mites are found worldwide, particularly in regions with warm, dry climates.

Biology:

Egg: Eggs are spherical, translucent, and laid on the undersides of leaves. The
incubation period is about 3-5 days.
 Larva: Larvae are tiny and pale, with three pairs of legs. They develop into nymphs after
a few days.
Nymph: Nymphs resemble adults but are smaller and undergo two stages (protonymph
and deutonymph) over 1-2 weeks.
Adult: Adults are reddish-brown with two dark spots on their body. They have four pairs
of legs and can live for several weeks.

Nature of Damage:

Mites feed on plant sap, primarily on the undersides of leaves, causing stippling,
chlorosis, and leaf bronzing.
Severe infestations lead to leaf drop, reduced photosynthesis, and overall plant vigor
decline.
Mites produce silk webbing, which protects them from natural enemies and adverse
environmental conditions.

Management:

Cultural Control: Implement regular monitoring, maintain field hygiene, and manage
irrigation to reduce dust and plant stress.
Biological Control: Promote natural predators such as predatory mites (e.g.,
Phytoseiulus persimilis, Amblyseius spp.), lady beetles, and lacewing larvae.
Chemical Control: Use miticides like abamectin, spiromesifen, and bifenazate. Rotate
chemicals to prevent resistance development.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM): Employ a combination of cultural practices,
biological control agents, and selective miticide applications to manage mite
infestations sustainably.

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is a crucial legume crop cultivated widely for its protein-rich
seeds. However, the productivity of chickpea is significantly hampered by various insect
pests that cause extensive damage. This examination provides a detailed account of the
nature and type of damage caused by three major insect pests of chickpea—Gram pod borer
(Helicoverpa armigera), Aphids (Aphis craccivora), and Cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon). It covers
their scientific classification, host range, distribution, biology, nature of damage, and
integrated pest management strategies.

1. Gram Pod Borer (Helicoverpa armigera)

Scientific Name: Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner)

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae

Host Range:
Helicoverpa armigera has a broad host range, including crops like cotton, tomato, pigeon
pea, sorghum, sunflower, maize, and several vegetables and ornamental plants.
Distribution:
This pest is widely distributed across Asia, Africa, Australia, and the Mediterranean region,
including southern Europe.

Biology:

Eggs: Spherical, creamy-white eggs are laid singly on flowers, leaves, or pods.
Larvae: Newly hatched larvae are greenish with black heads. They undergo five to six
instars, changing color from green to brown with characteristic dark stripes along their
bodies.
Pupae: Pupation occurs in the soil within earthen cells. Pupae are brown and measure
around 20 mm.
Adults: Moths are robust, with a wingspan of 30-40 mm. Forewings are pale brown with
dark markings, while hindwings are pale with a dark band.

Nature of Damage:
The larval stage is the most destructive. Young larvae feed on tender foliage and flowers, but
as they grow, they prefer the pods and seeds, causing direct yield loss. The damage includes:

Pod damage: Larvae bore into pods and consume seeds, leading to significant losses in
grain quality and quantity.
Leaf damage: Young larvae skeletonize leaves, which affects the plant's photosynthetic
capacity.
Flower damage: Feeding on flowers reduces the plant's reproductive potential.

Management:
Integrated pest management (IPM) for Gram pod borer includes:

Cultural control: Early sowing, crop rotation, and intercropping with non-host plants can
reduce pest incidence.
Biological control: Natural enemies like Trichogramma spp., parasitoids, and predators
(e.g., ladybird beetles) are effective in controlling larvae.
Chemical control: Use of insecticides such as spinosad, chlorantraniliprole, and neem-
based products can manage severe infestations. However, these should be used
judiciously to avoid resistance.
Mechanical control: Hand-picking and destruction of egg masses and larvae can be
effective in small fields.

2. Aphids (Aphis craccivora)

Scientific Name: Aphis craccivora (Koch)

Order: Hemiptera
Family: Aphididae

Host Range:
Aphis craccivora infests a variety of legumes, including chickpea, cowpea, lentil, pigeon pea,
groundnut, and alfalfa. They also feed on several wild hosts and weeds.
Distribution:
Aphis craccivora is found globally, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions.

Biology:

Eggs: Aphids generally reproduce asexually through parthenogenesis, and eggs are
rarely seen.
Nymphs: Nymphs resemble adults but are smaller. They pass through several instars
before becoming adults.
Adults: Adults are small, pear-shaped, and can be winged or wingless. Wingless forms
are more common in stable environments.

Nature of Damage:
Aphids cause damage through direct feeding and by acting as vectors for plant viruses:

Direct feeding: Aphids use their piercing-sucking mouthparts to extract sap from
phloem tissues, leading to wilting, yellowing, and stunted growth.
Honeydew secretion: Excess sap excreted as honeydew promotes sooty mold growth,
which interferes with photosynthesis.
Virus transmission: Aphids are vectors of various plant viruses, such as the chickpea
chlorotic dwarf virus, which can cause significant yield losses.

Management:
IPM strategies for aphids include:

Cultural control: Removing weeds and alternate host plants, maintaining plant health,
and timely irrigation reduce aphid populations.
Biological control: Natural predators like ladybird beetles, lacewings, and parasitoid
wasps (e.g., Aphidius colemani) effectively manage aphid populations.
Chemical control: Insecticides like imidacloprid, acetamiprid, and neem-based products
are effective against aphids. However, they should be used sparingly to avoid resistance
development.
Mechanical control: Regular monitoring and physical removal of infested plant parts
can help in reducing aphid numbers.

3. Cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon)

Scientific Name: Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel)

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae

Host Range:
Cutworms attack a wide range of crops, including chickpea, maize, potato, tomato, tobacco,
and various vegetables.

Distribution:
Agrotis ipsilon is found worldwide, particularly in temperate and tropical regions.
Biology:

Eggs: Eggs are laid in clusters on or near the soil surface, often on host plants or nearby
weeds.
Larvae: Larvae are smooth, dark-colored caterpillars that hide in the soil during the day
and feed at night. They go through several instars.
Pupae: Pupation occurs in the soil within a silken cocoon. Pupae are reddish-brown.
Adults: Moths have a wingspan of 40-50 mm. Forewings are dark brown with distinctive
markings, while hindwings are pale with dark veins.

Nature of Damage:
Cutworms are most destructive during their larval stage. They cause damage by:

Cutting seedlings: Larvae cut young seedlings at or near the soil surface, causing plant
death and stand reduction.
Foliar feeding: Older larvae may climb plants and feed on leaves, stems, and pods,
leading to defoliation and reduced plant vigor.
Soil disturbance: Larvae create tunnels in the soil, disturbing the root system and
causing further plant stress.

Management:
IPM strategies for cutworms include:

Cultural control: Crop rotation, deep plowing, and removal of plant debris reduce
cutworm habitat. Early planting can help avoid peak cutworm activity.
Biological control: Natural enemies like parasitic wasps (e.g., Trichogramma spp.) and
predatory beetles (e.g., carabids) can effectively reduce cutworm populations.
Chemical control: Soil-applied insecticides like chlorpyrifos and bifenthrin can control
cutworm larvae. Foliar insecticides may be needed for older larvae.
Mechanical control: Use of physical barriers around seedlings, such as collars, and
regular field monitoring can help manage cutworm infestations.

Comprehensive Examination of Arthropod Pests Affecting Mung and Urdbean, and Their
Management

Introduction:

Mungbean (Vigna radiata) and Urdbean (Vigna mungo) are important pulse crops cultivated
widely across various agro-ecological zones. However, these legumes are susceptible to
damage by several arthropod pests, including aphids, leaf-eating caterpillars, semiloopers,
and pod borers. In this comprehensive examination, we will explore the nature and types of
damage caused by these pests, along with their scientific classification, distribution,
biology, host range, and integrated pest management strategies.

1. Aphids:
Scientific Name: Aphididae family (Order: Hemiptera) Distribution: Aphids are cosmopolitan
pests found in temperate and tropical regions worldwide.

Host Range: Aphids infest a wide range of host plants, including mungbean and urdbean, as
well as other legumes, vegetables, and ornamental plants.

Biology: Aphids are small, soft-bodied insects with piercing-sucking mouthparts. They
reproduce rapidly, with females giving birth to live nymphs without mating under favorable
conditions. Aphids can reproduce parthenogenetically, leading to explosive population
growth.

Nature of Damage: Aphids feed on plant sap, causing stunting, yellowing, curling, and
distortion of leaves. They excrete honeydew, which promotes the growth of sooty mold and
attracts ants. Heavy infestations can lead to reduced plant vigor, yield losses, and
transmission of viral diseases.

Management: Integrated pest management (IPM) strategies for aphids include cultural,
biological, and chemical control measures. Cultural practices such as crop rotation, weed
management, and maintaining plant health help reduce aphid populations. Biological
control agents like ladybird beetles, lacewings, and parasitoid wasps can be introduced to
suppress aphid populations. Chemical control with insecticides is often used as a last resort
and should be applied judiciously to minimize non-target effects.

1. Leaf-Eating Caterpillars:

Scientific Name: Various families (Order: Lepidoptera) Distribution: Leaf-eating caterpillars

are widespread pests found in mungbean and urdbean-growing regions worldwide. Host
Range: Leaf-eating caterpillars infest a wide range of host plants, including legumes,
vegetables, and cereals.

Biology: Leaf-eating caterpillars are the larval stage of moths belonging to various families
within the order Lepidoptera. They feed voraciously on foliage, often consuming entire
leaves or defoliating plants. Caterpillars undergo complete metamorphosis, with egg, larva,
pupa, and adult stages.

Nature of Damage: Leaf-eating caterpillars cause extensive damage to foliage, leading to

skeletonization, defoliation, and reduced photosynthetic capacity. Severe infestations can
weaken plants, reduce yields, and affect seed quality.

Management: IPM strategies for leaf-eating caterpillars include cultural, biological, and
chemical control methods. Cultural practices such as early planting, intercropping with
repellent crops, and manual removal of caterpillars help reduce pest pressure.

Biological control agents like parasitic wasps, predatory beetles, and entomopathogenic
nematodes can be effective in suppressing caterpillar populations. Chemical control with
insecticides may be necessary during outbreaks but should be used judiciously to minimize
environmental impact.

1. Semilooper:

Scientific Name: Noctuidae family (Order: Lepidoptera) Distribution: Semiloopers are

prevalent pests in mungbean and urdbean-growing regions of Asia, Africa, and the Americas.
Host Range: Semiloopers primarily infest leguminous crops like mungbean, urdbean,
soybean, and pigeon pea.

Biology: Semiloopers are the larval stage of moths belonging to the Noctuidae family. They
feed on foliage, flowers, and pods, causing extensive damage. Semiloopers undergo
complete metamorphosis, with egg, larva, pupa, and adult stages.

Nature of Damage: Semiloopers feed on tender foliage, flowers, and developing pods,
leading to defoliation, flower abortion, and pod damage. Larval feeding can result in yield
losses, reduced seed quality, and increased susceptibility to diseases.

Management: IPM strategies for semiloopers involve cultural, biological, and chemical
control measures. Cultural practices such as crop rotation, trap cropping, and early planting
help reduce semilooper populations. Biological control agents like parasitic wasps,
predatory beetles, and entomopathogenic fungi can be used to suppress larval populations.
Chemical control with insecticides should be applied when larval densities exceed
economic thresholds, using selective and environmentally friendly formulations.

1. Pod Borer:

Scientific Name: Helicoverpa armigera (Order: Lepidoptera) Distribution: Pod borers are
major pests in mungbean and urdbean-growing regions of Asia, Africa, Europe, and
Australia.

Host Range: Pod borers primarily infest leguminous crops like mungbean, urdbean,
chickpea, and pigeon pea, as well as cotton, maize, and tomato.

Biology: Pod borers are the larval stage of moths belonging to the Noctuidae family. They
feed on developing pods, bore into seeds, and cause extensive damage. Pod borers undergo
complete metamorphosis, with egg, larva, pupa, and adult stages.

Nature of Damage: Pod borer larvae feed on developing pods, causing pod shedding, seed
damage, and yield losses. Infested seeds may become shriveled, discolored, or moldy,
reducing market value and seed quality.

Management: IPM strategies for pod borers include cultural, biological, and chemical
control methods. Cultural practices such as crop rotation, early planting, and field
sanitation help reduce pod borer populations. Biological control agents like parasitic wasps,
predatory beetles, and entomopathogenic nematodes can be effective in suppressing larval
populations. Chemical control with insecticides should be applied during pod formation and
maturation stages, targeting larvae within pods while minimizing residues and
environmental impact.

Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) and pea (Pisum sativum) are important leguminous crops grown
worldwide for their edible seeds and high nutritional value. However, these crops face
significant threats from various arthropod pests, including aphids, blue butterflies, and pod
borers. In this comprehensive examination, we will explore the scientific classification,
distribution, biology, nature of damage, and management strategies for these key pests
affecting cowpea and pea production.

1. Aphids:

Scientific Name: Aphids belong to the order Hemiptera and the family Aphididae. Common
species affecting cowpea and pea include Aphis craccivora (cowpea aphid) and
Acyrthosiphon pisum (pea aphid).

Host Range: Aphids are polyphagous pests that infest a wide range of host plants, including
cowpea, pea, other legumes, and various crop and ornamental plants.

Distribution: Aphids are distributed worldwide and can be found in all major cowpea and
pea-growing regions.

Biology: Aphids reproduce rapidly via parthenogenesis, with females giving birth to live
nymphs without mating. Nymphs mature into wingless or winged adults within a few days
under favorable conditions. Aphids feed on plant sap using piercing-sucking mouthparts,
causing stunting, wilting, chlorosis, and distortion of plant tissues.

Nature of Damage: Aphids damage cowpea and pea plants by feeding on sap and
transmitting viral diseases, such as cowpea aphid-borne mosaic virus (CABMV) and pea
enation mosaic virus (PEMV). Heavy infestations can reduce plant vigor, yield, and quality.

Management: Integrated pest management (IPM) strategies for aphids include cultural,
biological, and chemical control methods. Cultural practices such as crop rotation,
intercropping, and weed management help reduce aphid populations. Biological control
agents like ladybird beetles, lacewings, and parasitoid wasps can be introduced to suppress
aphid populations. Chemical control with insecticides may be necessary during outbreaks
but should be used judiciously to minimize non-target effects and insecticide resistance.

1. Blue Butterfly:

Scientific Name: Blue butterflies belong to the order Lepidoptera and the family Lycaenidae.
Common species affecting cowpea and pea include Lampides boeticus (pea blue) and
Pseudolycaena marsyas (cowpea blue).
Host Range: Blue butterflies primarily infest leguminous crops like cowpea and pea but can
also attack other host plants from the Fabaceae family.

Distribution: Blue butterflies are distributed in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide,
where cowpea and pea are cultivated.

Biology: Blue butterfly adults lay eggs on cowpea and pea plants, and the larvae, or
caterpillars, feed voraciously on foliage and flowers. Larvae undergo several instars before
pupating and emerging as adults. Blue butterflies are often associated with mutualistic
relationships with ants, which protect the larvae from predators and parasites in exchange
for honeydew secretions.

Nature of Damage: Blue butterfly larvae defoliate cowpea and pea plants, causing
significant yield losses and aesthetic damage. Larval feeding can also reduce plant vigor and
delay flowering and pod development.

Management: IPM strategies for blue butterflies involve cultural, biological, and chemical
control measures. Cultural practices such as early planting, crop monitoring, and removal of
crop residues help reduce butterfly populations. Biological control agents like parasitic
wasps and predatory beetles can be introduced to suppress larvae. Chemical control with
insecticides may be necessary during outbreaks but should be used judiciously to minimize
environmental impact.

1. Pod Borer:

Scientific Name: Pod borers belong to the order Lepidoptera and various families, including
Noctuidae and Pyralidae. Common species affecting cowpea and pea include Maruca vitrata
(cowpea pod borer) and Helicoverpa armigera (pea pod borer).

Host Range: Pod borers primarily infest leguminous crops like cowpea and pea but can also
attack other host plants from the Fabaceae family.

Distribution: Pod borers are distributed in tropical and subtropical regions where cowpea
and pea are cultivated, with outbreaks occurring during favorable environmental
conditions.

Biology: Pod borer adults lay eggs on cowpea and pea plants, and the larvae bore into pods,
seeds, or stems, feeding internally. Larvae undergo several instars before pupating and
emerging as adults. Pod borers are notorious for their ability to develop resistance to
chemical insecticides.

Nature of Damage: Pod borer larvae tunnel into cowpea and pea pods, causing direct
damage to seeds and reducing yield and quality. Larval feeding can also introduce
pathogens, leading to secondary infections and further losses.
Management: IPM strategies for pod borers include cultural, biological, and chemical
control methods. Cultural practices such as timely planting, crop sanitation, and use of
resistant varieties help reduce pod borer populations. Biological control agents like
parasitic wasps and predatory beetles can be introduced to suppress larvae. Chemical
control with insecticides may be necessary during outbreaks but should be used judiciously
to minimize resistance development and environmental impact.

1. Aphids (Order: Hemiptera, Family: Aphididae):

Scientific Name: Various species within the Aphididae family, commonly affecting
groundnut include Aphis craccivora, Aphis gossypii, and Myzus persicae.

Distribution: Aphids are ubiquitous pests found in temperate and tropical regions
worldwide, infesting a wide range of host plants, including oilseeds like groundnut.

Host Range: Aphids have a broad host range, including various plants from different
families. They commonly infest legumes, including groundnut, as well as cereals, vegetables,
and ornamentals.

Biology: Aphids are small, soft-bodied insects with piercing-sucking mouthparts. They
reproduce rapidly, with females giving birth to live young (nymphs) without mating. Nymphs
mature into wingless or winged adults within a few days under favorable conditions.

Nature of Damage: Aphids feed on plant sap, causing stunting, yellowing, and distortion of
leaves and shoots. They also excrete honeydew, promoting the growth of sooty mold, which
further reduces photosynthesis. Heavy aphid infestations can lead to yield losses in
groundnut crops.

Management: Integrated pest management (IPM) strategies for aphids include cultural,
biological, and chemical control methods. Cultural practices such as crop rotation and
maintaining plant vigor help reduce aphid populations. Biological control agents like
ladybird beetles and parasitic wasps can be introduced to suppress aphid numbers.
Chemical control with insecticides should be used judiciously, considering their impact on
beneficial insects and the environment.

1. Thrips (Order: Thysanoptera, Family: Thripidae):

Scientific Name: Various species within the Thripidae family, commonly affecting groundnut
include Frankliniella schultzei and Thrips palmi.

Distribution: Thrips are widespread pests found in temperate and tropical regions
worldwide, infesting a wide range of host plants, including oilseeds like groundnut.

Host Range: Thrips have a broad host range, including various crops, weeds, and ornamental
plants. They commonly infest legumes, including groundnut, as well as vegetables, fruits,
and flowers.
Biology: Thrips are tiny, slender insects with fringed wings. They feed by rasping the plant
surface and sucking up the released fluids. Thrips reproduce rapidly, with females laying
eggs within plant tissue. Nymphs develop through two larval stages before pupating in the
soil or plant debris.

Nature of Damage: Thrips feeding causes stippling, silvering, and distortion of leaves,
flowers, and pods. They also transmit viruses, such as groundnut yellow spot virus and
groundnut bud necrosis virus, further compromising crop health and yield.

Management: IPM strategies for thrips include cultural, biological, and chemical control
measures. Cultural practices such as removing weed hosts and maintaining plant hygiene
help reduce thrips populations. Biological control agents like predatory mites and insect-
pathogenic fungi can be employed to suppress thrips numbers. Chemical control with
insecticides may be necessary during outbreaks but should be used judiciously to minimize
non-target effects and resistance development.

1. White Grub (Order: Coleoptera, Family: Scarabaeidae):

Scientific Name: Various species within the Scarabaeidae family, commonly affecting
groundnut include Holotrichia consanguinea and Anomala dimidiata.

Distribution: White grubs are soil-dwelling pests found in various regions worldwide,
infesting a wide range of host plants, including oilseeds like groundnut.

Host Range: White grubs have a broad host range, including various crops, grasses, and
weeds. They commonly infest legumes, including groundnut, as well as cereals, vegetables,
and ornamentals.

Biology: White grubs are the larvae of scarab beetles. They are creamy white, C-shaped
larvae with three pairs of legs and a brown head capsule. White grubs feed on plant roots in
the soil, causing direct damage to the root system.

Nature of Damage: White grub feeding results in reduced root volume, poor nutrient uptake,
wilting, and stunted growth of groundnut plants. Severe infestations can lead to plant
lodging, reduced stand establishment, and yield losses.

Management: IPM strategies for white grubs focus on cultural, biological, and chemical
control methods. Cultural practices such as crop rotation, deep tillage, and avoiding
excessive irrigation help reduce white grub populations. Biological control agents like
entomopathogenic nematodes and microbial insecticides can be applied to target white
grub larvae in the soil. Chemical control with soil-applied insecticides may be necessary
during planting or in-season, but should be used judiciously to minimize non-target effects
and environmental contamination.

1. Pod-Sucking Bug (Order: Hemiptera, Family: Pentatomidae):

Scientific Name: Various species within the Pentatomidae family, commonly affecting
groundnut include Nezara viridula and Piezodorus guildinii.

Distribution: Pod-sucking bugs are widely distributed pests found in temperate and tropical
regions worldwide, infesting a wide range of host plants, including oilseeds like groundnut.

Host Range: Pod-sucking bugs have a broad host range, including various crops, fruits, and
vegetables. They commonly infest legumes, including groundnut, as well as soybean,
cowpea, and sunflower.

Biology: Pod-sucking bugs are shield-shaped insects with piercing-sucking mouthparts. They
feed on developing pods and seeds, piercing the tissue and sucking out the sap. Pod-sucking
bugs undergo incomplete metamorphosis, with egg, nymph, and adult stages.

Nature of Damage: Pod-sucking bug feeding results in deformed pods, reduced seed set, and
poor seed quality in groundnut crops. They also inject toxic saliva into the plant tissue,
causing necrosis and physiological disorders.

Management: IPM strategies for pod-sucking bugs involve cultural, biological, and chemical
control measures. Cultural practices such as early planting and avoiding excessive nitrogen
fertilization help reduce bug populations. Biological control agents like predatory insects
and parasitic wasps can be employed to suppress bug numbers. Chemical control with
insecticides may be necessary during pod formation and maturation stages, but should be
used judiciously to minimize residues and environmental impact.

Castor (Ricinus communis) is an economically important crop cultivated for its oil-rich
seeds, which are used in various industries. However, castor cultivation faces challenges
from a variety of arthropod pests that can cause significant damage if not managed
effectively. In this examination, we will provide a general account of the nature and type of
damage caused by different arthropod pests of castor, including Semilooper, Capsule borer,
Jassids, and Tobacco leaf-eating caterpillar. Additionally, we will explore their scientific
classification, host range, distribution, biology, and management strategies.

1. Semilooper (Achaea janata):

Scientific Name: Achaea janata Order: Lepidoptera Family: Noctuidae

Host Range: Besides castor, Semilooper larvae also feed on a variety of other crops and
plants, including cotton, soybean, maize, and vegetables.

Distribution: Semilooper is distributed in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide,

particularly in Asia, Africa, and the Americas.

Biology: Semilooper undergoes complete metamorphosis, with egg, larva, pupa, and adult
stages. Adult moths lay eggs on the underside of castor leaves, and the larvae feed
voraciously on foliage, causing defoliation and reduced plant vigor.
Nature of Damage: Semilooper larvae skeletonize castor leaves, resulting in reduced
photosynthetic capacity and yield losses. Severe infestations can defoliate plants and
weaken them, making them more susceptible to other stresses and diseases.

Management: Integrated pest management (IPM) strategies for Semilooper include cultural,
biological, and chemical control methods. Cultural practices such as crop rotation and
maintaining plant health help reduce pest pressure. Biological control agents like parasitic
wasps and predatory beetles can be introduced to suppress Semilooper populations.
Chemical control with insecticides is often necessary during outbreaks but should be used
judiciously to minimize environmental impact.

1. Capsule Borer (Conogethes punctiferalis):

Scientific Name: Conogethes punctiferalis Order: Lepidoptera Family: Crambidae

Host Range: Capsule borer primarily infests castor plants but can also attack other hosts like
okra, cotton, and pigeon pea.

Distribution: Capsule borer is prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, Africa,
and Australia.

Biology: Capsule borer undergoes complete metamorphosis, with egg, larva, pupa, and adult
stages. Adult moths lay eggs on castor capsules, and the larvae bore into developing seeds,
causing damage.

Nature of Damage: Capsule borer larvae tunnel into castor capsules, feeding on developing
seeds and causing yield losses. Infested capsules may fail to develop properly, resulting in
reduced seed quality and quantity.

Management: IPM strategies for capsule borer include cultural, biological, and chemical
control measures. Cultural practices such as timely harvesting and removal of infested
capsules help reduce pest pressure. Biological control agents like parasitic wasps and
predatory beetles can be introduced to suppress capsule borer populations. Chemical
control with insecticides may be necessary during periods of high pest activity but should
be used judiciously to minimize residues and environmental impact.

1. Jassids (Empoasca spp.):

Scientific Name: Empoasca spp. Order: Hemiptera Family: Cicadellidae

Host Range: Jassids infest a wide range of host plants, including castor, cotton, okra, and
vegetables. Distribution: Jassids are distributed in temperate and tropical regions
worldwide, with species-specific preferences for different climates and habitats.

Biology: Jassids are small, sap-sucking insects that feed on plant phloem using piercing-
sucking mouthparts. They undergo incomplete metamorphosis, with egg, nymph, and adult
stages. Adult jassids lay eggs on the undersides of castor leaves, and the nymphs develop
into adults within a few weeks. Nature of Damage: Jassids damage castor plants by feeding
on sap, causing chlorosis, leaf curling, and reduced plant vigor. Heavy infestations can lead
to stunted growth and yield losses. Management: IPM strategies for jassids involve cultural,
biological, and chemical control methods. Cultural practices such as weed management and
maintaining plant health help reduce pest populations. Biological control agents like
predatory bugs and spiders can be effective in suppressing jassid populations. Chemical
control with insecticides should be used judiciously and rotated to prevent resistance
development.

1. Tobacco Leaf-eating Caterpillar (Spodoptera litura):

Scientific Name: Spodoptera litura Order: Lepidoptera Family: Noctuidae

Host Range: Besides tobacco, this caterpillar feeds on a wide range of host plants, including
castor, cotton, maize, and vegetables.

Distribution: Tobacco leaf-eating caterpillar is distributed in tropical and subtropical

regions worldwide.

Biology: Tobacco leaf-eating caterpillar undergoes complete metamorphosis, with egg,

larva, pupa, and adult stages. Adult moths lay eggs on the underside of castor leaves, and
the larvae feed on foliage, causing defoliation and reduced plant vigor.

Nature of Damage: Caterpillar feeding results in defoliation and reduced photosynthetic

capacity, leading to yield losses and decreased seed quality. Heavy infestations can cause
significant damage to castor crops.

Management: IPM strategies for tobacco leaf-eating caterpillar include cultural, biological,
and chemical control measures. Cultural practices such as crop rotation and trap cropping
help reduce pest pressure. Biological control agents like parasitic wasps and predatory
beetles can be introduced to suppress caterpillar populations. Chemical control with
insecticides is often necessary during outbreaks but should be used judiciously to minimize
environmental impact.

Sunflower (Helianthus annuus) is an important oilseed crop cultivated worldwide for its
edible oil and seed. However, sunflower cultivation faces numerous challenges from
arthropod pests, including capitulum borer, hairy caterpillar, jassids, thrips, whitefly, and
stem borer. In this comprehensive examination, we will explore the scientific names, orders,
families, host ranges, distributions, biology, nature of damage, and management strategies
for these key arthropod pests.

1. Capitulum Borer (Helicoverpa armigera):

Scientific Name: Helicoverpa armigera Order: Lepidoptera Family: Noctuidae

Host Range: Capitulum borer infests a wide range of host plants, including sunflower,
cotton, maize, chickpea, and tomato.

Distribution: Capitulum borer is distributed globally, with significant populations in Asia,

Africa, Europe, and Australia.

Biology: Capitulum borer undergoes complete metamorphosis, with egg, larva, pupa, and
adult stages. Adult moths lay eggs on sunflower capitula (flower heads), and the larvae bore
into developing seeds, causing damage.

Nature of Damage: Capitulum borer larvae tunnel into sunflower capitula, feeding on seeds
and causing yield losses. Infested seeds may become shriveled, discolored, or malformed,
reducing quality and marketability.

Management: Integrated pest management (IPM) strategies for capitulum borer include
cultural, biological, and chemical control methods. Cultural practices such as crop rotation
and early planting can help reduce pest pressure. Biological control agents like parasitic
wasps and predatory beetles can be introduced to suppress larval populations. Chemical
control with insecticides should be used judiciously, considering factors such as timing,
insecticide resistance, and environmental impact.

1. Hairy Caterpillar (Spilosoma obliqua):

Scientific Name: Spilosoma obliqua Order: Lepidoptera Family: Erebidae

Host Range: Hairy caterpillar primarily infests sunflower but can also attack other hosts like
maize, sorghum, and cotton.

Distribution: Hairy caterpillar is found in sunflower-growing regions of Asia, Africa,

Australia, and the Americas.

Biology: Hairy caterpillar undergoes complete metamorphosis, with egg, larva, pupa, and
adult stages. Adult moths lay eggs on sunflower leaves, and the larvae feed voraciously on
foliage, defoliating plants.

Nature of Damage: Hairy caterpillar larvae defoliate sunflower plants, reducing

photosynthetic capacity and yield potential. Severe infestations can stunt plant growth and
delay flowering and maturity.

Management: IPM strategies for hairy caterpillar include cultural, biological, and chemical
control measures. Cultural practices such as early detection and removal of egg masses and
larvae help reduce pest populations. Biological control agents like parasitic wasps and
predatory insects can be effective in suppressing larval populations. Chemical control with
insecticides may be necessary during outbreaks but should be used judiciously to minimize
non-target effects.
 1. Jassids (Empoasca spp.):

Scientific Name: Empoasca spp. Order: Hemiptera Family: Cicadellidae

Host Range: Jassids infest a wide range of host plants, including sunflower, cotton, potato,
and beans.

Distribution: Jassids are distributed globally, with significant populations in temperate and
tropical regions.

Biology: Jassids are small, sap-sucking insects that feed on plant phloem using piercing-
sucking mouthparts. They undergo incomplete metamorphosis, with egg, nymph, and adult
stages. Adult jassids lay eggs on sunflower leaves, and the nymphs develop into adults
within a few weeks.

Nature of Damage: Jassids damage sunflower plants by feeding on sap, causing chlorosis,
leaf curling, and reduced plant vigor. They also excrete honeydew, promoting the growth of
sooty mold, which further reduces photosynthesis.

Management: IPM strategies for jassids involve cultural, biological, and chemical control
methods. Cultural practices such as weed management and maintaining plant health help
reduce jassid populations. Biological control agents like parasitic wasps and predatory
insects can be introduced to suppress jassid populations. Chemical control with insecticides
may be necessary during outbreaks but should be used judiciously to avoid resistance and
minimize non-target effects.

1. Thrips (Frankliniella spp.):

Scientific Name: Frankliniella spp. Order: Thysanoptera Family: Thripidae

Host Range: Thrips infest a wide range of host plants, including sunflower, onion, pepper,
and cucumber.

Distribution: Thrips are distributed globally, with significant populations in temperate and
tropical regions.

Biology: Thrips are tiny, elongated insects with rasping-sucking mouthparts. They undergo
incomplete metamorphosis, with egg, larva, pupa, and adult stages. Adult thrips lay eggs on
sunflower leaves, and the nymphs feed on plant tissue.

Nature of Damage: Thrips damage sunflower plants by feeding on leaves, flowers, and
developing seeds, causing stippling, discoloration, and deformation. They can also transmit
plant viruses, further compromising plant health and yield.

Management: IPM strategies for thrips include cultural, biological, and chemical control
measures. Cultural practices such as weed management and crop sanitation help reduce
thrips populations. Biological control agents like predatory mites and entomopathogenic
fungi can be introduced to suppress thrips populations. Chemical control with insecticides
may be necessary during outbreaks but should be used judiciously to minimize non-target
effects.

1. Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci):

Scientific Name: Bemisia tabaci Order: Hemiptera Family: Aleyrodidae

Host Range: Whiteflies infest a wide range of host plants, including sunflower, tomato,
pepper, and eggplant.

Distribution: Whiteflies are distributed globally, with significant populations in temperate

and tropical regions.

Biology: Whiteflies are small, sap-sucking insects that feed on plant phloem using piercing-
sucking mouthparts. They undergo incomplete metamorphosis, with egg, nymph, and adult
stages. Adult whiteflies lay eggs on sunflower leaves, and the nymphs develop into adults
within a few weeks.

Nature of Damage: Whiteflies damage sunflower plants by feeding on sap, causing chlorosis,
leaf curling, and reduced plant vigor. They also excrete honeydew, promoting the growth of
sooty mold, which further reduces photosynthesis.

Management: IPM strategies for whiteflies involve cultural, biological, and chemical control
methods. Cultural practices such as weed management and maintaining plant health help
reduce whitefly populations. Biological control agents like parasitic wasps and predatory
beetles can be introduced to suppress whitefly populations. Chemical control with
insecticides may be necessary during outbreaks but should be used judiciously to avoid
resistance and minimize non-target effects.

Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) is an important oilseed crop cultivated worldwide for its
oil-rich seeds. Like any other agricultural crop, safflower is susceptible to attack by various
arthropod pests, including aphids, capitulum borers, and Guzia weevils. In this examination,
we will provide a detailed account of the nature and type of damage caused by these pests,
along with their scientific classification, distribution, biology, and integrated management
strategies.

1. Aphids (Order: Hemiptera, Family: Aphididae):

Scientific Name: Several species of aphids can infest safflower, including Aphis gossypii and
Aphis craccivora.

Distribution: Aphids are widely distributed in safflower-growing regions worldwide, thriving

in temperate and subtropical climates.

Host Range: Aphids infest a wide range of host plants, including safflower, cotton, soybeans,
and various ornamental plants.

Biology: Aphids are small, soft-bodied insects with piercing-sucking mouthparts. They
reproduce rapidly, with females capable of producing multiple generations without mating.
Winged and wingless forms of aphids may be present, with winged individuals dispersing to
new host plants when populations become crowded.

Nature of Damage: Aphids feed on safflower plants by piercing the plant tissues and sucking
sap. Their feeding can cause yellowing, wilting, and distortion of leaves, stunting of plant
growth, and reduced seed yield. Aphids also excrete honeydew, which promotes the growth
of sooty mold, further compromising plant health.

Management: Integrated pest management (IPM) strategies for aphids in safflower include
cultural, biological, and chemical control methods. Cultural practices such as crop rotation,
weed management, and maintaining plant vigor help reduce aphid populations. Biological
control agents such as ladybird beetles, lacewings, and parasitic wasps can be introduced to
suppress aphid populations. Chemical control with insecticides is often used as a last resort
and should be applied judiciously to minimize environmental impact and preserve natural
enemies.

1. Capitulum Borer (Order: Lepidoptera, Family: Noctuidae):

Scientific Name: The capitulum borer affecting safflower is primarily represented by

Carthamus pests like Carthamus lineatus and Carthamus arborescens.

Distribution: Capitulum borers are prevalent in safflower-growing regions of Asia, Africa,

Europe, and the Americas.

Host Range: Capitulum borers primarily infest safflower, but they may also attack other
plants within the Asteraceae family.

Biology: Capitulum borers are moth larvae that feed on safflower capitula (flower heads).
Adult moths lay eggs on developing flower heads, and the larvae bore into the capitula,
feeding on developing seeds.

Nature of Damage: Capitulum borer larvae tunnel into safflower capitula, causing damage to
developing seeds and reducing seed yield. Infested flower heads may exhibit premature
wilting, discoloration, and reduced seed set.

Management: Integrated pest management (IPM) strategies for capitulum borers include
cultural, biological, and chemical control methods. Cultural practices such as crop rotation,
early planting, and removal of crop residues help reduce pest pressure. Biological control
agents such as parasitic wasps and predatory beetles can be effective in suppressing
capitulum borer populations. Chemical control with insecticides may be necessary during
peak infestation periods but should be used judiciously to minimize residues and
environmental impact.
 1. Guzia Weevil (Order: Coleoptera, Family: Curculionidae):

Scientific Name: The Guzia weevil affecting safflower is primarily represented by Guzia
picipes.

Distribution: Guzia weevils are found in safflower-growing regions of Asia, particularly in

India, Pakistan, and neighboring countries.

Host Range: Guzia weevils primarily infest safflower but may also attack other plants within
the Asteraceae family.

Biology: Guzia weevils are small, beetle-like insects with elongated snouts. Adult weevils
feed on safflower foliage and lay eggs in the soil near the base of safflower plants. The larvae
develop in the soil, feeding on safflower roots.

Nature of Damage: Guzia weevil larvae feed on safflower roots, causing stunting, wilting, and
reduced plant vigor. Severe infestations can lead to plant death and significant yield losses.

Management: Integrated pest management (IPM) strategies for Guzia weevils include
cultural, biological, and chemical control methods. Cultural practices such as crop rotation,
deep plowing, and use of resistant varieties help reduce weevil populations. Biological
control agents such as entomopathogenic nematodes can be applied to the soil to target
larvae. Chemical control with soil-applied insecticides may be necessary in heavily infested
fields but should be used judiciously to minimize non-target effects.

General Account of Arthropod Pests Affecting Mustard and Linseed: Nature of Damage and
Management

Introduction:

Arthropod pests pose significant challenges to mustard and linseed cultivation worldwide,
causing economic losses through damage to foliage, flowers, and seeds. In this general
account, we will explore the nature of damage caused by aphids, sawflies, leaf webbers, and
gall flies on mustard and linseed crops, along with their management strategies.

1. Mustard (Brassica juncea) Pests:

a. Aphids (Order: Hemiptera, Family: Aphididae):

Distribution: Aphids are cosmopolitan pests found in mustard-growing regions

worldwide.
Host Range: Aphids infest a wide range of host plants, including mustard, other
brassicas, and various crops and ornamentals.
Biology: Aphids reproduce rapidly, with females giving birth to live young without
mating. They feed on plant sap using piercing-sucking mouthparts, causing curling,
distortion, and yellowing of leaves.
 Nature of Damage: Aphids damage mustard plants by sucking sap, reducing plant vigor,
and transmitting viral diseases. Heavy infestations can cause stunted growth, wilting,
and yield losses.
Management: Integrated pest management (IPM) strategies for aphids include cultural,
biological, and chemical control methods. Cultural practices such as crop rotation and
maintaining plant vigor help reduce aphid populations. Biological control agents like
ladybird beetles and parasitic wasps can be introduced to suppress aphid populations.
Chemical control with insecticides should be used judiciously to avoid resistance and
minimize non-target effects.

b. Sawflies (Order: Hymenoptera, Family: Tenthredinidae):

Distribution: Sawflies are common pests of mustard in temperate and subtropical

regions.
Host Range: Sawflies primarily infest mustard and other brassicas but can also attack
other herbaceous plants.
Biology: Sawfly larvae resemble caterpillars and feed on mustard foliage, creating
characteristic feeding damage.
Nature of Damage: Sawfly larvae skeletonize mustard leaves by feeding on leaf tissue
between the veins. Severe infestations can defoliate plants, reduce photosynthesis, and
impair plant growth.
Management: Cultural practices such as crop rotation and sanitation help reduce sawfly
populations. Biological control agents like parasitic wasps and predatory insects can be
effective in suppressing sawfly larvae. Chemical control with insecticides may be
necessary during outbreaks but should be applied judiciously to minimize
environmental impact.

c. Leaf Webbers (Order: Lepidoptera, Family: Various):

Distribution: Various species of leaf webbers are found in mustard-growing regions

worldwide.
Host Range: Leaf webbers infest mustard and other cruciferous crops, forming
protective webs on foliage.
Biology: Leaf webber larvae construct silk webs on mustard leaves, within which they
feed and shelter.
Nature of Damage: Leaf webbers damage mustard plants by skeletonizing leaves and
reducing photosynthetic capacity. They also create shelters that protect them from
natural enemies and insecticides.
Management: Cultural practices such as pruning infested foliage and removing leaf
debris help reduce leaf webber populations. Biological control agents like predatory
beetles and parasitic wasps can be introduced to control larvae. Chemical control with
insecticides should be applied selectively to target larvae within webs while minimizing
non-target effects.
1. Linseed (Linum usitatissimum) Pests:

a. Gall Fly (Order: Diptera, Family: Cecidomyiidae):

 Distribution: Gall flies are distributed in linseed-growing regions of temperate and
subtropical climates.
Host Range: Gall flies primarily infest linseed but can also attack other plants in the
Linaceae family.
Biology: Gall fly larvae develop within plant tissues, causing abnormal growths or galls.
Nature of Damage: Gall fly larvae induce the formation of galls on linseed stems, leaves,
or buds, disrupting normal plant growth and development. Severe infestations can
reduce seed yield and quality.
Management: Cultural practices such as early planting and crop rotation help reduce
gall fly infestations. Biological control agents like parasitic wasps and predatory insects
can be effective in suppressing gall fly populations. Chemical control with insecticides
may be necessary during flowering and seed development stages but should be used
judiciously to minimize environmental impact.

Soybean (Glycine max) is an important crop globally, serving as a significant source of

protein and oil. However, soybean cultivation faces numerous challenges from arthropod
pests, which can cause substantial yield losses if left unmanaged. In this comprehensive
examination, we will explore the nature and type of damage caused by different arthropod
pests of soybean, including their scientific names, orders, families, host ranges,
distributions, biology, nature of damage, and management strategies.

1. Stem Fly (Melanagromyza sojae):

Scientific Name: Melanagromyza sojae

Order: Diptera

Family: Agromyzidae

Host Range: Primarily infests soybean but can also affect other leguminous crops.

Distribution: Widely distributed in soybean-growing regions worldwide.

Biology: The stem fly lays eggs on the stems of soybean plants. The larvae hatch and tunnel
into the stems, causing damage to the vascular tissues. Infested plants show stunted
growth, wilting, and lodging.

Nature of Damage: Stem fly larvae tunnel into soybean stems, causing wilting, lodging, and
reduced plant vigor. Severe infestations can lead to yield losses.

Management: Cultural practices such as crop rotation and sanitation help reduce stem fly
populations. Biological control agents like parasitic wasps and predatory beetles can be
effective in suppressing stem fly larvae. Chemical control with insecticides may be
necessary during outbreaks but should be used judiciously to minimize environmental
impact.

1. Girdle Beetle (Epilachna spp.):

Scientific Name: Epilachna spp.

Order: Coleoptera

Family: Coccinellidae

Host Range: Feeds on soybean and other leguminous crops.

Distribution: Found in soybean-growing regions worldwide.

Biology: Girdle beetles lay eggs on soybean leaves. The larvae hatch and feed on the foliage,
skeletonizing the leaves. Adult beetles also feed on soybean foliage.

Nature of Damage: Girdle beetle larvae and adults feed on soybean foliage, causing
skeletonization and defoliation. Severe infestations can reduce photosynthetic capacity and
yield.

Management: Cultural practices such as crop rotation and intercropping can help reduce
girdle beetle populations. Biological control agents like parasitic wasps and predatory
beetles can be effective in suppressing beetle larvae. Chemical control with insecticides
may be necessary during outbreaks but should be used judiciously to minimize non-target
effects.

1. Leaf Miner (Liriomyza spp.):

Scientific Name: Liriomyza spp.

Order: Diptera

Family: Agromyzidae

Host Range: Attacks soybean and a wide range of other host plants.

Distribution: Widely distributed in soybean-growing regions worldwide.

Biology: Leaf miner flies lay eggs on soybean leaves. The larvae hatch and tunnel into the
leaf tissue, creating mines or tunnels. Infested leaves show characteristic 'mining' damage.

Nature of Damage: Leaf miner larvae create mines or tunnels within soybean leaves, causing
aesthetic damage and reducing photosynthetic capacity. Severe infestations can lead to
yield losses.

Management: Cultural practices such as crop rotation and maintaining plant vigor help
reduce leaf miner populations. Biological control agents like parasitic wasps and predatory
beetles can be introduced to control leaf miner larvae. Chemical control with insecticides
may be necessary during outbreaks but should be used judiciously to minimize
environmental impact.
 1. Tobacco Leaf Eating Caterpillar (Spodoptera litura):

Scientific Name: Spodoptera litura

Order: Lepidoptera

Family: Noctuidae

Host Range: Feeds on soybean, tobacco, and a wide range of other host plants.

Distribution: Found in soybean-growing regions of Asia, Africa, and the Americas.

Biology: Tobacco leaf eating caterpillar moths lay eggs on soybean leaves. The larvae hatch
and feed voraciously on the foliage, causing defoliation and yield losses.

Nature of Damage: Caterpillar larvae feed on soybean foliage, causing defoliation, reduced
plant vigor, and yield losses. Severe infestations can lead to significant economic losses.

Management: Cultural practices such as crop rotation and early planting help reduce
caterpillar populations. Biological control agents like parasitic wasps and predatory beetles
can be introduced to control caterpillar larvae. Chemical control with insecticides may be
necessary during outbreaks but should be used judiciously to minimize environmental
impact.

Sesamum (Sesamum indicum) and Niger (Guizotia abyssinica) are important oilseed crops
cultivated for their seeds. These crops are vulnerable to damage from various arthropod
pests, including Til hawk moth, Gall fly, leaf-eating caterpillar, Semilooper, and Gram pod
borer. In this general account, we will provide detailed information on the identification,
biology, nature of damage, and management strategies for each pest.

1. Til Hawk Moth (Agrius convolvuli):

Scientific Name: Agrius convolvuli
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Sphingidae
Host Range: Til hawk moth primarily infests sesamum (sesame) crops but may also
attack other plants in the Convolvulaceae family.
Distribution: Til hawk moth is found in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide,
where sesamum is cultivated.
Biology: Til hawk moth undergoes complete metamorphosis, with egg, larva, pupa, and
adult stages. Adult moths are large, nocturnal insects with a characteristic hovering
flight pattern. They lay eggs on the undersides of sesamum leaves, and the larvae
(caterpillars) feed voraciously on foliage.
Nature of Damage: Til hawk moth larvae defoliate sesamum plants, causing significant
yield losses. Severe infestations can weaken plants and reduce seed production.
Management: Integrated pest management (IPM) strategies for til hawk moth include
cultural, biological, and chemical control methods. Cultural practices such as crop
rotation and planting resistant varieties can help reduce pest pressure. Biological
 control agents like parasitic wasps and predatory beetles can be introduced to control
moth larvae. Chemical control with insecticides should be used judiciously and
according to IPM principles to minimize environmental impact.
2. Gall Fly (Cecidomyiidae):
Scientific Name: Cecidomyiidae (Family)
Order: Diptera
Host Range: Gall flies can infest a wide range of plants, including sesamum and other
crops.
Distribution: Gall flies are distributed worldwide, with species adapted to various
climates and host plants.
Biology: Gall flies are small, fly-like insects belonging to the family Cecidomyiidae. They
lay eggs on plant tissues, and the larvae develop within galls formed on leaves, stems, or
other plant parts.
Nature of Damage: Gall fly larvae induce the formation of galls, abnormal growths on
plant tissues, which can disrupt nutrient transport and reduce plant vigor. Depending on
the species and location of infestation, gall damage can vary in severity.
Management: Cultural practices such as pruning and removing infested plant parts can
help reduce gall fly populations. Insecticidal sprays may be effective against adult flies
but should be applied with caution to minimize non-target effects.
3. Leaf-Eating Caterpillar:
Scientific Name: Variable depending on the species (e.g., Spodoptera, Helicoverpa)
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Variable depending on the species
Host Range: Leaf-eating caterpillars have a broad host range and can infest various
crops, including sesamum.
Distribution: Leaf-eating caterpillars are found in agricultural regions worldwide, where
they feed on a variety of host plants.
Biology: Leaf-eating caterpillars undergo complete metamorphosis, with egg, larva,
pupa, and adult stages. Adult moths lay eggs on plant foliage, and the larvae feed on
leaves, causing defoliation.
Nature of Damage: Leaf-eating caterpillars can defoliate sesamum plants, reducing
photosynthetic capacity and yield. Severe infestations can stunt plant growth and
reduce seed production.
Management: IPM strategies for leaf-eating caterpillars include cultural, biological, and
chemical control methods. Cultural practices such as crop rotation and planting trap
crops can help reduce pest pressure. Biological control agents like parasitic wasps and
predatory beetles can be effective in suppressing caterpillar populations. Chemical
control with insecticides should be used judiciously and according to IPM principles to
minimize environmental impact.
4. Semilooper (Achaea janata):
Scientific Name: Achaea janata
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Erebidae
Host Range: Semilooper primarily infests niger crops but may also attack other oilseed
crops and vegetables.
 Distribution: Semilooper is found in tropical and subtropical regions, where niger is
cultivated.
Biology: Semilooper undergoes complete metamorphosis, with egg, larva, pupa, and
adult stages. Adult moths lay eggs on niger plants, and the larvae feed on foliage, pods,
and seeds.
Nature of Damage: Semilooper larvae feed on niger leaves, pods, and seeds, causing
yield losses and reducing seed quality. Heavy infestations can result in complete
defoliation and significant economic damage.
Management: IPM strategies for semilooper include cultural, biological, and chemical
control methods. Cultural practices such as timely planting and crop sanitation can help
reduce pest pressure. Biological control agents like parasitic wasps and predatory
beetles can be introduced to control moth larvae. Chemical control with insecticides
should be applied judiciously and according to IPM principles to minimize
environmental impact.
5. Gram Pod Borer (Helicoverpa armigera):
Scientific Name: Helicoverpa armigera
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Noctuidae
Host Range: Gram pod borer infests a wide range of crops, including niger, gram
(chickpea), soybean, and other legumes.
Distribution: Gram pod borer is distributed across various agricultural regions
worldwide, where its host plants are cultivated.
Biology: Gram pod borer undergoes complete metamorphosis, with egg, larva, pupa,
and adult stages. Adult moths lay eggs on host plants, and the larvae feed on pods and
seeds.
Nature of Damage: Gram pod borer larvae bore into niger pods, feeding on seeds and
causing yield losses. Infested pods may become shriveled and unfit for consumption or
processing.
Management: IPM strategies for gram pod borer include cultural, biological, and
chemical control methods. Cultural practices such as early planting and crop rotation
can help reduce pest pressure. Biological control agents like parasitic wasps and
predatory beetles can be effective in suppressing moth larvae. Chemical control with
insecticides should be used judiciously and according to IPM principles to minimize
environmental impact.

Cotton, being one of the most important fiber crops worldwide, faces significant challenges
from a variety of arthropod pests. In this comprehensive examination, we will explore the
nature and types of damage caused by different arthropod pests of cotton, including their
scientific names, orders, families, host ranges, distributions, biology, nature of damage, and
management strategies. The pests to be covered include Aphids, Jassids, Thrips, Whitefly,
Mealybugs, Spotted bollworm, American bollworm, and Pink bollworm.

1. Aphids (Order: Hemiptera, Family: Aphididae):

Distribution: Aphids are cosmopolitan pests found in almost all cotton-growing regions
worldwide.
Host Range: Aphids infest a wide range of host plants, including cotton, cereals, vegetables,
and ornamentals.

Biology: Aphids reproduce rapidly, with females capable of giving birth to live offspring
without mating. They feed on plant sap using piercing-sucking mouthparts and excrete
honeydew, promoting the growth of sooty mold.

Nature of Damage: Aphids damage cotton plants by feeding on sap, causing leaf curling,
stunted growth, and reduced yield. They also transmit plant viruses, further compromising
plant health.

Management: Integrated pest management (IPM) strategies for aphids include cultural,
biological, and chemical control measures. Cultural practices such as crop rotation and
maintaining plant vigor help reduce aphid populations. Biological control agents like
ladybird beetles and parasitic wasps can be introduced to suppress aphid populations.
Chemical control with insecticides should be used judiciously, considering their impact on
beneficial insects and environmental health.

1. Jassids (Order: Hemiptera, Family: Cicadellidae):

Distribution: Jassids are prevalent in cotton-growing regions of Asia, Africa, and the
Americas.

Host Range: Jassids primarily infest cotton but can also attack other hosts like vegetables,
cereals, and legumes.

Biology: Jassids are small insects with piercing-sucking mouthparts. They feed on plant sap
and reproduce rapidly under favorable conditions.

Nature of Damage: Jassids damage cotton plants by feeding on sap, causing stippling,
yellowing, and curling of leaves. Severe infestations can lead to reduced photosynthesis and
yield losses.

Management: IPM strategies for jassids involve cultural, biological, and chemical control
methods similar to those for aphids. Cultural practices such as early planting and
maintaining plant vigor help reduce jassid populations. Biological control agents like
parasitic wasps and predatory bugs can be effective in suppressing jassid populations.
Chemical control with insecticides should be applied judiciously to minimize resistance and
environmental impact.

1. Thrips (Order: Thysanoptera, Family: Thripidae):

Distribution: Thrips are widespread pests in cotton-growing regions worldwide.

Host Range: Thrips infest a wide range of host plants, including cotton, vegetables, fruits,
and ornamentals.
Biology: Thrips are tiny insects with rasping-sucking mouthparts. They feed on plant sap and
reproduce rapidly under warm and dry conditions.

Nature of Damage: Thrips damage cotton plants by feeding on leaves, causing stippling,
silvering, and distortion. They also transmit plant viruses, further compromising plant
health.

Management: IPM strategies for thrips include cultural, biological, and chemical control
measures. Cultural practices such as weed control and early planting help reduce thrips
populations. Biological control agents like predatory mites and parasitic wasps can be
introduced to suppress thrips populations. Chemical control with insecticides should be
used judiciously, considering their impact on beneficial insects and environmental health.

1. Whitefly (Order: Hemiptera, Family: Aleyrodidae):

Distribution: Whiteflies are cosmopolitan pests found in almost all cotton-growing regions
worldwide.

Host Range: Whiteflies infest a wide range of host plants, including cotton, vegetables,
fruits, and ornamentals.

Biology: Whiteflies are tiny insects with piercing-sucking mouthparts. They feed on plant
sap and reproduce rapidly under warm and humid conditions.

Nature of Damage: Whiteflies damage cotton plants by feeding on sap, causing chlorosis,
leaf curling, and reduced vigor. They also excrete honeydew, promoting the growth of sooty
mold.

Management: IPM strategies for whiteflies involve cultural, biological, and chemical control
methods similar to those for aphids. Cultural practices such as removing weed hosts and
maintaining plant vigor help reduce whitefly populations. Biological control agents like
parasitic wasps and predatory beetles can be introduced to suppress whitefly populations.
Chemical control with insecticides should be used judiciously, considering their impact on
beneficial insects and environmental health.

1. Mealybugs (Order: Hemiptera, Family: Pseudococcidae):

Distribution: Mealybugs are widespread pests in cotton-growing regions worldwide.

Host Range: Mealybugs infest a wide range of host plants, including cotton, fruits,
ornamentals, and weeds.

Biology: Mealybugs are soft-bodied insects covered with waxy secretions. They feed on
plant sap and reproduce rapidly, often forming dense colonies on plant parts.

Nature of Damage: Mealybugs damage cotton plants by feeding on sap, causing yellowing,
wilting, and stunted growth. They also excrete honeydew, promoting the growth of sooty
mold.

Management: IPM strategies for mealybugs include cultural, biological, and chemical
control measures similar to those for aphids. Cultural practices such as pruning infested
branches and maintaining plant vigor help reduce mealybug populations. Biological control
agents like parasitic wasps and predatory beetles can be introduced to suppress mealybug
populations. Chemical control with insecticides should be used judiciously, considering
their impact on beneficial insects and environmental health.

1. Spotted Bollworm (Order: Lepidoptera, Family: Noctuidae):

Distribution: Spotted bollworm is prevalent in cotton-growing regions of Asia, Africa, and

the Americas.

Host Range: Spotted bollworm primarily infests cotton but can also attack other hosts like
maize, sorghum, and soybean.

Biology: Spotted bollworm undergoes complete metamorphosis, with egg, larva, pupa, and
adult stages. Adult moths lay eggs on cotton bolls, and the larvae feed on the seeds and lint.

Nature of Damage: Spotted bollworm larvae tunnel into cotton bolls, feeding on seeds and
lint and causing economic damage. They also predispose bolls to secondary fungal
infections, further reducing yield and quality.

Management: IPM strategies for spotted bollworm include cultural, biological, and chemical
control methods. Cultural practices such as early planting and timely harvesting help
reduce bollworm populations. Biological control agents like parasitic wasps and predatory
beetles can be effective in suppressing bollworm populations. Chemical control with
insecticides should be applied judiciously, considering their impact on beneficial insects
and environmental health.

1. Tobacco Leaf Eating Caterpillar (Spodoptera litura):

Scientific Name: Spodoptera litura

Order: Lepidoptera

Family: Noctuidae

Host Range: Tobacco leaf eating caterpillar primarily infests cotton, tobacco, and other
solanaceous crops.

Distribution: Widely distributed in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide.

Biology: Tobacco leaf eating caterpillar undergoes complete metamorphosis, with egg, larva,
pupa, and adult stages. Adult moths lay eggs on the underside of cotton leaves, and the
larvae feed voraciously on foliage, causing defoliation.
Nature of Damage: Larval feeding results in skeletonization of leaves, reduced
photosynthetic capacity, and yield losses. Severe infestations can defoliate plants and
reduce fiber quality.

Integrated Pest Management: Management strategies for tobacco leaf eating caterpillar
include cultural, biological, and chemical control methods. Cultural practices such as crop
rotation and sanitation help reduce pest pressure. Biological control agents like parasitic
wasps and predatory beetles can be introduced to suppress caterpillar populations.
Chemical control with insecticides may be necessary during outbreaks but should be used
judiciously to minimize environmental impact.

1. Leaf Folder (Spodoptera littoralis):

Scientific Name: Spodoptera littoralis

Order: Lepidoptera

Family: Noctuidae

Host Range: Leaf folder primarily infests cotton, maize, rice, and other grass crops.

Distribution: Common in subtropical and tropical regions, particularly in Asia, Africa, and
the Mediterranean.

Biology: Leaf folder undergoes complete metamorphosis, with egg, larva, pupa, and adult
stages. Adult moths lay eggs on the underside of cotton leaves, and the larvae construct
shelters by folding or rolling leaves, where they feed on leaf tissues.

Nature of Damage: Leaf folder larvae cause characteristic leaf folding or rolling, reducing
photosynthetic efficiency and causing yield losses. Severe infestations can stunt plant
growth and reduce fiber quality.

Integrated Pest Management: Integrated pest management strategies for leaf folder include
cultural, biological, and chemical control measures. Cultural practices such as maintaining
plant vigor and removing crop residues help reduce pest populations. Biological control
agents like parasitic wasps and predatory beetles can be effective in suppressing larvae.
Chemical control with insecticides should be used judiciously and in rotation with other
control methods to minimize resistance and environmental impact.

1. Semilooper (Achaea janata):

Scientific Name: Achaea janata

Order: Lepidoptera

Family: Noctuidae
Host Range: Semilooper infests a wide range of host plants, including cotton, maize,
sorghum, and pulses.

Distribution: Common in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide.

Biology: Semilooper undergoes complete metamorphosis, with egg, larva, pupa, and adult
stages. Adult moths lay eggs on cotton leaves, and the larvae feed on foliage, causing
defoliation.

Nature of Damage: Semilooper larvae skeletonize leaves and bore into cotton bolls, causing
yield losses and reducing fiber quality. Infestations can also lead to secondary infections
and increased susceptibility to other pests and diseases.

Integrated Pest Management: Integrated pest management strategies for semilooper

include cultural, biological, and chemical control methods. Cultural practices such as crop
rotation and intercropping help reduce pest pressure. Biological control agents like parasitic
wasps and predatory beetles can be introduced to suppress larval populations. Chemical
control with insecticides may be necessary during outbreaks but should be used judiciously
to minimize environmental impact.

1. Red Cotton Bug (Dysdercus koenigii):

Scientific Name: Dysdercus koenigii

Order: Hemiptera

Family: Pyrrhocoridae

Host Range: Red cotton bug primarily infests cotton but can also feed on other hosts like
okra, hibiscus, and jute.

Distribution: Common in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide.

Biology: Red cotton bug undergoes incomplete metamorphosis, with egg, nymph, and adult
stages. Nymphs and adults suck sap from cotton bolls, causing damage.

Nature of Damage: Red cotton bug feeding results in boll shedding, stained lint, and reduced
fiber quality. Heavy infestations can lead to significant yield losses.

Integrated Pest Management: Integrated pest management strategies for red cotton bug
include cultural, biological, and chemical control measures. Cultural practices such as
timely planting and weed management help reduce pest populations. Biological control
agents like predatory bugs and spiders can be effective in suppressing nymphs and adults.
Chemical control with insecticides may be necessary during peak infestation periods but
should be used judiciously to minimize residues and environmental impact.

1. Dusky Cotton Bug (Oxycarenus hyalinipennis):

Scientific Name: Oxycarenus hyalinipennis

Order: Hemiptera

Family: Lygaeidae

Host Range: Dusky cotton bug primarily infests cotton but can also feed on other hosts like
okra, sunflower, and sesame.

Distribution: Common in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide.

Biology: Dusky cotton bug undergoes incomplete metamorphosis, with egg, nymph, and
adult stages. Nymphs and adults suck sap from cotton bolls, causing damage.

Nature of Damage: Dusky cotton bug feeding results in boll shedding, stained lint, and
reduced fiber quality. Heavy infestations can lead to significant yield losses.

Integrated Pest Management: Integrated pest management strategies for dusky cotton bug
include cultural, biological, and chemical control measures. Cultural practices such as crop
rotation and sanitation help reduce pest populations. Biological control agents like
predatory bugs and parasitic wasps can be effective in suppressing nymphs and adults.
Chemical control with insecticides may be necessary during outbreaks but should be used
judiciously to minimize environmental impact.

1. Grey Weevil (Mythimna separata):

Scientific Name: Mythimna separata

Order: Lepidoptera

Family: Noctuidae

Host Range: Grey weevil primarily infests cotton, maize, rice, and other grass crops.

Distribution: Common in temperate and subtropical regions, particularly in Asia.

Biology: Grey weevil undergoes complete metamorphosis, with egg, larva, pupa, and adult
stages. Adult moths lay eggs on cotton leaves, and the larvae feed on foliage, causing
defoliation.

Nature of Damage: Grey weevil larvae feed on cotton leaves, causing defoliation and
reduced photosynthetic efficiency. Severe infestations can stunt plant growth and reduce
fiber quality.

Integrated Pest Management: Integrated pest management strategies for grey weevil
include cultural, biological, and chemical control measures. Cultural practices such as
maintaining plant vigor and removing crop residues
Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) is one of the most economically important crops
worldwide, serving as a primary source of sugar and biofuel production. However, sugarcane
cultivation faces numerous challenges from arthropod pests, which can cause significant
yield losses if left unmanaged. In this examination, we will provide a general account of the
nature and type of damage caused by different arthropod pests of sugarcane, including their
scientific names, order, family, host range, distribution, biology, nature of damage, and
management strategies.

1. Early Shoot Borer (Chilo infuscatellus):

Scientific Name: Chilo infuscatellus
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Crambidae
Host Range: Sugarcane, maize, sorghum, and other grass crops.
Distribution: Widely distributed in sugarcane-growing regions of tropical and
subtropical areas.
Biology: Early shoot borer moths lay eggs on young sugarcane shoots. Larvae bore into
the shoots, tunneling internally and feeding on the tender tissues. Larval development
occurs within the shoot.
Nature of Damage: Early shoot borer infestations result in dead heart symptoms, where
central shoots wilt and die. Severe infestations can lead to stunted growth, reduced
tillering, and yield losses.
Management: Integrated pest management (IPM) approaches include cultural practices
like early planting and maintaining field sanitation. Biological control using egg
parasitoids and larval parasitoids can be effective. Chemical control with insecticides
should be applied during the early stages of infestation.
2. Internode Borer (Chilo sacchariphagus):
Scientific Name: Chilo sacchariphagus
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Crambidae
Host Range: Sugarcane, maize, sorghum, and other grass crops.
Distribution: Common in sugarcane-growing regions of tropical and subtropical areas.
Biology: Internode borer moths lay eggs on sugarcane stems. Larvae bore into the
internodes, tunneling and feeding on the inner tissues. Larval development occurs
within the stem.
Nature of Damage: Internode borer infestations result in 'dead heart' symptoms similar
to early shoot borers. Additionally, infested stems may show exit holes and tunneling
damage, weakening the structural integrity of the plant.
Management: IPM strategies for internode borers include field sanitation, early planting,
and biological control using parasitoids. Chemical control with systemic insecticides
can be effective but should be applied with care to minimize environmental impact.
3. Top Shoot Borer (Scirpophaga excerptalis):
Scientific Name: Scirpophaga excerptalis
Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Crambidae
Host Range: Sugarcane, rice, and other grass crops.
Distribution: Found in sugarcane-growing regions of Asia and parts of Africa.
 Biology: Top shoot borer moths lay eggs on the top leaves of sugarcane plants. Larvae
bore into the central shoot, feeding on the growing point. Larval development occurs
within the shoot.
Nature of Damage: Top shoot borer infestations result in dead heart symptoms, where
the central shoot dies, leading to stunted growth and reduced yield potential.
Management: IPM approaches for top shoot borers include pheromone trapping,
biological control using egg parasitoids and larval parasitoids, and cultural practices
such as early planting and crop rotation. Chemical control with insecticides can be used
as a last resort.
4. Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci):
Scientific Name: Bemisia tabaci
Order: Hemiptera
Family: Aleyrodidae
Host Range: Wide host range including sugarcane, vegetables, ornamentals, and weeds.
Distribution: Cosmopolitan pest found in sugarcane-growing regions worldwide.
Biology: Whiteflies feed on sugarcane sap using piercing-sucking mouthparts. They
reproduce rapidly, with multiple generations per year under favorable conditions.
Nature of Damage: Whiteflies cause direct damage by feeding on plant sap, leading to
chlorosis, stunted growth, and reduced photosynthesis. They also excrete honeydew,
promoting the growth of sooty mold, which further reduces plant vigor.
Management: IPM strategies for whiteflies include cultural practices like removing weed
hosts and maintaining plant health. Biological control using natural enemies such as
parasitic wasps and predatory beetles can be effective. Chemical control with
insecticides should be used judiciously to avoid resistance and minimize non-target
effects.
5. Pyrilla (Pyrilla perpusilla):
Scientific Name: Pyrilla perpusilla
Order: Hemiptera
Family: Lophopidae
Host Range: Sugarcane, grasses, and sedges.
Distribution: Found in sugarcane-growing regions of Asia, Africa, and Australia.
Biology: Pyrilla adults and nymphs feed on sugarcane sap, causing direct damage. They
reproduce rapidly, with multiple generations per year under favorable conditions.
Nature of Damage: Pyrilla infestations result in 'hopper burn' symptoms, where leaves
turn yellow and dry out due to sap depletion. Severe infestations can lead to reduced
photosynthesis and yield losses.
Management: IPM approaches for pyrilla include cultural practices like early planting
and maintaining field sanitation. Biological control using natural enemies such as
parasitic wasps and predatory beetles can be effective. Chemical control with
insecticides may be necessary during outbreaks but should be used judiciously to
minimize environmental impact.
6. Woolly Aphids (Ceratovacuna lanigera):
Scientific Name: Ceratovacuna lanigera
Order: Hemiptera
Family: Aphididae
Host Range: Sugarcane, citrus, and other woody and herbaceous plants.
 Distribution: Found in sugarcane-growing regions of Asia, Africa, and Australia.
Biology: Woolly aphids feed on sugarcane sap using piercing-sucking mouthparts. They
secrete waxy filaments, giving them a 'woolly' appearance and providing protection
from natural enemies.
Nature of Damage: Woolly aphids cause direct damage by feeding on plant sap, leading
to chlorosis, stunted growth, and reduced vigor. They also excrete honeydew, promoting
the growth of sooty mold.
Management: IPM strategies for woolly aphids include cultural practices like
maintaining plant health and promoting natural enemies such as ladybird beetles and
lacewings. Chemical control with insecticides should be applied judiciously to avoid
disrupting beneficial insect populations.
7. Mealybug (Saccharicoccus sacchari):
Scientific Name: Saccharicoccus sacchari
Order: Hemiptera
Family: Pseudococcidae
Host Range: Sugarcane, sorghum, and other grass crops.
Distribution: Found in sugarcane-growing regions worldwide.
Biology: Mealybugs feed on sugarcane sap using piercing-sucking mouthparts