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THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMANOV DYNASTY

NICHOLAS II AS AUTOCRAT
Social Structure -
Social Pyramid:
- Tsar
- Ministers, army officers
- Nobility, clergy
- Bourgeoisie (middle class)
- Large peasant mass
Before Nicholas II’s rule, there was increasing repression through Alexander III.
Government (of the Russian Empire)
·​ ​The Tsarist system of government was an absolute monarchy. The Tsar had complete
power.
·​ ​There was no elected representative body and no constitution.
·​ ​The Tsar was advised by his ministers.
Nicholas II​ believed he should have absolute power, believed only he should have power,
desperate to keep power; Believed in repression - limited freedom.
Groups:
LEFT WING RIGHT WING

·​ ​Bolsheviks ·​ ​Cadets

·​ ​Mensheviks ·​ ​Octobrists

·​ ​Socialist
Revolutionaries (can be
considered more neutral)

POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL SITUATIONSIN 20​TH​ CENTURY RUSSIA

Growth of Industrial Development: living and working conditions
Industrial development
- ​Social change of industrial growth in Russia was too fast
- Urban working class more than doubled 1865-1890. By 1900 2¼ million workers.
- Hereditary working class – no longer displaced peasantry. True proletariat.
- Housing was inadequate, living conditions were poor.
- No right to strike, or trade unions. Therefore, no protection against exploitation.

Why did the government encourage the industrialisation of Russia?

Russia was socioeconomically backward when compared with the rest of Western Europe,
and wanted to keep up with the rest of the world.
How did industrialisation affect Russia?
There were poor working and living conditions which weren’t resolved and got worse leading
up to the 1905 Revolution and beyond. Workers got low wages, economic and social
conditions were not faring well. There was increasing discontent amongst workers, causing a
problem for the Tsar.
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Causes and effects of the Russo-Japanese War (1904-5)

Russia had imperial ambitions: to expand its territory (or empire) into the same area as
Japan.
Briefly describe the main events of the war.
In 1904, Russia and Japan went to war over land in Asia. Russia underestimated Japan, and
ended up with Russia being forced to negotiate peace terms with the Treaty of Portsmouth.
Explain the impact of the war on Russia.
Japan won, which resulted in embarrassment for the Tsar and acted as proof the
government was incompetent (+ Tsar’s weakness). It caused Russia to lose Manchuria and
worsened its economy.

1905 Revolution
Bloody Sunday, originally a peaceful protest, was begun by a radical priest, Georgy
Apollonovich Gapon.​ ​People wanted to achieve better working conditions and resolve other
grievances. They weren’t completely opposed, only to their lifestyle. Only led a peaceful
protest to try and petition better working conditions and other demands. Carried a photo of
the Tsar (shows respect). Due to the aggressive response from the Tsar’s troops, it ended
as a bloodbath which began the 1905 Revolution. Strikes grew in number, peasant revolts,
organisation of political parties, etc.

The October Manifesto // made the 1905 revolution unsuccessful.

·​ ​August 8 - offered the formation of a Duma. Only power of consultation, couldn’t pass any
laws, only the Tsar could consult them and did not have to listen.
·​ ​MANIFESTO: a statement.
·​ ​October 17, 1905​ // OCTOBER MANIFESTO!!
o​ ​Duma with a guarantee of rights and freedoms
o​ ​Satisfied liberals most // supported the Duma, only appealed to middle
class people
o​ ​Withdrew from the revolution
·​ ​Nicholas continued to use violence to stop the revolts, especially with the formation of the
St Petersburg Soviet Union, who represented workers and soldiers. They were not
satisfied with the October Manifesto, which did nothing to address problems with workers
and soldiers.

THE TSAR’S FAILURE TO ADDRESS THE PROBLEMS OF RUSSIA

Dumas
Land reforms of Stolypin (Prime Minister) didn’t satisfy peasants.
The Duma that was promised through the October Manifesto didn’t have any particular
political power as it was only consultative. ‘Fundamental Laws’ ​(1906)​ allowed the Tsar to
dismiss the Duma, announce elections, choose and dismiss ministers, declare new laws
(when announcing a state of emergency) whenever he liked, thus rendering the Duma
almost useless. The Tsar kept sacking the Duma when it challenged his authority, and this
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ended up in having three Dumas (the third having more conservative members) in order for
the Tsar to maintain his power, and to restrict the power of the Duma. The Tsar was already
unwilling to have a Duma as he wished to maintain his autocratic power, and hence, did not
agree with constitutional reform.
Rising civil unrest, demonstrations/strikes
In early 1912, soldiers shot dead 300 striking miners. As news spread, people went on strike
which by July 1914, Russia was echoing the revolutionary discontent of 1905.

THE ROLE OF WORLD WAR 1 IN THE FALL OF THE TSARIST REGIME

Reasons for entry
·​ ​Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to throne of A-H was assassinated by a Serbian. (28th
June 1914) which caused problems because A-H hated Serbia.
·​ ​Alliances in Europe
o​ ​Triple Entente: France and Russia (military alliance) + Britain
o​ ​Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy
·​ ​Russia and Serbia are allies especially after the assassination.
·​ ​23rd July - Austria (allies w/ Germany) made an ultimatum - a demand with
consequences
·​ ​28th July - Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia.
o​ ​Russia mobilises army against A-H and Germany.
·​ ​August 1 - Germany declares war on Russia.
·​ ​August 3 - in order to invade France, Germany was to invade Belgium on the way to
France.
·​ ​August 4 - Britain and Belgium are allies to protect Belgium’s independence, and Britain
declared war on Germany.
·​ ​Germany and A-H against Russia. Russia entered into war because people supported
the war as it encouraged patriotism.
Early setbacks: Tannenburg and Masurian Lakes
Battles of Tannenburg
·​ ​Fought between Russia and Germany from 26-30 August 1914.
·​ ​Germany won, Russia’s worst defeat in WW1.
·​ ​Thousands of casualties, Russians were taken
Masurian Lakes
·​ ​There were 2 battles
·​ ​Pushed the Russian First Army across its entire front.
·​ ​These weren’t a threat for the rest of the war.
·​ ​Brought down the morale of Russia, had a bad impact.
Economic, social and political problems caused by the War
·​ ​As a result of World War 1, there was inflation of everyday goods. Soldiers were dying as
Russia was fighting a 20​th​ century war with 19​th​ century training (and inadequate
equipment) with the Tsar making poor decisions, causing soldiers to suffer and failing to
make effective financial plans. Also, there was inadequate medical care and shortages of
food, guns and bullets, and loss of land.
·​ ​Food was prioritised for the armed forces rather than the cities.
·​ ​Everything was more expensive due to limited supply and living standards declined.
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·​ ​War increased the pressure on Russia’s industries, the workforce was 4x larger than it
had.
Influence of Rasputin
·​ ​People didn’t like the idea of a German born leading the country as they were fighting a
German war (Alexandra).
·​ ​Rasputin brought the royal family into scandal, people weren’t sure of his intentions.
·​ ​He became influential in the royal family as he claimed he was able to cure Alexei’s (Tsar
and Tsarina’s son) of haemophilia.
·​ ​Made bad decisions on behalf of Alexandra (while the Tsar was on the battlefield).
o​ ​People believed peasants weren’t worthy of being in politics.
·​ ​Rasputin died in December 1916, and was shot three times, then thrown into a frozen
river.
March Revolution
·​ ​23rd February 1917 - Julien calendar // 8th March 1917 – Gregorian
23rd February - start of revolution
·​ ​Began with bread riots
o​ ​Women started rioting, strikes start; riots, then strikes beginning Feb. 23
·​ ​Over the next few days, riots and strikes increase.
o​ ​Moving into a state of anarchy
o​ ​Absence of Tsar - on battleground
o​ ​Breakdown of order, duma trying to gain control
26th February
·​ ​Tsar ordered troops to put down disturbances, and Soldiers decided they didn’t want to
support the Tsar, chose not to shoot rioters, so wasn’t as extreme as Bloody Sunday
1905.
·​ ​Tsar losing ability to put down revolution
27th February
·​ ​Tsar ordered Duma to end, sent orders but the Duma didn’t disperse. Instead of
dispersing, they decided to be a Provisional Government until a constitution was granted.
·​ ​Reformation of the Petrograd Soviet who supported the Provisional Government.
Tsar’s abdication
·​ ​The Tsar was losing control of the country, forced to abdicate // official abdication March
15
·​ ​Only in favour of his son and brother. Brother said no, end of 300 years of Romanov rule.
·​ ​Army lost confidence in the Tsar
Assassination of Imperial Family
·​ ​In May 1918, Red Army guards imprisoned the Russian royal family in Yekaterinburg in
the Ural Mountains (division between Europe and Asia).
·​ ​During this time, the Tsar and his family lived in a house (home of a merchant of the
Bolsheviks) their captors called the ‘House of Special Purpose,’ where escape was
impossible.
·​ ​On July 1917, the family disappeared. A few weeks later, it was reported the Bolsheviks
had shot the family, executed by a firing squad along with servants and doctors.
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CASE STUDY 2: CUBAN REVOLUTION

Definitions:

Word Definition

Communism Economic system in which all resources are collectively

owned by society.

Democracy A system of government representing the whole

population, usually through elected representatives

Imperialism a policy of extending a country's power and influence

through colonization, use of military force, or other means.

Nationalism loyalty, devotion, or allegiance to a nation or nation-state

and holds that such obligations outweigh other individual
or group interests.

Liberalism Ideology associated with free political institutions &

religious toleration

Revolution Forcible overthrow of a government or social order in

favour of a new system

Socialism Political system in which the production + distribution of

goods are controlled by the government
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HISTORICAL CONTEXT:
Cuba has had a long history of both Spanish and American occupation. After contact with
Christopher Columbus in 1492, Cuba became a Spanish colony and had a turbulent history.
Unsuccessful attempts to rebuke Spanish rule occurred throughout the 10-year-war (1868),
however the 1895 revolution was successful as a result of American intervention, which
helped Cuba secure independence from Spain.

Political, Economic and Social conditions under Batista

Batista, like previous presidents, found it difficult to maintain stability in Cuba. His
administration was extremely corrupted, and he enforced cooperation through police and
military compliance. Batista found it difficult to maintain stability within Cuba, and many
grievances of the country worsened throughout his presidency
Fulgencio Batista (1901 – 1973):
• Elected in 1940
• Previous army general president of Cuba
• Was supported by the US in his political ambitions
• Staged a military coup which allowed him to rise to power again in 1952
• ‘Corrupt and brutal’ dictator

Context for Batista

Why become president?

• Political and social unrest increased in cities and countryside
• Wanted to write a new constitution Batista’s political landscape was based
on corruption. He was unable to bring stability to Cuba, disregarding the people’s
discontents. His establishment of a police state – who operated with brutality – only
worsened his favour with the people.

Government
• ‘Hand-picked police force’ extensive system of extortion and kickbacks
- Bars, stores were forced to contribute to police precincts
• 1944 → Batista ends his first term as President
• Succeeding Cuban governments were just as corrupt → feeding the political
grievances

Regaining Power by Military Coup

• 10 March 1952 Batista overthrows the Provisional government by coup
• Knew he had ‘no chance’ of winning elections and did not want to be ‘displaced
economically’
• Ensured his grip on the government
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• Guaranteed profits from pol. Corruption and ‘gangsterism’ “From a corrupt
democracy, Cuba has now shifted to a corrupt dictatorship.”

So What?

Batista’s political landscape was based on corruption. He was unable to bring stability to
Cuba, disregarding the people’s discontents. His establishment of a police state – who
operated with brutality – only worsened his favour with the people.

Growing social and economic inequalities: 1940-50

- Cuba was more economically developed than many other latin american countries
- Vast gap between the rich & poor
- Benefits of modernisation and capitalism continued
- Heavily based on production → sugar
- 60% of land and business controlled by US → Cuban people had few chances to
share into the wealth because of this
- In 1950’s Cuba divided into three categories
❖ Rich and wealthy
❖ Middle working class
❖ Peasants
- 1.5 million in poverty
- 3.5 million struggling to get by
- 900,000 benefitted from 43 percent of income
- Cuba was called a police state (totalitarian state controlled by a political police force
that secretly supervises the citizens' activities.)

Fidel Castro:
- Grew up in a wealthy Cuban family
- Became politically active while studying Law at University
- Works of Karl Marx and Lenin were influential in developing Castro’s plans to
organise revolution and establish a communist state
- Viewed the only way to achieve change as through revolution
- Land reform, education and housing
- Brother jailed for 15 years
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Cuban Revolution: 1953-1959

The Causes of the Revolution can be split into three main sections:
➢ Class Conflict/Inequities,
➢ Political Instability,
➢ and US-Resentment.

- Castro & his supporters were captured → trialled

- Trial gained castro supporters
- Castro went to mexico → gained financial and political support
- Castro & revolutionaries snuck back into cuba and hid in a shelter in mountains
- Castro used guerilla tactic
→ wear down batista
→ started the 26th July movement
Guerilla tactic**: small group of combatants, use military tactics including ambushes,
sabotage, raids, petty warfare, hit-and-run tactics, and mobility, to fight a larger and
less-mobile traditional military.

Castro v Batista Tactics

- Castro wins over peasant communities → builds schools, housing

- Castro had small fighting force (200-300 soldiers) → hit and run tactic
- Batista had approx 30,000 soldiers
- Castro released captured soldiers earning public respect → won sympathy = arms
- Batista used harsh tactics → military raids, random arrests → caused people to
support castro

US impact:

1958 -
- Castro developed a ‘Robin Hood’ image in US
- America stopped supplying Batista with military equipment
- Batista realised this → fled Cuba in 1958
- Castro’s rebels entered Havana on 1 Jan 1959

Early Changes:

- When Castro comes in power → fills new Govt. with close friends
- Agrarian reform → land back to peasants
- Stopped foreigners from owning land → caused US companies issues
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- Gave property (title deeds) to peasants
- Lowered rent
- Forced US off Island
- Regime targeted all remaining support for Batista Govt → arrested, sentenced or
shot
- Caused Batista supporters to flee Cuba

Key Motivations:

- Nationalism → population united through patriotism

- Communism → reform promised for the poorest of the poor
- Cuba had been controlled by other countries for over 450 years
- Historians believe Nationalism was main cause

Cold War Intro:

Main goals of Cold War -

● US goal was to isolate the USSR from spreading communism

● USSR goal was to deliver and influence countries into communism

Who was involved?

- United States, UK and other allies

- Axis → USSR, Albania, Bulgaria etc.

What did the Cold War look like?

- No actual fighting involved

- Developed after WWII
- The Cold War was known through propaganda

How did the Cold War impact Cuba?

- USSR secretly stationed nuclear missiles in Cuba

- Alliance between Cuba and USSR

Cuban Missile Crisis

- USSR & US both had nuclear weapons capable of destroying the world
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- Bay of Pigs - CIA-financed and -trained group of Cuban refugees lands in Cuba and
attempts to topple the communist government of Fidel Castro. The attack was an
utter failure
- US set up a naval blockade → act of war
- Castro aligned himself with soviet union
- Hostile relationship → Cuba-US
- USSR would dismantle weapon in Cuba if US did the same in turkey
- Television broadcasted situation

Core Study 3: World War 1

Anarchism and socialism

❖ Anarchism: Belief in no government or laws, allowing the population to be free

- Anarchists - belief that violence is the answer
- Rejected all forms of leadership
- Died out - fighters drifted towards socialism

❖ Socialism: Saw the middle class (bourgeoisie) as the enemy

- Wanted to abolish private property among population
- Sees the elimination of classes + social structure
- No single leader of a country - impossible.

LONG TERM CAUSES OF WWI

Nationalism
What was the impact of nationalism in Europe during the late 19th C?

Aim of nationalism in the 19th century → ​What did nationalism try to achieve?
❖ Nationalism: Extreme pride or patriotic feelings towards one’s country
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​19th Century nationalism
● Caused rivalry and conflict between the 6 major powers.
- Struggle between powers to dominate each other.
- Countries wanted their own independent nations - needed land

➢​ D​ esire to prove that one’s country was the best

■​ ​Shouldn’t have to recognise the rights of other countries

➢​ ​Examples:
■​ ​ weakened the unity of A-H + Ottoman empires
●​ ​Growth of independence movements
●​ ​Led to collapse of empires
■​ ​France

● Wanted revenge for the loss of Alsace-Lorraine (1871)

Unification of Germany, 1871 and its impact on other European nations

How did German unification change the balance of power in Europe?

❖​ P​ russian empire

➢​ ​Contained various German nations

❖​ ​Block to unification - France
➢​ ​Attempted to isolate France
➢​ ​Went to war with France - Franco Prussian War (1870-1871)
■​ ​France was defeated
■​ ​Lost Alsace-Lorraine
❖​ ​1871 - Unification of German empire
➢​ ​United by Otto von Bismarck
■​ ​Became chancellor
➢​ ​Kaiser - William I
➢​ ​Made Germany feel unstoppable

➢​ I​ mpacts on other nations:

■​ ​Angered France - further division + conflict
■​ ​Isolated Austria

Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871)

Why did the French seek revenge on Prussia (Germany) after 1871?
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❖​ F​ rance was defeated in the​ Franco-Prussian War (1870-71)

➢​ ​Wanted revenge for losing the provinces of ​Alsace and Lorraine

➢​ ​France was defeated by Germany​, who claimed the provinces
❖​ ​Hated Germany - French resentment
Led to heightened tensions

Slav nationalism

Who were the Slavs and what did Austria-Hungary and Russia have to do with them?

❖​ S
​ lav nationalism

➢​ S ​ lavs formed movement to draw all slavs together in central europe

■​ P
​ an-slavism

❖​ A​ reas around Serbia became unstable

❖​ R ​ evolutions in Bosnia, Serbia and bulgaria against Ottoman Empire

❖​ S ​ lavic peoples were protected/backed by Russia

➢​ D ​ eclaration of war against Ottoman Empire

❖​ A ​ ustria felt threatened by slav nationalism

➢​ O ​ pposed their nationalism in the Balkans

The Alliance system - early alliances

Did the alliance system help or hinder the European powers?

Dreikaiserbund (Three Emperor’s League) 1873 – Russia, Germany and Austria. 1887:
Russian refusal to renew

1873 - The Dreikaiserbund (​The three emperors’ league)

❖​ ​Informal alliance of Germany, A-H and Russia
❖​ ​Terms:
➢​ ​Emperors would consult each other on major problems
➢​ ​Remaining neutral if one member was attacked by another nation
❖​ ​Established during German Chancellor ​Otto von Bismarck​’s term
➢​ ​Aimed to protect Germany from France and their revenge plots
➢​ ​Wanted to ensure France’s isolation
❖​ ​Alliance broke down due to events in the Balkans
❖​ ​1887 - Inadequacy of Russia’s resources became clear
➢​ ​Inability to impose its will on a weaker neighbour
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Reinsurance Treaty between Germany and Russia (Austria doesn’t know about
promises made)

1887 - Reinsurance treaty

❖​ ​Germany + Russia
❖​ ​Established by Bismarck
➢​ ​Wanted to maintain French isolation
➢​ ​Attempted to reestablish an alliance after the three emperors’ league
❖​ ​ Terms:
➢​ ​Agreed to maintain neutral if the other country went to war with a great
power (e.g. France)
➢​ ​ONLY EXCEPTIONS:
■​ ​If Russia was at war with A-H
If Germany declared war on France (no intentions to)

Dual Alliance

1879 - Dual alliance

❖​ ​Germany + Austria-Hungary​ (A-H)
❖​ ​Terms:
➢​ ​Nations would support one another if attacked by Russia
➢​ ​If one nation was attacked by another country, they would not be
supported
❖​ ​Tension between Germany and Russia
Offered protection from Russia

1882 - Triple Alliance

❖​ ​Germany + A-H + Italy
❖​ ​Terms:
➢​ ​Germany and A-H would aid Italy if attacked by France
➢​ ​Italy would support allies if one was attacked by two or more states
➢​ ​Italy would remain neutral in a war between Russia and A-H
❖​ ​Italy became part of Germany’s anti-French coalition
➢​ ​Tensions between Italy and France

Imperialism
Did imperialism intensify or provide an outlet for rivalries in Europe?
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Expansion into Africa, particularly Britain, France, Germany

​ hat was the impact of expansion into Africa on relations between Britain, France and
W
Germany?

❖​ ​Imperialism​: Build-up of overseas empires to enhance the imperial’s nation

access to raw materials

➢​ L
​ ed to rise of racism and nationalism

❖​ C
​ laims to Africa

➢​ B
​ ritain wanted North-South territory

■​ T
​ o link Cape Town to Cairo by rail

➢​ G
​ ermany + France

■​ W
​ anted to link colonial possessions across Africa

❖​ E
​ uropean relations to Africa built on slave trade

❖​ C
​ onflicts lead to:

➢​ F
​ ormation of alliances

■​ F
​ or protection

➢​ B
​ uilding up of navies

■​ T
​ o defend their empires

Impact: Moroccan Crises

Expansion into Asia, particularly Russia and Britain

What was the impact of expansion into Africa on relations between Britain and Germany?

❖​ C
​ olonies desired:

➢​ A
​ ccess to raw materials

➢​ I​ nvestments

➢​ S
​ trategic positions

➢​ P
​ restige

❖​ C
​ hina’s political and economic independence was undermined
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➢​ V
​ ictim of European imperialism

➢​ U
​ nequal treaties between China and European powers

■​ ​E.g. Treaty of Nanking - granted Britain trading and commercial

rights in China

❖​ A
​ sian ports/ port cities controlled by powers

Russia - Held power in Asia

First Moroccan Crisis 1905-1906 and the effect on French, British, Italian, Russian and
German relations

Why did Germany get involved in Morocco in 1905-1906?

❖​ F
​ irst Moroccan Crisis

❖​ 1
​ 905 - 1906

❖​ I​ nvolved main 6 European powers

❖​ E
​ vents:

➢​ G
​ ermany pledged support for Morocco’s claim for independence

■​ (​ France attempted to control country)

➢​ G
​ ermans called for an international conference

■​ ​Hoped Russia and Britain would support Moroccan independence

→ ending the Entente

■​ W
​ anted to humiliate France

■​ C
​ onference held without French approval

​ esults:​
❖​ R

➢​ R
​ ussia refused to join Germany

➢​ B
​ ritain would not remain neutral if Germany attacked France

➢​ M
​ oroccan independence

■​ ​France given control over Moroccan police force + financial

institutions

➢​ G
​ ermany was humiliated - supported by A-H

➢​ ​ Italy sided with the Entente powers

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Second Moroccan Crisis 1911 (Agadir) and the effect on French, British and German
relations

​What did the Panther do during the Moroccan revolution?

❖​ S
​ econd Moroccan Crisis

❖​ 1
​ 911

❖​ I​ nvolved 6 main European powers + the Congo

❖​ E
​ vents:

➢​ M
​ orocco requested France to send troops to Morocco to control a revolt

➢​ G
​ ermany argued France was trying to take control of (Annex) Morocco\

➢​ G
​ ermany attempted to intimidate France

■​ S
​ ent the Panther (gunboat) - Agadir

■​ G
​ ermany wanted French land in the Congo in return for agreeing

France had rights to Moroccan territory

❖​ R
​ esults:

➢​ G
​ erman plan backfired

➢​ F
​ rance refused to negotiate

➢​ B
​ ritain affirmed they would not tolerate German aggression

➢​ B
​ ritain began preparing:

■​ P
​ repared army (British Expeditionary Force [BEF])

■​ N
​ avy placed on war alert

➢​ B
​ ritain + France drew closer

France gave Germany 2 small pieces of the Congo

Alliance system - post Bismarck

Did the alliance system act as a deterrent to war?

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1894 Dual Entente

1894 - Franco-Russian Alliance

❖​ D
​ ual entente

❖​ F
​ rance + Russia

❖​ T
​ erms:

➢​ R
​ ussia would aid France if attacked by Germany or Germany/Italy

➢​ F
​ rance would aid Russia if attacked by Germany or Germany/A-H

Ended French isolation

1904 Entente Cordiale

1904 - Entente Cordiale

❖​ F
​ rance + Britain

❖​ F
​ rance accepted British control in Egypt

❖​ B
​ ritain recognised France’s interested in Morocco

❖​ N
​ ot an alliance

Entente = understanding

1907 - Triple Entente

❖​ F
​ rance + Britain + Russia

❖​ M
​ ade due to worsening relations between Germany and Russia + Britain

Created through previous agreements between powers

The coiled spring: Triple Alliance vs the Triple Entente

​Why were the ententes formed? / Did the ententes create order?

The coiled spring

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❖​ T
​ ension between Triple Alliance and Triple Entente

➢​ P
​ owers divided Europe

❖​ E
​ ntentes formed to combat alliances

➢​ ​Fight power with power

Conflicting national interests

Were conflicting national interests the main threat to peace and stability in Europe?

British / German naval conflict (note crossover with militarism)

-​ ​German Naval Laws of 1898 and 1900

-​ ​Naval race with Britain

-​ ​German Naval Law of 1908

-​ ​Dreadnoughts

What did Germany’s naval rivalry with Britain achieve?

❖​ G
​ erman Naval laws

➢​ P
​ assed laws in 1898 and 1900

➢​ C
​ ommitted Germany to creating a navy that would rival Britain

❖​ ​ Naval race between Germany + Russia

➢​ W
​ anted to build the best navy

➢​ D
​ evelopment of more weapons in an attempt to feel safe

➢​ S
​ tretched resources of both nations

➢​ W
​ anted to build more ships than the other

■​ B
​ ritain had the best navy
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■​ G
​ ermany had the best army

❖​ G
​ erman naval law of 1908

➢​ ​ Decreased lifespan of battleships to 20 years

❖​ D
​ readnought

➢​ E
​ ffective battleship

■​ C
​ hanged nature of naval race

■​ S
​ uperior firepower

➢​ I​ ntroduced by Britain in 1906

■​ ​Start of naval race

Kaiser Wilhelm

-​ H
​ is policies and actions: approaches to A-H and Russia

-​ H
​ is policies and actions: approaches to Britain

​Did the policies of the Kaiser aggravate tensions between nations?

Kaiser Wilhelm II

❖​ S
​ trong believer in increasing strength of Germany

❖​ E
​ nded many of the peace treaties established by previous ruler

❖​ A
​ pproaches to:

➢​ A
​ -H

■​ B
​ lank Cheque - faithful support in whatever action they took

●​ M
​ eant war against Russia

■​ C
​ losest ally
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■​ S
​ upport for A-H = risk of war with Russia

➢​ R
​ ussia

■​ W
​ ilhelm was cousins with Tsar Nicholas

■​ B
​ efore outbreak of war, had asked Russia to not become involved

in the war

■​ K
​ aiser believed Russia would encircle Germany - war

●​ S
​ chlieffen plan - attack France + Russia

■​ D ​ ugust 1
​ eclared war on Russia - A

■​ S
​ upported Triple Entente

➢​ B
​ ritain

■​ N
​ aval race - wanted to build a greater navy than Britain

■​ I​ ntroduced battleships after Britain introduced Dreadnoughts

■​ B
​ ritain entered the war by declaring war on Germany

​ ​■​ ​ ​Supported Triple Entente

Conflict between France and Germany

Was the loss of Alsace-Lorraine the main cause of conflict?

❖​ F​ ranco-Prussian War (1880-1881)

➢​ ​France lost - heightened tensions

■​ ​Lost provinces of Alsace-Lorraine
■​ ​ Wanted revenge
❖​ ​Resentment led to build up of alliances for protection against one another
❖​ ​Germany - Schlieffen Plan
➢​ ​Use of German troops to invade and attack France
❖​ ​France - Plan 17
➢​ ​Use of troops to attack Germany

The Balkan Crises

-​ ​A-H annexation of Bosnia in 1908 and desire to expand influence in Balkans
-​ ​Growth of Serbian power 1900-1914
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- ​Russian desire to increase its influence in the ​ ​Balkans and stop A-H
expansion there
-​ ​First Balkan War 1912 and its impact on wider Europe
-​ ​Second Balkan War 1913 and its impact on wider Europe

​Why did the Balkan crisis affect the rest of Europe?

FIRST BALKAN CRISIS -- 1908

​ ackground:​
❖​ B

➢​ T
​ ension between Russia + A-H

■​ A
​ -H wanted to expand borders in the Balkans

■​ R
​ ussia wanted to support Slavs

●​ ​Wanted control of Dardanelles Straits - connects Aegean

and Mediterranean Seas to Black Seas

◆​ B
​ enefits Russia navy

❖​ A
​ -H decided to act - expand borders to include Serbia

❖​ Y
​ oung Turk Revolution in Ottoman Empire

➢​ A
​ -H + Russia took advantage

■​ A
​ greed A-H should annex Bosnia

■​ ​Russia would be given freedom to use straits for transport of

warship

❖​ R
​ esults:

➢​ P
​ lan fell apart

■​ ​A-H announced annexation immediately - Russia hadn’t yet gained

support of Great Powers to use straits

■​ R
​ ussia denied knowledge of agreement

●​ M
​ oved to support Serbs (revenge against A-H)

➢​ ​1909 - Turkey (previously Ottoman empire) accepted the annexation of

Serbia by A-H

■​ A
​ sked for compensation in return
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➢​ S
​ erbians were prepared for war

■​ S
​ upported by Russia

➢​ G
​ ermany promised A-H military support

➢​ R
​ ussia backed away - accepted the annexation

■​ H
​ umiliated

➢​ S
​ erbia backed away - frustrated

​SECOND BALKAN CRISIS -- 1912 - 1913

❖​ I​ taly took control of Tripoli in North Africa

➢​ H
​ ad been part of Ottoman Empire (OE)

➢​ ​Encouraged other Balkan states to move for separation and

independence

➢​ M
​ arch 1912

■​ B
​ alkan League

■​ S
​ erbia, Bulgaria, Greece + Montenegro

■​ F
​ irst Balkan War

●​ D
​ efeated Turks - claimed territory

■​ A
​ rgued over how to split land

❖​ T
​ reaty of London

➢​ R
​ esolved land issues

➢​ D
​ ecided by Great Powers, not Balkan League

■​ O
​ ld OE divided between Serbia, Greece + Bulgaria

■​ A
​ lbania became independent state

■​ B
​ ulgaria and Serbia fought over division of Macedonia

●​ J
​ une 13 - Second Balkan War

●​ B
​ ulgaria defeated
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●​ ​Serbia + Greece invaded Albania, but retreated on threat of
A-H intervention

Results:

❖​ B
​ order changes

❖​ C
​ hange to Russia + A-H policies

❖​ S
​ erbia strengthened - difficult for great power to dominate region

❖​ P
​ olitical talks interrupted by assassination of Ferdinand

❖​ M
​ ilitarism

How serious a threat was the armaments race to peace in Europe?

-​ I​ ncreases in military expenditure by European nations

-​ 1
​ 889 Naval Defence Act – Britain overhauls its navy (see also national

interests, German/British naval rivalry)

-​ B
​ attle plans – Schlieffen plan (German)

-​ B
​ attle plans - Plan 17 (French)

-​ R
​ ussian defeat in 1905 Russo-Japanese war

What drove militarism during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century?

❖​ M
​ ilitarism:​ Relying on the use of military force to further a nation’s interests

❖​ M
​ ilitary expenditure - Naval race between Britain + Germany

➢​ S
​ tretched resources of both nations

❖​ 1
​ 889 - Naval defence act

➢​ P
​ assed to increase the UK’s naval strength

➢​ ​Two Power Standard Act→ maintain the number of battleships at least

equal to combined strength of the two largest navies
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Battle plans

❖​ S
​ chlieffen Plan (Germany) -- 1905

➢​ D
​ eveloped by Count Schlieffen

➢​ P
​ lanned for a war on two fronts (​France + Russia​)

➢​ F
​ eatures:

■​ I​ nitial move against France

​ iolation of Dutch (​Luxembourg)​ and Belgium neutrality

■​ V

●​ M
​ oving through nations to invade France

■​ U
​ se of German reserve troops + regular army

■​ P
​ ushing French forces along eastern French frontier

■​ C
​ apture of Paris

■​ A
​ fter defeating France, would attack Russia

➢​ A
​ ssumed victory in 6 weeks

➢​ F
​ ailed:

■​ F
​ ailed to take into account the development of railways

■​ R
​ ussia mobilised quicker than expected

■​ M
​ odifications made by Molke (Schlieffen’s successor)

●​ C
​ hanged weight of German armies moving across France

➢​ G
​ ermany's violation of Belgian neutrality pulled Britain into war

■​ B
​ ritain alliance with Belgium

■​ B
​ ritain declared war on Germany
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❖​ F
​ rance - Plan 17 -- 1912-1914

➢​ F
​ rance’s plan of attack

➢​ F
​ eatures and failures:

■​ F
​ rance making the initial move against Germany

■​ U
​ nderestimated the strength of Germany’s army

●​ I​ gnored Germany’s use of reserve troops

■​ M
​ isjudged direction of Germany’s initial assault

●​ ​Expected attack through Alsace-Lorraine, instead of

Belgium

❖​ R
​ ussia’s defeat in the Russo-Japanese War

➢​ 1
​ 904 - 1905

➢​ R
​ ussia defeated

➢​ T
​ sar entered war to lessen the growing opposition against his rule

➢​ R
​ ussia defeated

➢​ I​ mpacts:
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■​ A
​ dded to the view that the Tsarist government was incompetent

■​ T
​ sar signing a peace treaty with Japan

War limited supply of grain and fuel - depleted resources

SHORT-TERM CAUSES OF WWI

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

-​ ​Germany’s Blank Cheque
-​ ​Austrian ultimatum to Serbia following assassination. Serbia accepted all
but one. mobilisation of troops
-​ ​Austria declares war on Serbia
-​ ​Reactions by other powers: Russia

How did Europe react immediately following the assassination of the Archduke?

❖​ W​ ho​: Franz Ferdinand + wife Sophie

➢​ ​Archduke and heir of Austria-Hungary empire

➢​ ​Killed by Gavrilo Princip
■​ ​Member of the ​Black Hand​ - terrorist group
■​ ​Serbian nationalists
●​ ​Goal: Free the Serbs from A-H
❖​ ​What​: Assassination of the Archduke of A-H
➢​ ​Franz was travelling in an open top car through main street Sarajevo
➢​ ​Bomb was let off near his car
■​ ​Did not kill him
➢​ ​Continued their route
➢​ ​Was shot by Princip
❖​ ​Where​: Killed in ​Sarajevo, Bosnia-Herzegovina
❖​ ​When: ​JUNE 28, 1914

EFFECT
❖​ G
​ ermany’s Blank Cheque

➢​ ​5 JULY
➢​ ​Germany’s unconditional support for A-H for any action taken against
Serbia
THE JULY CRISIS

❖​ A
​ ustrian ultimatum to Serbia

➢​ ​23 JULY
➢​ ​A-H sent an ultimatum to Serbia
■​ ​Threatens war if demands are not met
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➢​ 2​ 5 JULY

■​ ​Serbia rejected one clause

A-H declared the document had been rejected as it had not been accepted in full.
Breakdown of diplomatic relations between Austria and Serbia; mobilisation of troops
❖​ ​Austria declares war on Serbia
➢​ ​28 JULY
➢​ ​First declaration of war in WWI

❖​ R
​ eactions by other powers

➢​ ​29 JULY
➢​ ​Russia responds to Serbia’s appeal for help - ​mobilises troops

-​ ​German ultimatums to Russia (30 and 31 July) and France

-​ ​German declaration of war on Russia (1 August)
France mobilises to support Russia (1 August)

Implementation of Schlieffen Plan, German declaration of war on France 3 August

❖​ ​Germany declares war on France
➢​ ​3 AUGUST
➢​ ​ ​Germany implements the Schlieffen Plan
Invades France through Belgium

Britain declares war on Germany 4 August 1914 because they have invaded neutral
Belgium

What was the immediate cause of Britain’s declaration of war?

❖​ B
​ ritain declares war on Germany

❖​ 4​ AUGUST

➢​ B
​ ritain honours promise to protect Belgium

■​ A​ llianced with Belgium

Declares war on their enemy due to Germany marching through for the Schlieffen Plan