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Chinese Academy of Cyberspace Studies
World Internet
Development
Report 2021
Blue Book for World Internet Conference
Translated by CCTB Translation Service
World Internet Development Report 2021
World Internet Development

Report 2021
Blue Book for World Internet Conference
Translated by CCTB Translation Service

Beijing, China
ISBN 978-981-19-9322-0 ISBN 978-981-19-9323-7 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9323-7
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Preface
The world undergoes great changes that have not been seen in a century, which
accelerated and complicated international environment in 2021. Unilateralism and
protectionism continued to proliferate. Globally, the COVID-19 pandemic proved a
protracted one and the virus mutated frequently. The prevention and control of the
pandemic presented a grim picture, and the recovery of world economy remained in
the doldrums. Global industrial chain and supply chain were reshaped, with insta-
bility and uncertainty significantly rising. Major countries in the world quickened
digital transformation, and digital economy expanded against headwinds, signaling a
stage of fast development of digital economy. This year, we compile World Internet
Development Report 2021 (hereinafter referred to as “the Report”) to review and
investigate world Internet development, represent the status quo of world Internet
development, and analyze the trends of world Internet development in an objective
way.
(1) The Report tallies with global practice of the idea or proposition of building
“a community with a shared future in cyberspace”. Chinese President Xi Jinping
puts forward the idea or proposition of building “a community with a shared future
in cyberspace”, which highlights high concern for common well-being of mankind,
expresses common expectations of international community, and is becoming an
international consensus. Presently, promoting the reform of a global Internet gover-
nance system, as a significant topic that arouses worldwide concern, has been univer-
sally acknowledged and vigorously supported. During the compilation of the Report,
we uphold President Xi Jinping’s idea or proposition of building “a community with
a shared future in cyberspace”, display joint efforts of countries to curb the abuse
of information technology and combat cyberattacks, and demonstrate the status quo
of world Internet development as well as the beautiful vision of people of all coun-
tries for Internet development, hoping to jointly build cyberspace into a community
for development, a community for security, a community for responsibility, and a
community for common interests that benefits all mankind.
(2) The Report scrutinizes the trends of world Internet development and
mirrors new measures and progress in Internet construction in various coun-
tries. The Report shows the characteristics of world Internet development. Over the
v
vi Preface
past year, international order of cyberspace was reshaped rapidly, and the layout of
key areas was accelerated, in which the formulation of international digital rules
became a central issue in international competition and game. The construction of
digital government steadily advanced, and “combating the pandemic with digital
technology” became top priority of digital management and services of governments.
The convergence of Internet media formed a prominent trend, and the construction
of cybersecurity intensified, with the investment to network infrastructure increased.
World rule-of-law construction in cyberspace sped up. Major countries and regions
in the world successively introduced a series of laws, regulations, and policy docu-
ments on supply-chain security, data security, and personal information protection,
which continuously augmented antitrust regulation against platform.
(3) The Report strives to illustrate new landscape and features of world
Internet development in a comprehensive, accurate, and objective manner.
Focusing on the status quo and trend of world Internet development, the Report
optimizes the index system of world Internet development and systematically eval-
uates Internet development in 48 representative countries in five continents from six
dimensions, i.e., infrastructure, innovation capacity, industrial development, Internet
application, cybersecurity, and cyberspace governance. The Report deeply analyzes
the highlights in eights aspects, i.e., information infrastructure, information tech-
nology, digital economy, digital government, Internet media, cybersecurity, and rule-
of-law construction in cyberspace and international cyberspace governance, in a bid
to reflect new circumstances, problems, and requirements of Internet development
in major countries in the world more comprehensively, accurately, and objectively.
The Report truthfully records the progress of world Internet development. In the
future, we will attach more attention to the trend of world Internet development and
contribute Chinese wisdom to facilitating the construction of “a community with a
shared future in cyberspace”.
Beijing, China Chinese Academy of Cyberspace

August 2021 Studies (CACS)
Contents
1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 World Internet Development in 2021 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 The Construction of Network Infrastructure
Accelerates, with the Investment to Network
Infrastructure Increased . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 The Innovation on Digital Technology Continues
to Advance, with Consensus on Technology Governance . . . 3
1.1.3 Global Digital Economy Grows Against Headwinds
and the Layout of Key Fields Accelerates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.1.4 The Construction of Digital Government Steadily
Progresses, with Emphasis on Collaboration
in Combating the COVID-19 Pandemic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.5 Internet Media Convergence Forms a Trend
and Algorithmic Regulation Intensifies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.6 Cybersecurity Risks Keep Rising, and Supply-Chain
Security and Data Security Arouse Widespread Concern . . . 9
1.1.7 The Rule-of-Law Construction in Cyberspace
Incessantly Accelerates and Antitrust Regulation
Continuously Intensifies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.8 International Competition on Digital Rule-Making
Is Fierce and International Order in Cyberspace Is
Rapidly Reshaped . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2 Internet Development in Representative Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.1 Index Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.2 GIDI System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.3 Analysis of Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3 Internet Development in Representative Countries and Regions . . . 31
1.3.1 The United States Continues to Take the Lead
in the World in Internet Comprehensive Strength . . . . . . . . . 31
1.3.2 Internet Development in China Comes to the Stage
of Enhancing Quality and Improving Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . 35
vii
viii Contents
1.3.3 The United Kingdom Takes the Lead in Cybersecurity

Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.3.4 Japan Accelerates the Construction of Digital Society . . . . . 39
1.3.5 Internet Application in India Develops Rapidly . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1.3.6 Russia Makes Steady Progress in Internet Development . . . 41
1.3.7 Vietnam Sees Fast Development of Internet Economy . . . . . 43
1.3.8 In Latin America, Mexico Enjoys Rapid Internet
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.3.9 Kenya Takes the Lead in Africa in Internet Strength . . . . . . . 45
1.4 Trends in World Internet Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.4.1 The Competition on Digital Infrastructure Intensifies
and Necessitates Deeper Interconnectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.4.2 Digital Transformation Progresses Quickly in Various
Countries and Necessitates Common Prosperity . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.4.3 Cross-cultural Communication Encounters New
Challenges and Necessitates Exchanges and Mutual
Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
1.4.4 The Militarization of Cybersecurity Accelerates
and Necessitates the Orderly Development
of Cyberspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.4.5 Trust Deficit in Cyberspace Enlarges and Necessitates
the Realization of Fairness and Justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2 World Information Infrastructure Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.1 Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.2 The Evolution and Upgrading of Communication Network
Infrastructure Accelerate in an All-Round Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.2.1 5G Development Comes to a New Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.2.2 Fixed Broadband Network Enters the Optical-Fiber Era . . . . 55
2.2.3 The Popularization and Deployment of IPv6 Accelerate . . . 55
2.2.4 The Deployment of Space-Air-Ground Integrated
Network (SAGIN) Speeds Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.3 Competition in Computing Infrastructure Increasingly
Intensifies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.3.1 Cloud Computing Plays a Crucial Role in Computing
Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.3.2 Data Centers Become Important Computing
Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.3.3 Edge Computing Becomes Indispensable Infrastructure . . . . 59
2.3.4 The Market Scale of High-Performance Computing
Continues to Enlarge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.4 Global Deployment of New-Technology Infrastructure
Quickens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.4.1 AI Becomes New Infrastructure that Guides
Intelligent Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Contents ix
2.4.2 Blockchain Plays a Decisive Role in the Strategic

Competition Among Great Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.4.3 The Deployment of Global Quantum-Communication
Backbone Network Accelerates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.5 The Construction of Application-Oriented Infrastructure
Makes Haste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
2.5.1 The Construction of IoT Infrastructure Quickens . . . . . . . . . 64
2.5.2 The Application of Industrial Internet Extends
and Deepens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.5.3 The Deployment of Global Internet of Vehicles (IoV)
Accelerates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3 World Information Technology Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.1 Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.2 Basic Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.2.1 High-Performance Computing Moves Towards an Era
in Which Performance and Energy-Consumption Are
Taken into Account . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.2.2 Chip Manufacturing Process is Upgraded Iteratively
and the Production Capacity Needs to Be Improved . . . . . . . 72
3.2.3 Traditional Industrial Pattern of Software Technology
Steadily Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.2.4 The Ecology of New Open-Source Technologies
Constantly Improves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.3 Cutting-Edge Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.3.1 AI Continues to Develop and Algorithm
and Computing Power Continue to Improve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.3.2 Cloud Native Technology Gradually Matures . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.3.3 Quantum Information Technology Is Deeply Explored . . . . . 89
3.4 New Technologies and New Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.4.1 The R&D of New Drugs Speeds Up with the Help of AI . . . 93
3.4.2 L3 Scene of Automated Driving Is Progressively Piloted . . . 94
3.4.3 The Implementation of Digital Twin Is Accelerated
Conceptually and Technologically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4 World Digital Economy Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.1 Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.2 The Development Trend of Global Digital Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.2.1 Countries Actively Promote the Strategic Layout
in Cutting-Edge Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.2.2 The Development Pattern Basically Remains Stable . . . . . . . 100
4.2.3 Internet Enterprises Develop Rapidly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.2.4 The Investment in Digital Economy
Increases Significantly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.2.5 Global Digital Trade Grows Against Headwinds . . . . . . . . . . 104
x Contents
4.2.6 Digital Economy Helps to Fight the COVID-19

Pandemic Globally . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.3 Digital Industrialization Develops Steadily . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.3.1 Basic Telecommunications Industry Forges Ahead
in a Stable Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.3.2 Electronic Information Manufacturing Industry
Advances Steadily . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.3.3 Software and Information Technology Service
Industry Develops Quickly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.3.4 Internet Information Content Service Industry Grows
Against Headwinds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.4 Industrial Digitalization Continues to Deepen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.4.1 The Digitalization of Manufacturing Industry Further
Advances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.4.2 The Digitalization of Service Industry Accelerates . . . . . . . . 113
4.4.3 Agricultural Digitalization Advances Steadily . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.5 The Pace of Fintech Innovation Accelerates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.5.1 Blockchain Finance Presents a Trend of Steady
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.5.2 AiFinance Faces Both Opportunities and Challenges . . . . . . 115
4.5.3 Digital Currency Flourishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.6 E-Commerce Maintains a Trend of High-Speed Development . . . . . 116
4.6.1 The Market Scale Continues to Rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.6.2 The Competition Pattern Becomes More Stable . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.6.3 Cross-Border E-Commerce Develops Rapidly . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5 World Digital Government Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.1 Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.2 The Evaluation and Development of World Digital Government . . . 121
5.2.1 Comprehensive E-Government Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.2.2 The Construction of Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.2.3 Open Government Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.2.4 Online Governmental Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.2.5 Digital Integration and Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.2.6 Data Security and Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.3 Innovative Practice of Digital Government in the Outbreak
of the COVID-19 Pandemic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.3.1 From Integrated Platform Information Disclosure
to Multi-platform Information Sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.3.2 From Basic Services of Mobile Applications to Data
Monitoring Based on User’s Willingness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.3.3 From Technological Plug-Ins to Multi-scene
Applications of Smart Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.4 New Trends in the Construction of Digital Government . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.4.1 Regional Cooperation Further Deepens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Contents xi
5.4.2 Local Governments Become E-Government Entities

that Play a More Active Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.4.3 “Personal Information Protection” Becomes a New
Domain that Plays an Increasingly Important Role . . . . . . . . 138
6 World Internet Media Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.1 Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.2 The Development Landscape of World Internet Media . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.2.1 Traditional Social Media Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6.2.2 Emerging Digital Media Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.3 Hot Topics in World Internet Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.3.1 The “Centenary of the Communist Party of China”
Arouses Media Attention Worldwide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.3.2 “Carbon Neutrality” Becomes a Central Issue
in World Internet Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.3.3 “China Example of Poverty Alleviation
and Governance” Evokes Worldwide Concern
in the Public Opinion on the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.3.4 The Conflict that Arises from “Vaccine Nationalism”
Becomes Prominent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.4 The Governance and Regulation of World Internet Media . . . . . . . . 148
6.4.1 The Antitrust Regulation on Social Media is Upgraded . . . . 148
6.4.2 The Scramble for Traffic Between Social-Media
Platforms and Traditional Journalism Intensifies . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.4.3 The Legal Regulation Against Algorithmic
Discrimination is Promoted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
6.5 Trends in the Technological Development of World
Internet Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.5.1 Online Conference Catalyzes the New Normal
of Cloud Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.5.2 Audio Social Media Face Both Opportunities
and Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.5.3 The Transformation of Film and Television Industry
into Streaming Media Accelerates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
7 World Cybersecurity Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
7.1 Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
7.2 Cybersecurity Threats Continue to Evolve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
7.2.1 Typical Trends in Cybersecurity Risks and Threats . . . . . . . . 158
7.2.2 Trends in Cybersecurity Threats in Key Sectors . . . . . . . . . . 160
7.3 Various Countries in the World Continue to Improve
the Formulation of Cybersecurity Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
7.3.1 The Formulation of Cybersecurity Policies: A Survey . . . . . 162
7.3.2 Key Layout of Cybersecurity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
7.4 The Innovation and Development of Cybersecurity Technology . . . 166
xii Contents
7.4.1 Cyber Resilience Becomes a Buzz Word in the Field

of Cybersecurity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
7.4.2 New Practices on Exploring Data Privacy Protection . . . . . . 167
7.4.3 New AI Attack Means . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
7.5 Cybersecurity Industry Develops Steadily . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
7.5.1 Global Cybersecurity Industry Maintains a Stable
Growth Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
7.5.2 Cybersecurity Services Occupy a Dominant
Market Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7.5.3 Venture Capital to Cybersecurity Industry Hits a New
Record High . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7.6 The Cultivation of Cybersecurity Talents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
7.6.1 The Gap in Cybersecurity Talents Presents
a Narrowing Trend for the First Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
7.6.2 The Skills of Cybersecurity Talents Are Constantly
Improved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
8 World Rule-of-Law Construction in Cyberspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
8.1 Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
8.2 Cybercrime Paints a Grim Picture and Law-Enforcement
in Cyberspace Governance Arouses Wide Attention . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
8.2.1 Cyber Law-Enforcement Continues to Improve
and New Law-Enforcement Departments Come to Rise . . . . 174
8.2.2 Priority Is Given to Content Review and Platform
Review is Strengthened . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
8.2.3 Transnational Crimes Continue to Increase
and International Transnational Law-Enforcement
Gets Under Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
8.2.4 With the Threat to the Vulnerable Groups,
the Protection of Children’s Rights and Interests
Becomes the Central Issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
8.3 The Awareness of Cyber Sovereignty Is Enhanced
and the Rule-of-Law Protection of Cyber Sovereignty Is
Strengthened . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
8.3.1 Cybersecurity Risk Is Continuously Aggravated
and the Awareness of Cyber Sovereignty is
Significantly Improved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
8.3.2 Data-Security Risks Multiply and Legal-Protection
Forms Diversify . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
8.3.3 Discourse Power in Cyberspace Becomes More
Important and the Game on International Cooperation
Continues in Cyberspace Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
8.4 The Competition in Cyber Economy Intensifies
and Cyber-Platform Governance Becomes a Major Field . . . . . . . . . 183
Contents xiii
8.4.1 Cyber Economy Thrives and the Legislation

on Antitrust Against Platform Continually Strengthens . . . . 183
8.4.2 Employees in Cyber Economy Balloon,
with the Employment Responsibility of Platform Put
on the Agenda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
8.4.3 The Rights and Interests of Network Users Are
Damaged and the Accountability of Platform Tort Is
Gradually Conducted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
8.5 Emerging Technologies Empower Network Industry,
with Security Measures Timely Following up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
8.5.1 Faced with the Misuse of Biometric Information,
the Legislation on Information Protection Makes
Positive Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
8.5.2 Algorithm Push Endangers Privacy
and Algorithm-Governance System Gradually Improves . . . 187
8.5.3 The Application of Blockchain Enlarges and Industrial
Regulatory System Takes Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
9 International Cyberspace Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
9.1 Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
9.2 Main Features of Annual International Cyberspace Governance . . . 190
9.2.1 Under the Normalization of Pandemic Prevention
and Control, the Demand for Digital Development
and Governance Surges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
9.2.2 Geopolitics Catalyzes and Enlarges New Digital Divide . . . 191
9.2.3 Technological Politicization Threatens Supply-Chain
Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
9.2.4 Green Digital Cooperation Invigorates International
Cyberspace Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
9.3 New Progress in International Cyberspace Governance . . . . . . . . . . . 194
9.3.1 The Formulation of International Rules in Cyberspace
Continues to Advance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
9.3.2 Global Digital Currency Accelerates Twin-Track
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
9.3.3 Digital Tax Administration Forms a Trend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
9.3.4 Data Governance Is Actively Promoted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
9.3.5 Platform Governance Continuously Deepens . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
9.3.6 AI Governance Arouses Wide Attention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
9.3.7 Various Parties Strive to Bridge the Digital Divide . . . . . . . . 199
9.4 Cyberspace Governance in Some Representative Countries
and Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
9.4.1 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
9.4.2 The United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
9.4.3 Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
9.4.4 The European Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
xiv Contents
9.4.5 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

9.4.6 France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
9.4.7 The United Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
9.4.8 Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
9.4.9 South Korea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Postscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Chapter 1
Overview
Today, the world is undergoing changes that have not seen in a century. The COVID-
19 pandemic has a far-reaching impact on humans, IT revolution evolves rapidly,
and digital economy thrives. These deeply alter the mode of human production and
life and affect the socioeconomic development of various countries, the construc-
tion of global governance systems and the evolution of human civilization. In the
past year, a new-round scientific and technological revolution and industrial trans-
formation accelerated, and the innovation on digital technology achieved break-
throughs in many fields. In traditional economy, the digital transformation of indus-
trial models quickened. Production factors, organizational forms and competitive
paradigms continued to evolve, with global industrial division systems further reor-
ganized. Digital economy served as an important choice for countries in the world to
hedge against the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and speed up socioeconomic
transformation. Countries in the world accelerated the layout of new-type infras-
tructure. New-type information infrastructure represented by 5G, AI, IoT, industrial
Internet and satellite Internet turned to be new momentum for global economic
growth. Major countries strived to strengthen the R&D capability of cutting-edge
technologies, organize technological alliances, and formulate technological rules, so
as to forge dominant position in cyberspace development. Social media remained
active. Some countries continuously enhanced content governance and energeti-
cally combated false information. Besides, various countries in the world vigorously
promoted the construction of cybersecurity-guarantee capacity, constantly enhanced
rule-of-law construction in cyberspace, and fortified data security and personal infor-
mation protection, which produced remarkable progress in international cyberspace
governance.
Noticeably, global trade protectionism emerges and unbalanced development
among countries deteriorates. New technological barriers and the pandemic coalesce,
which enlarges digital divide, employment crisis and the gap between the rich and
the poor. Threats to cybersecurity become prominent, and targeted or organized
cyberattacks paint a grim picture. International order in cyberspace is reshaped fast.
© Publishing House of Electronics Industry 2023 1

Chinese Academy of Cyberspace Studies,
World Internet Development Report 2021,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-9323-7_1
2 1 Overview
In the arena, the debate over data security, platform governance, technology gover-
nance and supply-chain security continues to heat up. Confronted with the instability
and uncertainty of cyberspace development, various countries should act with the
trends of the times, undertake the responsibility of development, address risks and
challenges together, promote global cyberspace governance, and build cyberspace
into a community for development, a community for security, a community for
responsibility, and a community for common interests that benefits all mankind.
1.1 World Internet Development in 2021
1.1.1 The Construction of Network Infrastructure

Accelerates, with the Investment to Network
Infrastructure Increased
Now, human society sees new-round scientific and technological revolution and
industrial transformation. Featuring ubiquity, integration and intelligence, new-type
infrastructure represented by 5G, IoT, industrial Internet and satellite Internet func-
tions as new driving force for global economic growth. Over the past year, the evolu-
tion and upgrading of global communication network infrastructure accelerated,
and fixed broadband network advanced from the fiber-to-the-home to the Gigabit
era of optical connectivity. By the end of 2020, the number of fixed broadband
connection in the world had reached 1.18 billion.1 By the end of May 2021, 443
telecom operators in 133 countries and regions had invested in 5G, of which 169
telecom operators in 70 countries and regions launched 5G commercial services.2
The popularization and deployment of IPv6 quickened, and industrial giants like
SapceX, OneWeb and Amazon promptly promoted the construction of satellite
Internet. The competition on computing infrastructure became fierce. Global cloud
computing developed fast. Data center, edge-computing platform and supercom-
puting center served as important computing infrastructure. Globally, the deployment
of emerging-technology infrastructure sped up, and major countries and regions in the
world successively adopted AI strategies. Taking data, algorithm, computing power
and platform as core elements, AI infrastructure resources received wide attention.
Blockchain was applied to distributed use cases that called for cross-regional, cross-
industrial and cross-filed collaboration. Major countries stepped up the implementa-
tion of long-distance quantum communication trunk-line projects. The construction
of application-oriented infrastructure developed quickly. The deployment of global
commercial cellular-IoT network continually expanded, the construction of indus-
trial Internet achieved positive progress, the construction of core infrastructure like
1 Data Source: The report of Point Topic, a market research firm.

2 Data Source: Global mobile Suppliers Association (GSA).
1.1 World Internet Development in 2021 3
network facilities and identification and resolution systems accelerated, and Internet
of Vehicles (IoV) entered the “fast lane”.
As governments in the world commonly recognize, the construction of network
infrastructure means an important support for robustly enlarging effective demand
and effectually addressing the economic downturn under the impact of the COVID-
19 pandemic. For example, Russia releases The Roadmap for the Development of
Quantum Communication in Russian Federation3 to quicken the development of
quantum communication technology and IoT. The European Union publishes 2030
Digital Compass: The European Way for the Digital Decade,4 which proposes to
build a safe, high-performance and sustainable digital infrastructure, via which
people can obtain affordable, safe and high-quality network connections. Simul-
taneously, some countries intentionally create digital barriers, restrict or prohibit
foreign digital hardware device and software service providers from doing business
in domestic markets, and curb normal market behaviors of corporations with tech-
nological advantages. These actions impede international cooperation in digital area
and infrastructure construction conducted among countries based on mutual trust
and cause the new digital divide.
1.1.2 The Innovation on Digital Technology Continues

to Advance, with Consensus on Technology Governance
Information industry plays a dominant role in global economic development. Digital

technologies like semiconductor, big data, IoT and AI come to the stage of tech-
nological explosion, with breakthroughs in digital-technology innovation. In the
past year, the level of high-performance computing steadily improved. New-type
heterogeneous-architecture-based supercomputing can integrate performance with
environmental protection. The chip process was upgraded iteratively, with main-
stream chip products reaching 7 nm process. The monopolistic pattern of computing
chips remained prominent, global leading corporations dominated the R&D of
computing chips, and 3D NAND technology of memory chips signaled a new
development direction of NAND Flash. The continuous shortage of chip manu-
facturing capacity resulted in short supply, higher price and longer delivery time
of a variety of chips. Therefore, various countries laid stress on developing chip
manufacturing capacity, with the development pattern of integrated circuits signif-
icantly adjusted. Traditional patterns of software technology changed steadily, and
operating systems displayed a trend of cross-platform and cross-field development.
3 Cankaoxiaoxi.com: “Russian Experts: Russia Is Investigating China’s Experience in Establishing

Quantum Communication System”, March 2, 2021, http://www.cankaoxiaoxi.com/science/202
10302/2436210.shtml.
4 Science and Technology Daily: “‘Digital Compass’ May Lead European Way for the Digital
Decade”, March 15, 2021, http://digitalpaper.stdaily.com/http://www.kjrb.com/kjrb/html/2021-03/

15/content_464170.htm.
4 1 Overview
“Micro kernel + modular design” formed a new fashion, IoT operating systems
diversified, and industrial software featured platform-based, cloud service-based and
low code-based development. Global open-source-technology ecology developed at
a high speed. A series of software or hardware products in emerging technology,
e.g. AI, cloud computing and big data, took open-source ecology as a major devel-
opment path. RISC-V kindled an upsurge for open-source hardware and open chip
design. In the cutting-edge fields, AI algorithms in computer vision, natural language
processing and other fields continued to innovate iteratively, and AI chips served as
the underlying structure that supported AI-technology industry. Cloud native tech-
nology matured and accelerated the construction of new-type infrastructure. Various
technological routes of quantum communication paralleled. The theoretical frame-
work as well as R&D and application of quantum measurement took shape, with
significant progress in exploring quantum application. New technologies and appli-
cations came to rise. The R&D of new drugs accelerated with the aid of AI, automatic
driving entered the pilot of L3 use case, and digital twin technology turned to reality
in a fast way.
With the rise of new-generation AI technology in the world, to effectively govern
AI becomes a key topic that arouses widespread concern in international community.
Countries actively increase their investment to boost technological innovation and
development, strengthen the governance of AI and other technologies, and facili-
tate the orderly development of technological norms. In January 2021, the United
Nations published an article, calling on all countries in the world to be vigilant
against the negative consequences of using AI technologies, such as bias, racism and
false information.5 In March 2021, the European Union officially established the
European Innovation Council (EIC), which planned to invest more than 10 billion
euros from 2021 to 2027. In this way, EU member states can make more innova-
tions or breakthroughs in self-perception AI and other fields.6 In April 2021, the
European Commission unveiled the proposal of Artificial Intelligence Act and took
different regulatory measures for AI systems at different risk levels in different use
cases.7 In June 2021, the United States launched Innovation and Competition Act
of 2021, which increased investment in AI, semiconductor, biotechnology, quantum
computing, advanced communications and advanced energy, so as to strengthen
America’s leading technological advantages.
5 UN News: “Bias, Racism and Lies: Facing up to the Unwanted Consequences of AI”, January 4,
2021, https://news.un.org/zh/story/2021/01/1075032.
6 Science and Technology Daily: “Newly-Founded European Innovation Council (EIC) Focuses
on Breakthrough Technologies”, March 22, 2021, http://digitalpaper.stdaily.com/http://www.kjrb.

com/kjrb/html/2021-03/22/content_464564.htm.
7 Xinhua News Agency: “The European Commission Proposes A Legal Framework on AI”, April
21, 2021, http://www.xinhuanet.com/tech/2021-04/22/c_1127360875.htm.

1.1.3 Global Digital Economy Grows Against Headwinds

and the Layout of Key Fields Accelerates
For major countries in the world, digital economy means an important choice to
hedge against the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and speed up socioeconomic
transformation. In the past year, the integration of the global digital economy and real
economy deepened, and digital industrialization advanced steadily. Basic telecom-
munications industry kept improving. As IDC predicted, in 2021, global expendi-
ture on telecommunications service would total 1.54 trillion U.S. dollars.8 Elec-
tronic information manufacturing progressed stably, IT service industries like big
data, AI and blockchain maintained high-speed development, and Internet informa-
tion content service industry grew against headwinds. Industrial digitization played
a crucial role in boosting global digital economy. The digitization of manufac-
turing further deepened. Major countries actively implemented the strategy of “Re-
industrialization”, regarded new-generation IT as a key element in reshaping the
competitive advantage of industrial chain, and promoted the deep integration of
digital technology and manufacturing systems.
Agricultural digitization develops steadily. In 2020, the scale of global smart agri-
culture market achieved c. 13.8 billion U.S. dollars,9 with agricultural robots exten-
sively used. The digitization of service industry accelerates, and online education and
online medical markets grow fast. In 2020, the scale of global online education market
exceeded 250 billion U.S. dollars,10 and the scale of online medical market reached
around 152.4 billion U.S. dollars.11 Fintech thrives. Various countries successively
deploy digital currencies. According to the latest survey report of Bank for Interna-
tional Settlements, around 86% of central banks in 65 countries or economies studied
digital currency, and the proportion of central banks that tested digital currency or
conducted POC (proof of concept) increased from 42% in 2019 to 60% in 2020.12
E-commerce advances against headwinds and becomes an economic driving force to
foster domestic growth and international trade. Cross-border e-commerce functions
as a new growth point to stabilize foreign trade. In 2020, global e-commerce sales
amounted to 428 million U.S. dollars.13
Countries launch strategic measures to quicken digital economy growth. Lashed
by the COVID-19 pandemic, global economic output dropped by 4.3% in 2020,
marking the most significant recession since the Great Depression.14 Various coun-
tries prioritize digital economy in their development strategies, enthusiastically
8 Data Source: IDC: Worldwide Semiannual Telecom Services Tracker.

9 Data Source: Markets and Markets.
10 Data Source: Grand View Research. Inc.
11 Data Source: Global Industry Analysts.Inc.
12 Data Source: White Paper on the Progress of Research & Development of E-CNY in China
published by the People’s Bank of China on July 16, 2021.

13 Data Source: eMarketer.
14 Data Source: World Economic Situation and Prospects published by the United Nations on
January 25, 2021.

6 1 Overview
promote digital legislation, deploy cutting-edge fields, and further the normal and
innovative development of digital economy. Since 2020, the United States has issued
Federal Data Strategy 2020 Action Plan, Pioneering the Future Advanced Computing
Ecosystem: A Strategic Plan and other strategies to ensure America’s leading role in
the world. The European Union releases Shaping Europe’s Digital Future, A Euro-
pean Strategy for Data, A New Industrial Strategy for Europe and 2030 Digital
Compass: the European Way for the Digital Decade to accelerate the digital trans-
formation of Europe. In the meantime, as antitrust against platform becomes a world-
wide issue, various countries enhance antitrust against platforms. In December 2020,
the European Union published Digital Markets Act (Draft), which reinforced the
prior supervision of large-scale digital platforms and required platforms to notify
the mergers and acquisitions in advance. In June 2021, the United States launched a
number of proposals of antitrust acts, such as Ending Platform Monopolies Act, Plat-
form Competition and Opportunity Act and The American Innovation and Choice
Online Act. These acts meant a major change to existent antitrust legislation in the
United States.
1.1.4 The Construction of Digital Government Steadily

Progresses, with Emphasis on Collaboration
in Combating the COVID-19 Pandemic
The construction of global digital government has been widely actualized. Major
countries on a global scale successively carry out digital government strategies and
center on infrastructure construction, open public data, online government services
and citizen’s digital participation in their construction of digital government. Over
the past year, many countries continuously furthered the construction of govern-
ment informatization, government cloud platforms and data center systems, in order
to enhance the swift deployment and resilient expansion of government informa-
tion systems. 5G network was the central work in the construction of government
infrastructure in various countries. Open data was widely recognized among coun-
tries. The number of countries that established OGD (open government data) portals
jumped from 46 in 2014 to 153 in 2020.15 The coverage of online services continued
to enlarge, and the service level significantly improved. As the data of UN E-
Government Survey 2020 evidenced, the number of countries that provided at least
one online-affair service increased from 140 in 2018 to 162 in 2020, up by 16%.
Simultaneously, various countries constantly optimized the functions of national
portals, which evolved from integrated platform information disclosure to multi-
platform information sharing. Nearly 90% of surveyed countries had e-government
portals, with one-stop services, social-networking platforms and feedback-option
interactive design. Countries played an active role in providing online services for
15 Data Source: UN E-Government Survey 2020 released by the United Nations on July 10, 2020.
vulnerable groups such as women, immigrants, the elderly, the disabled and the poor
to strengthen public digital participation.
Governments of various countries and regions voluntarily deepen cooperation
and jointly promote the prevention and control of the COVID-19 pandemic. Now,
“combating the pandemic with digital technology” becomes top priority of digital
management and services of governments. The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic
strikes traditional offline governance models and means, and information technology
becomes an important way for governments to prevent and control the pandemic
and provide services. As UN E-Government Survey 2020 demonstrated, by May
13, 2020, c. 97.5% of countries released information on the COVID-19 pandemic
on their official websites.16 In the prevention and control of the pandemic, govern-
ments of various countries consolidated cooperation with non-governmental institu-
tions like private sectors and social organizations. Based on the national integrated
government service platform, Chinese government introduced “Health QR Code”
app, which helped enterprises’ resumption of work and production and raised the
modernization of national governance capacity and governance systems. Meanwhile,
many governments took the initiative in balancing the needs of pandemic prevention
and control and personal-privacy protection, which put spurs to the shift of basic
services of mobile applications to data monitoring based on users’ willingness.
1.1.5 Internet Media Convergence Forms a Trend

and Algorithmic Regulation Intensifies
Engulfed by the COVID-19 pandemic, global Internet media industry realizes growth
against headwinds by dint of cloud-connection advantages. In 2021, Internet media
technology continued to evolve iteratively, with a prominent trend of diversity
and multi-polarization in communication form and landscape. In the COVID-19
pandemic, mainstream news media served as the most effective and reliable channel
to access information. Media returned to public nature. Media like the European
Broadcasting Union as well as The Washington Post and The New York Times of the
United States cancelled the paid content and provided free pandemic information
services to global audiences. Public opinions and hot topics from global Internet
media diversified. Carbon neutrality, environmental protection and global poverty
alleviation and governance and the pandemic information evoked great attention
among global Internet media and triggered heated discussions from all parties. Social
media performed in an eye-catching way. Facebook, YouTube and Twitter remained
16Data Source: According to the survey of official websites of 193 United Nations member states
conducted in UN E-Government Survey 2020.
8 1 Overview
main public space for American and European citizens to discuss topics in rela-
tion to the COVID-19 pandemic. As the annual report of Facebook suggested,17
by December 2020, the average number of daily active users on Facebook reached
1.84 billion, with an increase of 11% year on year (over 2019). Short videos or
emerging digital media represented by TikTok are well received. In the first quarter
of 2021, TikTok topped the global App download list. The functions of social media
multiply and the transformation of service forms accelerates. Against the back-
drop of the pandemic, audio socializing represented by Clubhouse springs up, and
LinkedIn and other media expand their functions of audio socializing. In the COVID-
19 pandemic, traditional film and television industry was severely mauled, which
meant an opportunity for the development of emerging streaming-media platforms
and further promoted the transformation of traditional film and television industry
to the technology and business model of streaming media. In 2020, Netflix took the
lead in streaming media, whose subscription rose by 37 million and annual busi-
ness revenue totaled 25 billion U.S. dollars, with an increase of 24% year on year.
WarnerMedia, Disney and other film companies all transferred their film works to
their streaming media platforms. Film companies that had not established streaming-
media platforms adopted the dual strategy of delaying the release and selling films
to streaming-media platforms.
In response to problems of capital’s manipulation over media and influence on
citizen values, various countries are strengthening the regulation of Internet media. In
the era of digital news, platform-based media nibble at the audience traffic and adver-
tising revenue of traditional journalism, which intensifies the scramble for traffic,
interests and power between social-media platform and traditional journalism. Faced
with the growing influence of Internet giants like Facebook, Google and Amazon,
the United States, the United Kingdom, France and Australia launch antitrust inves-
tigations and penalties to varying degree to balance the interests pattern. Algorithmic
discrimination and ethical anomie continue to emerge, and various countries tighten
up on legal regulation. According to the data of the U.S. National Conference of State
Legislatures (NCSL), by April 2021, 16 states in the United States had enacted rele-
vant laws to legally regulate AI technology and algorithm.18 The European Union
released Artificial Intelligence Act to regulate algorithmic discrimination and big
data-enabled price discrimination against existing customers, in order to seek a
balance between the benefits from algorithms and the protection of citizens’ rights
and interests.
17 Facebook Reports Fourth Quarter and Full Year 2020 Results, https://investor.fb.com/investor-
news/press-release-details/2021/Facebook-Reports-Fourth-Quarter-and-Full-Year-2020-Results/
default.aspx.
18 Data Source: NCSL, https://www.ncsl.org/research/telecommunications-and-information-tec
hnology/2020-legislation-related-to-artificial-intelligence.aspx.
1.1.6 Cybersecurity Risks Keep Rising, and Supply-Chain

Security and Data Security Arouse Widespread Concern
Cybersecurity means a global challenge, and no country can stay aloof from it.
International community must undertake the responsibility of safeguarding cyberse-
curity. In 2021, cybersecurity faced grimmer prospect. Large-scale targeted cyberat-
tacks crept up, with security vulnerability, data leakage, cyber fraud and ransomware
continuously upgraded and developed. SolarWinds Event as well as the blackmail
attack on the U.S. oil pipeline operator had a far-reaching impact. The innovation
on cybersecurity technology made new progress. Global well-known cybersecu-
rity corporations actively groped for cybersecurity-risk prevention capability repre-
sented by cyber resilience technology, data-privacy protection technology repre-
sented by security multi-party computing and new-technology security-risk preven-
tion represented by new AI attacks, so as to effectively address various cyberse-
curity threats. Global cybersecurity industry maintained stable growth. Cyberse-
curity service market occupied main market share, and cloud security became the
fastest-growing niche market in 2021. As relevant data of Gartner, a consulting firm,
predicted, in 2021, global expenditure on information security and risk-management
technology and service would rose to 150.4 billion U.S. dollars, by 12.4%. Venture
capital to cybersecurity industry hit a new record high with an investment of more
than 7.8 billion U.S. dollars19 and great development prospects. Various countries
put more efforts into developing cybersecurity talent teams, improving cybersecu-
rity skill training, and enlarging the demand for cybersecurity skills. Cybersecurity
industry shifted from a certification-based field to a skill-based field, and the gap in
cybersecurity talent presented a narrowing trend for the first time. According to the
research data published by (ISC)2 , or the International Information Systems Security
Certification Consortium, in June 2020, the number of cybersecurity posts rose to
3.5 million, yet the current gap in global cybersecurity talent reached 3.12 million.
Vis-à-vis 4.07 million in 2019, this betokened a decrease in the gap in cybersecurity
talent.
Facing increasingly complex and severe cybersecurity situation, various coun-
tries fortify significant strategic role of cybersecurity in national security, continu-
ally improve the strategic layout of cybersecurity, optimize cybersecurity policies
and strategies, and vigorously enhance supply-chain security, critical-information-
infrastructure protection, data security, personal-information protection and other
fields. The United States, the United Kingdom and other countries stress cybersecu-
rity as strategic priority. The European Union endeavors to build a credible cyberse-
curity system. African countries accelerate the formulation of cyberspace strategic
plans. The United States, the United Kingdom, Germany and Australia successively
launch relevant policies and measures to progressively realize supply-chain diver-
sification and independent controllable layout, and to promote the establishment
of a more resilient security-protection system for critical information infrastructure.
19 Data Source: Crunchbase, Cybersecurity Research Report 2021.

10 1 Overview
Data-security protection signifies a hot topic in annual global cyberspace security, on

which various countries issue a substantial number of policy and strategic documents.
Data security agencies of various countries continue to design and publish numerous
strategic-planning documents. Many countries release implementation plans for the
regulation on personal privacy data, clarify the standards for the collection and use
of personal information, and quicken the deployment of personal information and
privacy data protection.
1.1.7 The Rule-of-Law Construction in Cyberspace

Incessantly Accelerates and Antitrust Regulation
Continuously Intensifies
In recent years, the rule-of-law construction in cyberspace developed steadily, the

practice of the rule-of-law construction deepened sustainably, and the achievements
of the rule-of-law construction emerged continually. This provided strong legal guar-
antee for expediting the recovery of global economy, effectively preventing and
controlling the pandemic, and boosting the iterative development of network infor-
mation technology. Globally, cybercrimes continue to increase. Under such circum-
stances, countries strengthen the construction of cyber law-enforcement agencies
and augment the intensity and investment of cyber law-enforcement. The United
States establishes the post of “Cyber Czar” to coordinate the work of cybersecurity
strategies. French president announced an investment of 136 million euros in the
construction of “Cyber Firefighter Program” of the Agence nationale de la sécurité
des systèmes d’information (ANSSI; English: French National Agency for the Secu-
rity of Information Systems). The European Union proposes to integrate the resources
of EU member states and organize a joint cyber department under the leadership of
European Network and Information Security Agency (ENISA), in order to crack
down on cybercrimes. Cross-border cyber law-enforcement becomes an effective
means to combat cross-border cybercrimes. The 75th Session of the UN General
Assembly adopted the resolution on the UN Treaty on Cybercrime, with the negoti-
ation of the above-mentioned treaty scheduled to be launched in January 2022. The
United States, Canada and some European countries jointly destroy Emotet, a botnet.
Various countries strengthen the protection of the rights and interests of the vulnerable
groups, especially children, in cyberspace. The United Nations releases “Roadmap
for Digital Cooperation”, promoting digital technology to benefit all people in an
equal and safe manner. The United States, China, the United Kingdom and Japan
promulgate relevant laws to solidify the protection of children’s online rights and
interests.
In the field of cyber sovereignty, various countries continue to enhance their aware-
ness of cyber sovereignty. Against the background of frequent cyber-sovereignty-risk
incidents, various countries take comprehensive measures (e.g. laws, policies and
technological standards) to seek cyber sovereignty and interests, and deepen and opti-
mize legislation on data security to protect national security, commercial interests and
public privacy. In the field of governing network platforms, the network scale effect of
network-platform giants poses a threat to the fairness and sharing of network-market
competition order. Various countries continuously strengthen legislation on antitrust
work and regulate the competition of platform markets. The U.S. House Committee
on the Judiciary approves a number of new antitrust laws, which directly restrict large-
scale technological corporations. The European Union publishes Digital Markets
Act (Draft), which aims to solve the unfair competition among digital platforms
and reinforce the prior supervision of large-scale digital platforms, and requires
platforms to notify the mergers and acquisitions in advance. China timely revises
The Antitrust Law of the People’s Republic of China, formulates antitrust guide-
lines in the field of platform economy, and imposes a fine of 18.228 billion yuan
on Alibaba Group. Various countries fortify the regulation on the accountability of
cyber-platform tort. The U.S. Senate proposes Secure Technology Act, which sets the
boundaries of liability immunity and adds the excluded objects of immunity among
platform enterprises. The European Union publishes Digital Services Act (Draft),
which raises higher requirements for platform enterprises in terms of accountability
standard and system-risk assessment. In the field of emerging-technology regula-
tion, more countries enhance legislative protection of bioinformation, algorithm
governance and blockchain. For example, the United States publishes a privacy
law for biometric information, and the European Union especially establishes a
data-processing evaluation system to protect data via algorithm.
1.1.8 International Competition on Digital Rule-Making Is

Fierce and International Order in Cyberspace Is
Rapidly Reshaped
The COVID-19 pandemic undermines global exchanges and cooperation. The game
in cyberspace among major countries and regions becomes more intense. In inter-
national cyberspace governance, the uncertainty and vulnerability snowball, and the
original international division system disintegrates, which test global governance
systems. It is an urgent and practical problem to hasten economic recovery via the
use of digital technology. The debate among various parties on digital economy, data
security, platform governance, technology governance, ICT supply-chain security
and other issues continues to heat up. The game among big powers expands from
the technological and industrial levels to the rules on international governance, with
focus on international digital rules. As platform enterprises play a more leading role,
major countries generally reinforce platform governance. Besides, global digital tax
administration accelerates, and data-governance rule improves. Major countries vie
for discourse power in making rules in the field of digital economy. Developing
12 1 Overview
countries in ASEAN, the Middle East and Africa actively advance digital transfor-
mation, strengthen digital economic cooperation, and develop into an emerging force
in cyberspace.
The trend of fragmentation in cyberspace continues. With unique advantages
in cyberspace, the United States incessantly dominates international policies with
domestic politics. The European Union buttresses strategic autonomy in cyberspace
and bolsters the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP) with the
United States. Moreover, public resources in global cyberspace becomes increas-
ingly scarce and uneven. Against the backdrop of the competition among great
powers, geopolitics breeds new digital divide, which aggravates the imbalance of
world Internet development. China upholds the principles of “Good-Neighborliness
and Friendly Cooperation” in cyberspace, advances the idea of “a community with
a shared future in cyberspace” ideologically and practically, and gradually bene-
fits neighboring countries. In September 2020, China’s Global Initiative on Data
Security20 attracted worldwide attention. The Initiative focused on core issues in the
field of global digital security governance, and aimed to foster the governance of
global digital security and the sustainable development of global digital economy
by practical measures, including clarifying governmental codes of conduct, urging
enterprises to share responsibilities and addressing security risks with multi-party
cooperation.
1.2 Internet Development in Representative Countries
In 2017, World Internet Development Report established the Global Internet Develop-
ment Index (GIDI) System. GIDI System selects and analyzes 48 representative coun-
tries on the five continents to fully represent the latest world Internet development
in 2021. The 48 representative countries are listed as below:
America: The United States, Canada, Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, Chile, Cuba.
Asia: China, Japan, South Korea, Indonesia, India, Saudi Arabia, Türkiye, The
United Arab Emirates, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Israel, Kazakhstan, Vietnam,
Pakistan, Iran.
Europe: The United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, Estonia, Finland,
Norway, Spain, Switzerland, Denmark, the Netherlands, Portugal, Sweden, Ukraine,
Poland, Ireland, Belgium.
Oceania: Australia, New Zealand.
Africa: South Africa, Egypt, Kenya, Nigeria, Ethiopia.
20People’s Daily: “China Proposes Global Initiative on Data Security”, September 9, 2020, http://
world.people.com.cn/n1/2020/0909/c1002-31854286.html.
1.2 Internet Development in Representative Countries 13
1.2.1 Index Construction
Global Internet Development Index (GIDI) System comprehensively measures a

country’s Internet development with six first-level indicators, i.e. infrastructure,
innovation capacity, industrial development, Internet application, cybersecurity and
cyberspace governance. In 2021, GIDI System followed first-level indicators in
previous years, with 18 second-level indicators and 36 third-level indicators. Given
the availability of original data, GIDI System slightly adjusted the descriptions of
some indicators at three levels as well as data sources. To be specific, GIDI System
is modified as follows:
The first-level indicator “Infrastructure”, the third-level indicator “Charge Burden
of Mobile Network”, Data Sources: “International Telecommunication Union”
changed to “Global mobile Suppliers Association”.
The first-level indicator “Innovation Capacity”, the third-level indicator “Inno-
vation Driving Force”, Indicator Description: “Reflecting the innovation in diverse
development, R&D and the marketization of innovation achievement in different
countries” changed to “Reflecting the application of emerging technologies like
AI, robotics, big data, cloud computing and e-commerce by enterprises in different
countries”.
The first-level indicator “Industrial Development”, the third-level indicator “Intel-
lectual Property Rights Protection” changed to “The Degree of Intellectual Property
Rights Protection”, Data Sources: “World Economic Forum” changed to “Global
Trade and Innovation Policy Alliance”.
The first-level indicator “Internet Application”, the third-level indicator “Online
Activity Degree” changed to “Online Content Availability”, Data Sources: “ZookNIC
(A Domain-Name Data Statistical Platform) and the United Nations” changed to
“World Economic Forum”.
The first-level indicator “Cybersecurity”, newly added: the second-level indi-
cator “Cybersecurity Legislation”; the second-level indicator “Cybersecurity Level”,
newly added: the third-level indicator “Cybersecurity Development Capability”.
1.2.2 GIDI System
Table 1.1 shows GIDI System in 2021.
1.2.3 Analysis of Results
Through the calculation of indicators, the scores of Internet Development Index in

48 countries are obtained, as shown in Table 1.2. In general, the United States and
China take the lead over other countries in Internet development, European countries
14 1 Overview
Table 1.1 GIDI System in 2021

First-level Second-level Third-level indicators Indicator description Data sources
indicators indicators
1. Infrastructure 1.1 Fixed 1.1.1 Average Reflecting the average Statistics of Global
Infrastructure download rate of fixed download rate of fixed Digital Reports
broadband network broadband users over a released by
given period of time in DataReportal and
different countries other institutions
1.1.2 IPv6 Reflecting the Statistics of Cisco (the
deployment of IPv6 United States)
1.2 Mobile 1.2.1 Average Reflecting the average Statistics of Global
Infrastructure download rate of download rate of Digital Reports
mobile broadband mobile broadband users released by
network over a given period of DataReportal and
time in different other institutions
countries
1.2.2 Infrastructure of Reflecting the Statistics of Global
mobile network infrastructure Digital Reports
construction of mobile released by
network in different DataReportal and
countries other institutions
1.2.3 Charge burden of Reflect the availability Statistics of Global
mobile network of mobile services and mobile Suppliers
devices from the Association
perspective of price in
different countries
1.3 Application 1.3.1 The number of Reflecting the number Statistics of TOP500
Infrastructure supercomputers of supercomputers in
different countries
2. Innovation 2.1 ICT Patent 2.1.1 The number of Reflecting the level and Database of
Capacity Application ICT patent capacity of ICT patent Organization for
applications applications in different Economic
countries Co-operation and
Development
2.2 Innovation and 2.2.1 The ratio of R&D Reflecting the ratio of Statistics of the World
Development investment in GDP R&D investment in Bank
Capacity GDP in different
countries
2.2.2 Innovation Reflecting the Statistics of World
driving force application of emerging Economic Forum
technologies like AI,
robotics, big data,
cloud computing and
e-commerce by
enterprises in different
countries
2.3 Innovation 2.3.1 The ratio of Reflecting the ratio of Statistics of World
Potential talents with digital talents with digital Economic Forum
skills skills in the total
population in different
countries
(continued)
Table 1.1 (continued)

3. Industrial 3.1 Industrial 3.1.1 The degree of Reflecting the degree of Global Trade and
Development Development intellectual property the protection of Innovation Policy
Environment rights protection physical property rights Alliance International
and intellectual Property Rights Index
property rights, as well (IPRI)
as the legal and
political environment to
realize the protection of
property rights in
different countries
3.1.2 The capacity of Reflecting the level of Statistics of Swiss
participating in participating in Economic Institute
globalization globalization in terms
of economic, social and
political dimensions in
different countries
3.2 Digital Industry 3.2.1 The ratio of ICT Reflecting the ratio of Statistics of The
value added ICT industrial value United Nations
added in GDP in Conference on Trade
different countries and Development
3.2.2 The ratio of ICT Reflecting the ratio of Statistics of World
service export ICT service export Development
scale in that of Indicators (WDI) of
domestic service in the World Bank
different countries
3.2.3 The ratio of ICT Reflecting the ratio of Statistics of World
product export ICT product export Development
scale in that of Indicators (WDI) of
domestic products in the World Bank
different countries
3.2.4 The number of Reflecting the number Statistics of CB
unicorns in digital of corporations with the Insights
industry market value of over
one billion U.S. dollars
in digital industry in
different countries
3.2.5 The creation of Reflecting the creation Statistics of
mobile applications of mobile applications International
(Weight: 20%) in different countries Monetary Fund
3.3 Economic Effect 3.3.1 The degree of Reflecting the use of Statistics of World
of Digital Industry enterprises’ digital ICT to improve Economic Forum
transformation commercial model in
different countries
3.3.2 The impact of Reflecting the use of Statistics of World
digital economy on ICT to improve Economic Forum
new organizational organizational model,
model such as building virtual
teams and telework, in
different countries
(continued)
16 1 Overview

4. Internet 4.1 Person-level 4.1.1 The number of Reflecting the total Statistics of Global
Application Application Internet users number of Internet Digital Reports
users in different released by
countries DataReportal and
other institutions
4.1.2 Online time at Reflecting online time Statistics of Global
social media at social media in Digital Reports
different countries released by
DataReportal and
other institutions
4.1.3 Online content Assessing the Statistics of World
availability availability of relevant Economic Forum
online content and
services available to
netizens in different
countries
4.2 Business-Level 4.2.1 ICT used in B2B Reflecting enterprises’ Statistics of World
Application transactions level and capacity in Economic Forum
using ICT in B2B
transactions in different
countries
4.2.2 Internet used in Reflecting the role of Statistics of World
B2C transactions Internet in e-commerce Economic Forum
4.3 4.3.1 Online service Reflecting the quality Statistics of the
Government-Level index of online service United Nations
Application provided by
government websites in
different countries
4.3.2 E-participation Reflecting the online Statistics of the
index communication United Nations
between citizens and
government in different
countries
4.3.3 Open Reflecting the level of Statistics of the
government data index open government data United Nations
in different countries
5. Cybersecurity 5.1 Cybersecurity 5.1.1 Policies and Reflecting the Statistics of
Legislation regulations on legislation on International
cybersecurity cybersecurity and Telecommunication
cybercrime in different Union (2020)
countries
5.2 Cybersecurity 5.2.1 The number of Reflecting the number Database of the World
Facilities secure network servers of secure network Bank
per one million people servers per 1 million
people in different
countries
(continued)

5.3 Cybersecurity 5.3.1 The number of Reflecting the number List of Hot 150
Industries companies included in of companies that earn Cybersecurity
Hot 150 Cybersecurity a spot on the list of Hot Companies published
Companies 150 Cybersecurity by Cybersecurity
Companies in different Ventures, a U.S.
countries investment consulting
agency
5.4 Cybersecurity 5.4.1 The times of Reflecting mobile Global Cybersecurity
Level cyberattacks devices infected with Survey Report by
malware, malicious Comparitech, a
attacks in the financial technological research
field, computers corporation
infected with malware,
Telnet attacks, the level
of encrypted mining
attacks and the
condition of cyber
defense, the latest
legislation on
cybersecurity and so on
in different countries
5.4.2 Cybersecurity Reflecting in the R&D Statistics of
Development of cybersecurity International
Capability technology, education Telecommunication
and training, and the Union (2020)
improvement of
domestic cybersecurity
development capacity
by government
departments in
different countries
6. Cyberspace 6.1 Internet 6.1.1 Related Reflecting related Referring to
Governance Governance organizations in organizations in achievement of
Internet governance Internet governance in foreign researches and
different countries, in inviting experts and
such specific affairs as scholars in relevant
policy, security, fields to conduct
protection of critical comprehensive
information evaluation
infrastructure,
Computer Emergency
Response Team
(CERT), criminal, and
protection of
consumers
(continued)
18 1 Overview

6.1.2 Policies and Reflecting Internet Referring to
regulations in Internet affairs or the making of achievement of
governance related regulations and foreign researches and
policies in different inviting experts and
countries scholars in relevant
fields to conduct
comprehensive
evaluation
6.2 Participation in 6.2.1 Participation in Reflecting participation Referring to
International international meetings in international achievement of
Governance in Internet governance conferences on foreign researches and
cyberspace in different inviting experts and
countries, including scholars in relevant
bilateral meetings, fields to conduct
multilateral meetings comprehensive
and other forums evaluation
6.2.2 Leading or Reflecting helping Referring to
participating in cyber others in cyber capacity achievement of
capacity construction construction, including foreign researches and
technological inviting experts and
assistance, policy scholars in relevant
guidance or project fields to conduct
training in different comprehensive
countries evaluation
remain relatively balanced in Internet development, ranking top in the scores of

Internet Development Index, and Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa rise in the
scores of Internet Development Index, yet rank low as a whole.
1.2.3.1 The Construction of New Infrastructure Accelerates

and the Problem of Digital Divide Remains Unsolved
In the past year, the commercial use of 5G sped up. According to the statistics of
Global System for Mobile communications Association (GSMA), by May 2021,
162 operators in 68 countries and regions had launched one or more 5G commercial
services.21 China has built the largest 5G Standalone (SA) Network in the world and
run 961,000 5G base stations as totaled,22 with the number of 5G terminal connections
reaching 365 million.
Globally, IPv6 deployment rapidly progresses and basic resource capacity contin-
uously improves. The construction of new infrastructure accelerates. Under such
circumstances, the development of IPv6-based next-generation Internet establishes a
solid foundation for the construction of new digital infrastructure like 5G. According
21 Tech.sina.com.cn: “Globally 5G Commercial Network Reaches 162 and 435 Operators Invest in
5G”, May 7, 2021, https://finance.sina.com.cn/tech/2021-05-07/doc-ikmyaawc3871051.shtml.
22 Data Source: Ministry of Industry and Information Technology of the People’s Republic of China.
Table 1.2 The scores of

Ranking Country Score
internet development index in
48 countries 1 The United States 70.17
2 China 61.70
3 The United Kingdom 57.39
4 Germany 57.30
5 Canada 57.01
6 South Korea 56.50
7 Sweden 56.42
8 France 56.28
9 The Netherlands 56.18
10 Israel 55.91
11 Japan 55.90
12 Singapore 55.71
13 Finland 55.45
14 Switzerland 54.58
15 Denmark 54.33
16 Australia 52.90
17 Spain 52.37
18 Ireland 52.18
19 India 52.17
20 Norway 52.15
21 Estonia 52.05
22 Russia 52.00
23 Belgium 51.43
24 New Zealand 51.31
25 Italy 51.08
26 Portugal 50.83
27 Malaysia 50.70
28 The United Arab Emirates 50.58
29 Poland 50.02
30 Saudi Arabia 49.64
31 Brazil 49.37
32 Vietnam 48.79
33 Thailand 48.66
34 Türkiye 48.43
35 Chile 47.46
36 Indonesia 47.45
37 Ukraine 47.32
(continued)
20 1 Overview

38 Mexico 47.15
39 South Africa 46.78
40 Egypt 46.11
41 Iran 44.92
42 Argentina 44.79
43 Kazakhstan 44.76
44 Kenya 44.67
45 Pakistan 42.92
46 Nigeria 41.67
47 Ethiopia 38.67
48 Cuba 35.90
to the statistics of Cisco (the United States) on global IPv6 deployment, by May
2021, the IPv6 deployment rate was higher than 50% in representative countries and
regions such as the United States, Canada, France, the United Kingdom, Germany,
Saudi Arabia, India and Brazil, and lower in African countries such as Ethiopia,
Kenya and Nigeria.23
In representative countries, the construction of information infrastructure further
improves, yet faces a big challenge in obtaining stable and affordable network-
connection services. On the one hand, the construction of data centers quickens. The
COVID-19 pandemic catalyzes the demand for teleworking, streaming-media videos
and online shopping, and drives the growth of data centers and cloud computing
market. As the statistics of Gartner suggest, in 2020, global expenditure on IT dropped
by 5.4% over 2019. In particular, the expenditure on data center systems reached c.
208.3 billion U.S. dollars. On the other hand, digital divide is not a problem to
be sneezed at. According to the statistics of Digital 2021, the number of global
Internet users maintained a momentum for growth (albeit slower), reaching around
4.66 billion, with a penetration rate of 59.5% and an increase of 120 million users
(over 2020). Regionally, the Internet penetration rate in Europe was higher than that
in other countries in the world. Noticeably, the Internet penetration rate in Northern
Europe was the highest in the world, reaching 96%. The Internet penetration rate
was relatively high in East Asia and West Asia and low in Central Asia and South
Asia. In African continent with weak Internet infrastructure, the Internet penetra-
tion rate needs to be raised. The Internet penetration rate was the lowest in Central
Africa (26%), with fast growth.24 With regard to network affordability, according
to the statistics of Global System for Mobile communications Association, charge
burden of mobile network is relatively light in countries like Japan, Singapore, the
23Data Source: Cisco (the United States), https://6lab.cisco.com/stats/search.php.

24Data Source: DatarePortal: Digital 2021, https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2021-global-
overview-report, 2021.1.27.
United Kingdom, Germany, Norway, Switzerland, Australia, Ireland, New Zealand

and Belgium. Global digital “access divide” remains unsettled, and “digital compe-
tence divide” becomes more prominent. (Digital competence enables various groups
to acquire, process and create digital resources.) For example, marginal groups in
the information era have no access to Internet and remain utterly ignorant of digital
technology. This behooves government and society to provide more education and
training resources and encourage various user groups to leap over “digital compe-
tence divide”. Table 1.3 shows the scores of Information Infrastructure Index in 48
countries.
1.2.3.2 Various Countries Attach Great Importance to Scientific

and Technological Innovation, with an Eastward Shift of Core
Regions in Innovation
The COVID-19 pandemic accelerates the digital transformation of various industries.

Various countries lay emphasis on and make investment in cutting-edge-technology
industries, which maintain rapid development. Organization for Economic Co-
operation and Development (OECD) released Digital Economy Outlook 2020,25
which indicated that by 2020, more than 60 countries had formulated their AI strate-
gies. Specifically, Canada, the United States, the European Union and other countries
and regions focus on the R&D of AI technology. Finland, Germany, South Korea
and other countries center on the application of AI. Australia, Finland, the United
Kingdom, the United States and other countries lay stress on the training of AI skills.
Besides, the policies on blockchain and quantum computing arouse wide attention.
Australia, Germany, India, Switzerland and other countries launch blockchain strate-
gies, and the United States, China, the European Union and other countries and
regions take the lead in the expenditure on the R&D of quantum computing. As
the 57th edition of the TOP500 List evidences, in 2021, the United States, Japan
and China possessed remarkable strength in the development of supercomputers.
Among them, the United States and Japan kept ahead in supercomputing strength
and performance in the world.
According to Global Innovation Index 2020,26 high-income countries like
Switzerland, Sweden, the United States, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands
rank top in the innovation list. Notably, Asian economies, China, India, the Philip-
pines and Vietnam in particular, attain significant progress, which presents a trend
of eastward shift of core regions in global innovation. As the statistics of OECD
disclose, China ranks the 1st in the number of ICT patent applications, much higher
than the United States, Japan and other countries. Table 1.4 shows the scores of
Internet Innovation Capability Index in 48 countries.
25 Data Source: OECD Digital Economy Outlook 2020.

26 Data Source: Global Innovation Index 2020 published by Cornell University, INSEAD, WIPO.
22 1 Overview

information infrastructure
index in 48 countries 1 Singapore 7.00
2 South Korea 6.86
3 Switzerland 6.80
4 The United States 6.77
5 China 6.75
6 Norway 6.42
7 France 6.35
9 Canada 6.30
10 Denmark 6.28
12 Sweden 6.08
13 Japan 6.07
14 New Zealand 6.01
15 Germany 5.80
17 Spain 5.73
18 Finland 5.72
19 Portugal 5.69
20 Belgium 5.63
21 Thailand 5.58
22 Australia 5.51
23 Chile 5.38
25 Israel 5.26
26 Estonia 5.15
27 Poland 5.14
28 Malaysia 5.04
29 Brazil 4.83
30 Italy 4.80
31 Ireland 4.68
32 Vietnam 4.67
33 Russia 4.59
34 Mexico 4.53
35 India 4.47
36 Argentina 4.34
37 Ukraine 4.21
(continued)

38 Kazakhstan 4.13
40 Türkiye 4.08
41 Egypt 3.92
42 Kenya 3.81
43 Indonesia 3.80
44 Iran 3.77
45 Nigeria 3.46
46 Ethiopia 3.22
47 Cuba 3.07
48 Pakistan 2.50
1.2.3.3 In the COVID-19 Pandemic, the Scale of Digital Industry

Expands Quickly and Industrial Digitization Speeds up
In the COVID-19 pandemic, digital economy boasts the rarely-seen field that grows
against headwinds. Particularly, the scale of ICT service export in China, Argentina,
India, Finland, Israel and Ireland accounts for high proportion of the scale of domestic
service export. The scale of ICT product export in Mexico, China, Malaysia, Singa-
pore and Vietnam ditto. The United States, China, India and the United Kingdom
hold a safe lead in the number of unicorns in digital industry.
Hammered by the COVID-19 pandemic, offline businesses typified by tradi-
tional manufacturing and service industries transfer to online businesses in a fast
way, which expedites industrial digitization. Significantly, the digitization of manu-
facturing industry deepens. According to the statistics of World Economic Forum,
the United States, Canada, South Korea, Singapore, the United Kingdom, Finland,
Switzerland and Israel remain on top in corporate digital transformation.
Table 1.5 shows the scores of Internet Industrial Development Index in 48
countries.
1.2.3.4 With a Steady Uptrend in Internet Application, New Online

Service Forms and Models Come to Rise
In the COVID-19 pandemic, online services widely prevail and person-level Internet
application further improves. According to the statistics of Digital 2021, by June
2021, 3.96 billion people in the world used social media, accounting for 51% of
the total population, with a year-on-year increase of 10%.27 The demand for online
27Datareportal: Digital 2021, https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2021-global-overview-

report.
24 1 Overview

internet innovation capability
index in 48 countries 1 The United States 10.20
2 Japan 9.87
3 South Korea 9.79
4 China 9.76
5 Germany 9.49
6 Sweden 9.44
8 Israel 9.19
9 France 9.17
10 Canada 9.14
12 Finland 9.12
13 Switzerland 8.92
14 Australia 8.85
15 Singapore 8.77
16 India 8.71
17 Italy 8.56
18 Denmark 8.55
19 Russia 8.54
20 Ireland 8.51
21 Norway 8.49
22 Spain 8.47
24 Malaysia 8.36
26 Poland 8.11
27 Türkiye 8.08
28 New Zealand 8.02
29 Estonia 7.98
30 Portugal 7.95
32 Mexico 7.80
33 Ukraine 7.78
34 Belgium 7.70
35 Chile 7.36
36 Vietnam 7.34
37 Thailand 7.32
(continued)

38 Egypt 7.29
39 Brazil 7.29
40 Iran 7.16
41 Indonesia 6.98
42 Argentina 6.95
43 Pakistan 6.92
44 Kenya 6.91
45 Nigeria 6.82
46 Kazakhstan 6.57
47 Ethiopia 6.38
48 Cuba 5.50
education surges, and traditional schools try the use of online courses to promote
educational plans. Business-level Internet application develops fast. Particularly, the
technological application of digital payment and e-commerce remarkably increase,
and new retail models like livestream e-commerce and cross-border e-commerce
thrive. According to the Network Readiness Index 2020,28 a report released by Portu-
lans Institute, the United States, China, South Korea, Estonia, Finland, Israel and
Sweden rank top in business-level application of digital technologies. In government-
level Internet application, in October 2020, Organization for Economic Co-operation
and Development (OECD) published Digital Government Index, which measured the
digital level, efficiency and transparency of governmental departments in 33 coun-
tries. As suggested, South Korea, the United Kingdom, Denmark and Japan take the
lead, whilst Argentina, Finland, Germany, Belgium and Chile lag behind.29
In the COVID-19 pandemic, new business forms like telemedicine, teleworking
and online education continue to emerge. Chinese medical teams use remote diag-
nosis and treatment to cure patients with the COVID-19. Many hospitals offer
virtual consultation services. Alihealth, JD.com, Tencent’s WeChat, WeDoctor, DXY,
Sina Weibo and www.haodf.com commonly operate online consultation platforms.
Argentina introduces Entre Todos, a collaboration portal, which provides infor-
mation, suggestions and tools for teleworking and finances small, medium and
micro enterprises that use teleworking. All Finnish schools adopt online teaching,
and students can complete manual courses with 3D modeling. New Internet-based
businesses and models drive economic growth in the COVID-19 pandemic.
Table 1.6 shows the scores of Internet Application Index in 48 countries.
28Data Source: The Network Readiness Index 2020 published by Portulans Institute.
29Data Source: Digital Government Index published by Organization for Economic Co-operation
and Development (OECD).
26 1 Overview

internet industrial
development index in 48 1 The United States 18.80
countries 2 China 15.35
3 Israel 14.27
4 Finland 14.02
5 Singapore 13.56
6 Sweden 13.46
7 Estonia 13.14
9 Ireland 13.01
10 Switzerland 12.78
11 Germany 12.72
13 France 12.65
14 Denmark 12.60
15 South Korea 12.39
16 Canada 12.28
17 Japan 12.22
18 Malaysia 12.16
19 India 12.12
20 Belgium 11.97
21 Vietnam 11.82
22 Spain 11.81
23 Australia 11.73
25 Portugal 11.65
27 Ukraine 11.34
28 Poland 11.31
29 Italy 11.29
30 Mexico 11.20
31 Chile 11.16
32 Indonesia 11.11
33 Thailand 11.09
34 Russia 11.07
35 Brazil 11.04
37 Türkiye 10.89
(continued)

39 Kenya 10.77
40 Argentina 10.76
41 Egypt 10.74
42 Norway 10.73
43 Pakistan 10.62
44 Kazakhstan 10.30
45 Iran 10.20
46 Ethiopia 9.46
47 Cuba 8.23
48 Nigeria 8.20
1.2.3.5 Cybersecurity Faces a Grim Picture and Cybersecurity Level

Varies Greatly in Different Countries
Presently, cybersecurity risks like cyberattack, ransomware and security vulnera-

bilities occur frequently. Canalys, a market research firm, publishes Next for the
Cybersecurity. As the report reveals, the attacks from ransomware soar. In 2020,
the number of ransomware attacks increased by 60% over 2019. As a result, the
scores of Cybersecurity Index in various countries tailed off, with wide disparity
in cybersecurity level. Comparitech, a technological firm, evaluates the status quo
of cybersecurity in 60 countries in terms of mobile devices infected with malware,
malicious attacks in the financial field, computers infected with malware, the condi-
tion of cyber defense, and the latest legislation on cybersecurity. As the results show,
the cybersecurity level is generally higher in Denmark, Sweden, Ireland, Norway,
Finland and the Netherlands yet lower in Vietnam, India, Brazil and Kazakhstan. As
data of CB Insights, an American cybersecurity think tank, indicated, in 2020, the
United States was a front-runner in the global cybersecurity field, ranking the 1st in
investment and transaction volume in this regard. Table 1.7 shows the scores of the
Cybersecurity Index in 48 countries.
In Future Risks Report 2020, Eurasia Group of the United States regards cyber-
security as the third largest risk in next five to ten years. Globally, governments and
enterprises attach more attention to cybersecurity year after year. As IDC predicts,
in 2021, the scale of global investment in hardware, software and services in relation
to cybersecurity achieved 143.5 billion U.S. dollars, with an increase of 8.7% over
2020. Noteworthily, China saw the fastest growth rate in the global cybersecurity
market.30
30Official website of IDC: “IDC Releases the Latest Version of Worldwide Security Spending Guide,
and China Takes the Lead in the World with a High Growth Rate of 16.8%”, March 9, 2021, https://
www.idc.com/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prCHC47519821.
28 1 Overview

internet application index in
48 countries 1 The United States 15.50
2 China 15.11
3 Canada 15.01
6 Germany 14.84
7 France 14.45
8 Sweden 14.41
9 Switzerland 14.36
10 Japan 14.01
11 Denmark 13.98
12 Australia 13.96
13 India 13.90
14 Israel 13.86
15 South Korea 13.84
16 Norway 13.79
17 Finland 13.78
18 Russia 13.75
19 Indonesia 13.63
19 Italy 13.63
21 Spain 13.62
22 Poland 13.47
23 Mexico 13.41
24 Belgium 13.35
26 Vietnam 13.26
27 Türkiye 13.22
28 Singapore 13.21
29 Thailand 13.20
30 Brazil 13.19
31 Malaysia 13.15
32 Estonia 13.10
33 Ireland 13.09
34 Ukraine 13.04
35 Argentina 13.03
36 Portugal 13.01
37 Egypt 12.82
(continued)

38 Chile 12.80
41 Pakistan 12.63
42 Nigeria 12.62
44 Iran 12.40
45 Kazakhstan 12.34
46 Kenya 12.15
47 Ethiopia 11.52
48 Cuba 9.50
1.2.3.6 The Order in Cyberspace Needs to Be Normalized

and International Cooperation in Internet Governance Needs
to Be Strengthened
Currently, international Internet governance comes to a stage that features deep

reform. In 2020, many countries augmented the governance of network content,
technology and platform by promoting legislation and law-enforcement. The United
States, the European Union, the United Kingdom, Germany and other countries and
regions included social media in the scope of regulation. To be specific, the European
Union released Digital Services Act (Draft), which required platforms to perform the
duty of reviewing and restricting the dissemination of illegal content. The European
Union and the United States tightened the grip on the regulation of AI and face recog-
nition and other technologies. The United Kingdom, Australia and Germany enacted
stringent antitrust laws and regulations. In brief, in regard to Internet governance, the
United States, China, the United Kingdom, Germany and other countries constructed
comprehensive policy-regulation systems and established complete organizations.
With the lack of global cyberspace governance and by-common-consent interna-
tional regulatory organizations, the antagonism among major countries in cyberspace
regulation intensifies, which urges them to reach a consensus on the rule and standard
framework in the field of Internet. The United States, China, the United Kingdom and
other countries actively partake in meetings under the theme of international Internet
governance and carry forward the reform of global Internet governance systems.
Table 1.8 shows the scores of Cyberspace Governance Index in 48 countries.
30 1 Overview

cybersecurity index in 48
countries 1 The United States 9.25
2 Israel 5.83
4 Canada 5.66
5 Singapore 5.64
7 Germany 5.59
8 Estonia 5.57
9 Denmark 5.57
10 Australia 5.56
11 Finland 5.53
12 France 5.52
13 Japan 5.51
14 Sweden 5.50
15 Norway 5.49
16 Belgium 5.48
17 Ireland 5.47
17 Spain 5.47
19 Russia 5.42
20 Portugal 5.40
21 Italy 5.38
22 Malaysia 5.37
23 Türkiye 5.36
24 Poland 5.35
24 South Korea 5.35
26 Brazil 5.26
27 Vietnam 5.25
28 New Zealand 5.22
30 China 5.15
31 India 5.11
32 Kazakhstan 5.08
34 Thailand 4.93
35 Indonesia 4.92
36 Egypt 4.84
37 Kenya 4.81
(continued)
1.3 Internet Development in Representative Countries and Regions 31

39 Nigeria 4.59
40 Ukraine 4.50
41 Iran 4.49
41 Chile 4.49
43 Switzerland 4.31
44 Mexico 4.06
45 Pakistan 4.04
46 Cuba 3.51
47 Argentina 3.10
48 Ethiopia 2.35
1.3 Internet Development in Representative Countries

and Regions
By comparison, as the scores of Internet Development Index in 48 countries reveal,

developed countries and regions in North America, Europe and Asia maintain the
high level of Internet development on average. Developing countries and regions in
Latin America and Africa develop quickly in Internet. The Report selects 10 repre-
sentative countries and regions (e.g. the United States, China, the United Kingdom,
Japan, India, Russia, Vietnam, Mexico, Kenya and the European Union) and analyzes
their Internet development. In 2021, the scores of various indicators in Internet
Development Index of representative countries and regions were normalized.
1.3.1 The United States Continues to Take the Lead

in the World in Internet Comprehensive Strength
The United States has been leading the innovation and development of world Internet.
In “The Scores of World Internet Development Index”, the United States still ranks the
1st in the world. Concretely, it ranks the 4th in the score of information infrastructure
index, and the 1st in the scores of innovation capacity index, industrial development
index, Internet application index, cybersecurity index and cyberspace governance
index. Figure 1.1 shows the scores of Internet Development Index of the United
States.
The United States continuously consolidates the construction of Internet infras-
tructure. In 2020, in order to advance the R&D of domestic 5G technology and
promote 5G technology at home and abroad, the United States successively released
National Strategy To Secure 5G, Promoting United States International Leadership in
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
schools. … The only important amendment to this Act was passed
in 1875, and provided that the legislative grant, instead of
being divided between the Protestant and Catholic schools as
heretofore, should in future be distributed in proportion to
the number of children of school age in the Catholic and
Protestant districts. Already immigration had begun to upset
the balance of numbers and power, and as the years went on it
became evident that the Catholics were destined to be in a
permanent minority in Manitoba. This trend of immigration,
which in 1875 made legislation necessary, has continued ever
since; and to-day the Catholics of the province number only
20,000 out of a total population of 204,000. No further change
was made in the educational system of Manitoba until the
memorable year of 1890. In that year the provincial
legislature boldly broke all moorings with the past, and,
abolishing the separate denominational schools, introduced a
system of free compulsory and unsectarian schools, for the
support of which the whole community was to be taxed. … To
test the legality of the change, what is known as Barrett's
case was begun in Winnipeg. It was carried to the Supreme
Court of Canada, and the Canadian judges by a unanimous
decision declared that the Act of 1890 was ultra vires and
void.
{60}
The city of Winnipeg appealed to the Privy Council, and that
tribunal in July 1892 reversed the decision of the Canadian
Court and affirmed that the Act was valid and binding. … The
second subsection of the 22nd section of the Manitoba Act
already quoted says: 'An appeal shall lie to the
Governor-General in Council from any Act or decision of the
legislature of the province, or of any provincial authority,
affecting any right or privilege of the Protestant or Roman
Catholic minority of the Queen's subjects in relation to
education.' But if the legislation of 1890 was intra vires,
and expressly declared to be so on the ground that it had not
prejudicially affected the position which the minority held at
the time of the Union, how could there be an appeal from it? …
The Governor-General, however, consented to refer the question
as to his jurisdiction to the courts of justice. What is known
as Brophy's case was begun, and in due course was carried to
the Supreme Court of Canada. The decision of that tribunal,
though not unanimous, was in accord with public expectation.
The majority of the judges felt that the previous judgment of
the Privy Council had settled the matter beforehand. The Act
of 1890 had been declared intra vires on the ground that it
had not interfered with the rights which the minority
possessed before the Union, and therefore there could be no
appeal from it. …
"Still the undaunted Archbishop of St. Boniface went on, and

for a last time appealed to that Judicial Committee of the
Privy Council which two years and a half before had so spoiled
and disappointed the Catholic hopes. In January 1894 the final
decision in Brophy's case was read by the Lord Chancellor. For
a second time the Lords of the Council upset the ruling of the
Supreme Court of Canada, and treated their reasoning as
irrelevant. It will be remembered that both the appellant
prelates and the Canadian judges had assumed that the clause
in the Manitoba Act, which conferred the right of appeal to
the Governor-General, was limited to one contingency, and
could be invoked only if the minority were robbed at any time
of the poor and elementary rights which they had enjoyed
before the Act of Union. But was the clause necessarily so
limited? Could it not be used to justify an appeal from
legislation which affected rights acquired after the Union? …
In the words of the judgment: 'The question arose: Did the
sub-section extend to the rights and privileges acquired by
legislation subsequent to the Union? It extended in terms to
"any" right or privilege of the minority affected by any Act
passed by the legislature, and would therefore seem to embrace
all the rights and privileges existing at the time when such
Act was passed. Their lordships saw no justification for
putting a limitation on language thus unlimited. There was
nothing in the surrounding circumstances or in the apparent
intention of the legislature to warrant any such limitation.'
… In other words, the dispute was referred to a new tribunal,
and one which was free to consider and give effect to the true
equities of the case. The Governor-General and his responsible
advisers, after considering all the facts, found in favour of
the Catholic minority, and at once issued a remedial Order to
the Government of Manitoba, which went far beyond anything
suggested in the judgment in Brophy's case. The province was
called upon to repeal the legislation of 1890, so far as it
interfered with the right of the Catholic minority to build
and maintain their own schools, to share proportionately in
any public grant for the purposes of education, and with the
right of such Catholics as contributed to Catholic schools to
be held exempt from all payments towards the support of any
other schools. In a word, the Governor-General and Sir
Mackenzie Bowell's Administration, exercising, as it were,
appellate jurisdiction, decided that the minority were
entitled to all they claimed. The Government of Manitoba,
however, had hardened their hearts against the minority in the
province, and refused to obey the remedial Order. …
"The refusal of the provincial Government 'to accept the

responsibility of carrying into effect the terms of the
remedial Order' for the first time brought the Parliament of
Canada into the field, and empowered them to pass coercive
legislation. A remedial Bill was accordingly, after an
inexplicable delay, brought into the Federal Parliament to
enforce the remedial Order. … The Cabinet recognised that the
Federal Parliament had no power to spend the money of the
province, and so all they could do was to exempt the minority
from the obligation to contribute to the support of schools
other than their own. The Bill bristled with legal and
constitutional difficulties; it concerned the coercion of a
province; it contained no less than 116 clauses; it was
introduced on the 2nd of March 1896, when all Canada knew that
the life of the Federal Parliament must necessarily expire on
the 24th of April. Some fifteen clauses had been considered
when the Government admitted, what all men saw, the
impossibility of the task, and abandoned the Bill. … While the
fate of the remedial Bill was still undecided, Sir Donald
Smith and two others were commissioned by the Federal
Government to go to Winnipeg and see if by direct negotiations
some sort of tolerable terms could be arranged. … Sir Donald
Smith proposed that the principle of the separate school
should be admitted wherever there were a reasonable number of
Catholic children—thus, wherever in towns and villages there
are twenty-five Catholic children of school age, and in
cities where there are fifty such children, they should have
'a school-house or school-room for their own use,' with a
Catholic teacher. … In the event the negotiations failed; the
baffled Commissioners returned to Ottawa, and on the 24th of
April 1896 Parliament was dissolved. The Government went to
the country upon the policy of the abandoned Bill. On the
other hand, many of the followers of Mr. Laurier in the
province of Quebec pledged themselves to see justice done to
the Catholics of Manitoba, and let it be understood that they
objected to the remedial Bill only because it was not likely
to prove effective in the face of the combined hostility of
the legislature and the municipalities of the province. …
Catholic Quebec gave Mr. Laurier his majority at Ottawa. …
{61}
"When the Liberal party for the first time for eighteen years
found itself in power at Ottawa, Mr. Laurier at once opened
negotiations with Manitoba. The result was a settlement which,
although it might work well in particular districts, could not be
accepted as satisfactory by the Catholic authorities. It arranged
that where in towns and cities the average attendance of
Catholic children was forty or upwards, and in villages and
rural districts the average attendance of such children was
twenty-five or upwards, one Catholic teacher should be
employed. There were various other provisions, but that was
the central concession. … Leo the Thirteenth, recognising the
difficulties which beset Mr. Laurier's path, mindful, perhaps,
also that it is not always easy immediately to resume friendly
conference with those who have just done their best to defeat
you, has sent to Canada an Apostolic Commissioner."
J. G. Snead Cox,
Mr. Laurier and Manitoba
(Nineteenth Century, April, 1897).
CANADA: A. D. 1895.
Northern territories formed into provisional districts.
"The unorganized and unnamed portion of the Dominion this year

was set apart into provisional districts. The territory east of
Hudson's Bay, having the province of Quebec on the south and
the Atlantic on the east, was to be hereafter known as Ungava.
The territory embraced in the islands of the Arctic Sea was to
be known as Franklin, the Mackenzie River region as Mackenzie,
and the Pacific coast territory lying north of British
Columbia and west of Mackenzie as Yukon. The extent of Ungava
and Franklin was undefined. Mackenzie would cover 538,600
square miles, and Yukon 225,000 square miles, in addition to
143,500 square miles added to Athabasca and 470,000 to
Keewatin. The total area of the Dominion was estimated at
3,456,383 square miles."
The Annual Register, 1895,

page 391.
CANADA: A. D. 1895.
Negotiations with Newfoundland.
Negotiations for the entrance of Newfoundland into the

federation of the Dominion of Canada proved ineffectual and
were abandoned in May. The island province refused the terms
proposed.
CANADA: A. D. 1896 (June-July).
Liberal triumph in Parliamentary elections.
Formation of Ministry by Sir Wilfred Laurier.
General elections held in Canada on the 23d of June, 1896,

gave the Liberal Party 113 seats out of 213 in the Dominion
House of Commons; the Conservatives securing 88, and the
Patrons of Industry and other Independents 12. Much to the
general surprise, the scale was turned in favor of the
Liberals by the vote of the province of Quebec,
notwithstanding the Manitoba school question, on which
clerical influence in the Roman church was ranged against that
party. The effect of the election was to call the Liberal
leader, Sir Wilfred Laurier, of Quebec, to the head of the
government, the Conservative Ministry, under Sir Charles
Tupper, retiring on the 8th of July.
CANADA: A. D. 1896-1897.
Policy of the Liberal Government.
Revision of the tariff, with discriminating duties
in favor of Great Britain, and provisions for reciprocity.
"The position of the Canadian Liberals, when they came into

power after the General Election of 1896, was not unlike that
of the English Liberals after the General Election of 1892.
Both Liberal parties had lists of reforms to which they were
committed. The English measures were in the Newcastle
Programme. Those of the Canadian Liberals were embodied in the
Ottawa Programme, which was formulated at a convention held at
the Dominion Capital in 1893. … A large part of the Ottawa
Programme was set out in the speech which the Governor-General
read in the Senate when the session of 1897 commenced. There was
then promised a measure for the revision of the tariff; a bill
providing for the extension of the Intercolonial railway from
Levis to Montreal; a bill repealing the Dominion Franchise Act
and abolishing the costly system of registration which goes
with it; and a measure providing for the plebiscite on the
Prohibition question. Neither of these last two measures was
carried through Parliament. Both had to be postponed to
another session; and the session of 1897 was devoted, so far
as legislation went, chiefly to the tariff, and to bills, none
of which were promised in the Speech from the Throne, in
retaliation for the United States Contract Labor Laws, and the
new United States tariff. …
"The new tariff was a departure from the tariffs of the

Conservative regime in only one important direction.
Protective duties heretofore had been levied on imports from
England, in the same way as on imports from the United States
or any other country. The 'National Policy' had allowed of no
preferences for England; and during the long period of
Conservative rule, when the Conservatives were supported by
the Canadian manufacturers in much the same way as the
Republican party in the United States is supported by the
manufacturing interests, the Canadian manufacturers had been
as insistent for adequate protection against English-made
goods, as against manufactured articles from the United States
or Germany. The Conservative party had continuously claimed a
monopoly of loyalty to England; but in its tariffs had never
dared to make any concession in favour of English goods. In
the new tariff, preferences for England were established; and
with these openings in favour of imports from Great Britain,
there came a specific warning from the Minister of Finance
that Canadian manufacturers must not regard themselves as
possessing a vested interest in the continuance of the
protective system. …
"When the Minister of Finance laid the tariff before the House
of Commons, he declared that the 'National Policy,' as it had
been tried for eighteen years, was a failure; and … claimed
that lowering the tariff wall against England was a step in
the direction of a tariff 'based not upon the protective
system but upon the requirements of the public service.'
During the first fifteen months of the new tariff, the
concession to England consists of a reduction by one-eighth of
the duties chargeable under the general list. At the end of
that time, that is on the last of July, 1898, the reduction
will be one-fourth. The reductions do not apply to wines, malt
liquors, spirits and tobacco, the taxes on which are
essentially for revenue. While England was admitted at once to
the advantages of the reduced tariff, this tariff is not to be
applicable to England alone. In July, it was extended to the
products of New South Wales, the free-trade colony of the
British Australasian group; and any country can come within
its provisions whose government can satisfy the Comptroller of
Customs at Ottawa, that it is offering favourable treatment to
Canadian exports, and is affording them as easy an entrance
through its customs houses as the Canadians give by means of
the reciprocal tariff. It is also possible, under a later
amendment to the Tariff Act, for the Governor in Council to
extend the benefits of the reciprocal tariff to any country
entitled thereto by virtue of a treaty with Great Britain.
{62}
Numerous alterations were made in the general list of import
duties. Some of these involved higher rates; others lowered
the duties. But if the changes in the fiscal system had been
confined to these variations, the new tariff would not have
been noteworthy, and it would have fulfilled few of the
pledges made by the Liberals when they were in Opposition. It
owes its chief importance to the establishment of an inner
tariff in the interests of countries which deal favourably
with Canada."
E. Porritt,
The New Administration in Canada
(Yale Review, August, 1897).
CANADA: A. D. 1897 (June-July).

Conference of colonial premiers with
the British Colonial Secretary.
See (in this volume)
ENGLAND: A. D. 1897 (JUNE-JULY).
CANADA: A. D. 1897 (October).

Self-government for the Northwestern Territories.
By an Act passed in October, a system of self-government,

going far towards the full powers of a provincial government,
but having some limitations, was provided for the Northwest
Territories.
CANADA: A. D. 1898 (January).

Encyclical Letter of the Pope on the Manitoba School Question.
On the report made by his delegate, Monsignor Merry del Val,

Pope Leo XIII. addressed an encyclical letter to the Roman
Church in Canada, concerning the duty of Catholics in the
matter of the Manitoba schools (see above: A. D. 1890-1896),
which was made public at Quebec on the 9th of January, 1898.
The letter has great general importance, as defining with
precision the attitude of the Church towards all secular
school systems. With a few unessential passages it is given in
what follows:
"It was with extreme solicitude," wrote the Pope, "that we

turned our mind to the unhappy events which in these later
years have marked the history of Catholic education in
Manitoba. … And since many expected that we should make a
pronouncement on the question, and asked that we should trace
a line of conduct and a way to be followed, we did not wish to
decide anything on this subject before our Apostolic delegate
had been on the spot, charged to proceed to a serious
examination of the situation, and to give an account to us of
the state of affairs. He has faithfully and diligently
fulfilled the command which we had given him. The question
agitated is one of great and exceptional importance. We speak
of the decision taken seven years ago by the parliament of
Manitoba on the subject of education. The act of Confederation
had secured to Catholic children the right of education in public
schools in keeping with their conscientious convictions. The
parliament of Manitoba abolished this right by contrary law.
By this latter law a grave injury was inflicted, for it was
not lawful for our children to seek the benefits of education
in schools in which the Catholic religion is ignored or
actively combated, in schools where its doctrine is despised
and its fundamental principles repudiated. If the Church has
anywhere permitted this, it was only with great reluctance and
in self-defense, and after having taken many precautions,
which, however, have too often been found unequal to parrying
the danger. In like manner one must at all cost avoid, as most
pernicious, those schools wherein every form of belief is
indifferently admitted and placed on an equal footing—as if in
what regards God and Divine things, it was of no importance
whether one believed rightly or wrongly, whether one followed
truth or falsehood. You well know, venerable brothers, that
all schools of this kind have been condemned by the Church,
because there can be nothing more pernicious nor more fitted
to injure the integrity of faith and to turn away the tender
minds of youth from the truth. … For the Catholic there is but
one true religion, the Catholic religion; hence in all that
concerns doctrine, or morality, or religion, he cannot accept
or recognize anything which is not drawn from the very sources
of Catholic teaching. Justice and reason demand, then, that
our children have in their schools not only scientific
instruction but also moral teachings in harmony, as we have
already said, with the principles of their religion, teachings
without which all education will be not only fruitless but
absolutely pernicious. Hence the necessity of having Catholic
teachers, reading books, and textbooks approved of by the
bishops, and liberty to organize the schools, that the
teaching therein shall be in full accord with Catholic faith
as well as with all the duties that flow therefrom. For the
rest, to decide in what institutions their children shall be
instructed, who shall be their teachers of morality, is a
right inherent to parental authority. When, then, Catholics
demand, and it is their duty to demand, and to strive to
obtain, that the teaching of the masters shall be in
conformity with the religion of their children, they are only
making use of their right; and there can be nothing more
unjust than to force on them the alternative of allowing their
children to grow up in ignorance, or to expose them to
manifest danger in what concerns the supreme interests of
their souls. It is not right to call in doubt or to abandon in
any way these principles of judging and acting which are
founded on truth and justice, and which are the safe-guards
both of public and private interests. Therefore, when the new
law in Manitoba struck a blow at Catholic education, it was
your duty, venerable brothers, to freely protest against the
injury and disaster inflicted; and the way in which you all
fulfilled that duty is a proof of your common vigilance, and
of a spirit truly worthy of bishops; and, although each one of
you will find on this point a sufficient approbation in the
testimony of his own conscience, learn, nevertheless, that you
have also our conscience and our approbation, for the things
which you sought and still seek to protect and defend are most
sacred. The difficulties created by the law of which we speak by
their very nature showed that an alleviation was to be sought
for in a united effort. For so worthy was the Catholic cause
that all good and upright citizens, without distinction of
party, should have banded themselves together in a close union
to uphold it. Unfortunately for the success of this cause, the
contrary took place. What is more deplorable still, is that
Catholic Canadians themselves failed to unite as they should
in defending those interests which are of such importance to
all—the importance and gravity of which should have stilled
the voice of party politics, which are of much less
importance. We are not unaware that something has been done to
amend that law. The men who are at the head of the federal
government and of the Province of Manitoba have already taken
certain measures with a view to decreasing the difficulties of
which the Catholics of Manitoba complain, and against which
they rightly continue to protest.
{63}
We have no reason to doubt that these measures were taken from
love of justice and from a laudable motive. We cannot, however,
dissimulate the truth; the law which they have passed to
repair the injury is defective, unsuitable, insufficient. The
Catholics ask—and no one can deny that they justly ask—for
much more. Moreover, in the remedial measures that have been
proposed there is this defect, that in changes of local
circumstances they may easily become valueless. In a word, the
rights of Catholics and the education of their children have
not been sufficiently provided for in Manitoba. Everything in
this question demands, and is conformable to justice, that
they should be thoroughly provided for, that is, by placing in
security and surrounding with due safe-guards those
unchangeable and sacred principles of which we have spoken
above. This should be the aim, this the end to be zealously
and prudently sought for. Nothing can be more injurious to the
attainment of this end than discord; unity of spirit and
harmony of action are most necessary. Nevertheless since, as
frequently happens in things of this nature, there is not only
one fixed and determined but various ways of arriving at the
end which is proposed and which should be obtained, it follows
that there may be various opinions equally good and
advantageous. Wherefore let each and all be mindful of the
rules of moderation, and gentleness, and mutual charity; let
no one fail in the respect that is due to another; but let all
resolve in fraternal unanimity, and not without your advice,
to do that which the circumstances require and which appears
best to be done. As regards especially the Catholics of
Manitoba, we have every confidence that with God's help they
will succeed in obtaining full satisfaction. This hope is
founded, in the first place, in the righteousness of the
cause, next in the sense of justice and prudence of the men at
the head of the government, and finally in the good-will of all
upright men in Canada. In the meantime, until they are able to
obtain their full rights, let them not refuse partial
satisfaction. If, therefore, anything is granted by law to
custom, or the good-will of men, which will render the evil
more tolerable and the dangers more remote, it is expedient
and useful to make use of such concessions, and to derive
therefrom as much benefit and advantage as possible. Where,
however, no remedy can be found for the evil, we must exhort
and beseech that it be provided against by the liberality and
munificence of their contributions, for no one can do anything
more salutary for himself or more conducive to the prosperity
of his country, than to contribute, according to his means, to
the maintenance of these schools. There is another point which
appeals to your common solicitude, namely, that by your
authority, and with the assistance of those who direct
educational institutions, an accurate and suitable curriculum
of studies be established, and that it be especially provided
that no one shall be permitted to teach who is not amply
endowed with all the necessary qualities, natural and
acquired, for it is only right that Catholic schools should be
able to compete in bearing, culture, and scholarship with the
best in the country. As concerns intellectual culture and the
progress of civilization, one can only recognize as
praiseworthy and noble the desire of the provinces of Canada
to develop public instruction, and to raise its standard more
and more, in order that it may daily become higher and more
perfect. Now there is no kind of knowledge, no perfection of
learning, which cannot be fully harmonized with Catholic
doctrine."
CANADA: A. D. 1898 (September).

Popular vote on the question of Prohibition.
Pursuant to a law passed by the Dominion Parliament the

previous June, a vote of the people in all the Provinces of
the Dominion was taken, on the 29th of September, 1898, upon
the following question: "Are you in favor of the passing of an
act prohibiting the importation, manufacture or sale of
spirits, wine, ale, beer, cider, and all other alcoholic
liquors for use as beverages?" The submitting of this question
to a direct vote of the people was a proceeding not quite
analogous to the Swiss Referendum, since it decided the fate
of no pending law; nor did it imitate the popular Initiative
of Swiss legislation, since the result carried no mandate to
the government. It was more in the nature of a French
Plébiscite, and many called it by that name; but no Plebiscite
in France ever drew so real an expression of popular opinion
on a question so fully discussed. The result of the voting was
a majority for prohibition in every Province except Quebec,
Ontario pronouncing for it by more than 39,000, Nova Scotia by
more than 29,000, New Brunswick by more than 17,000, Manitoba
by more than 9,000, Prince Edward's Island by more than 8,000,
and the Northwest Territories by more than 3,000, while
British Columbia gave a small majority of less than 600 on the
same side. Quebec, on the other hand, shouted a loud "No" to
the question, by 93,000 majority. The net majority in favor of
Prohibition was 107,000. The total of votes polled on the
question was 540,000. This was less than 44 per cent of the
total registration of voters; hence the vote for Prohibition
represented only about 23 per cent of the electorate, which
the government considered to offer too small a support for the
measure asked for.
CANADA: A. D. 1898-1899.
The Joint High Commission for settlement of all unsettled
questions between Canada and the United States.
As the outcome of negotiations opened at Washington in the

previous autumn by the Canadian Premier, relative to the
seal-killing controversy, an agreement between Great Britain,
Canada and the United States was concluded on the 30th of May,
1898, for the creation of a Joint High Commission to negotiate
a treaty, if possible, by which all existing subjects of
controversy between the United States and Canada should be
settled with finality. Appointments to the Commission by the
three governments were made soon afterwards, Great Britain
being represented by the Lord High Chancellor, Baron
Herschell; Canada by Sir Wilfred Laurier, Premier, Sir Richard
Cartwright, Minister of Trade and Commerce, and Sir Louis
Henry Davies, Minister of Marine and Fisheries; the United
States by Honorable John W. Foster, ex-Secretary of State,
Senator Charles W. Fairbanks, Senator George Gray,
Representative Nelson Dingley, and the Honorable John A.
Kasson, Reciprocity Commissioner. Senator Gray having been
subsequently appointed on the Commission to negotiate peace
with Spain, his place on the Anglo-American Commission was
taken by Senator Faulkner.
{64}
The Joint Commission sat first in Quebec and later in
Washington. Among the questions referred to it were those
relating to the establishment of the boundary between Alaska
and British Columbia; the issues over Bering Sea and the catch
of fur seals; the unmarked boundary between Canada and the
United States near Passamaqnoddy Bay in Maine and at points
between Wisconsin and Minnesota and Canada; the northeast
fisheries question, involving the rights of fishing in the
North Atlantic off Newfoundland and other points; the
regulation of the fishing rights on the Great Lakes;
alien-labor immigration across the Canadian-American border;
commercial reciprocity between the two countries; the
regulation of the bonding system by which goods are carried in
bond across the frontier and also the regulation of traffic by
international railways and canals of the two countries;
reciprocal mining privileges in the Klondyke, British North
America and other points; wrecking and salvage on the ocean
and Great Lakes coasting waters; the modification of the
treaty arrangement under which only one war vessel can be
maintained on the Great Lakes, with a view to allowing
warships to be built on the lakes and then floated out to the
ocean. The sessions of the Joint Commission were continued at
intervals until February, 1899, when it adjourned to meet at
Quebec in the following August, unless further adjournment
should be agreed upon by the several chairmen. Such further
adjournment was made, and the labors of the Joint Commission
were indefinitely suspended, for reasons which the President
of the United States explained in his Message to Congress,
December, 1899, as follows: "Much progress had been made by
the Commission toward the adjustment of many of these
questions, when it became apparent that an irreconcilable
difference of views was entertained respecting the
delimitation of the Alaskan boundary. In the failure of an
agreement as to the meaning of articles 3 and 4 of the treaty
of 1825 between Russia and Great Britain, which defined the
boundary between Alaska and Canada, the American Commissioners
proposed that the subject of the boundary be laid aside and
that the remaining questions of difference be proceeded with,
some of which were so far advanced as to assure the
probability of a settlement. This being declined by the
British Commissioners, an adjournment was taken until the
boundary should be adjusted by the two Governments. The
subject has been receiving the careful attention which its
importance demands, with the result that a modus vivendi for
provisional demarcations in the region about the head of Lynn
Canal has been agreed upon [see (in this volume) ALASKA
BOUNDARY QUESTION] and it is hoped that the negotiations now
in progress between the two Governments will end in an
agreement for the establishment and delimitation of a
permanent boundary."
CANADA: A. D. 1899 (October).

Modus Vivendi, fixing provisional boundary line of Alaska.

ALASKA BOUNDARY QUESTION.
CANADA: A. D. 1899-1900.
Troops to reinforce the British army in South Africa.
A proposal from the Canadian government to assist that of the

Empire in its South African War was gratefully accepted in the
early stages of the war, and a regiment of infantry called the
Royal Canadian, numbering a little more than 1,000 men, sailed
from Quebec, October 30. In the following January a second
contingent of more than 1,000 men was sent to the field. This
latter comprised squadrons of mounted rilles and rough-riders,
and three batteries of field artillery. In the same month the
Canadian government accepted an offer from Lord Strathcona to
raise, equip and transport at his own expense a body of 500
mounted men from the Northwest.
CANADA: A. D. 1900 (November).

General election.
The general election of members of the Dominion House of

Commons was held November 7, resulting as follows:
Provinces. Liberal. Conservative.

Independent. Total.
Nova Scotia. 15 5
0 20
New-Brunswick. 9 5
0 14
Prince Edward Island. 3 2
0 5
Quebec. 57 8
0 65
Ontario. 33 54
5 92
Manitoba. 2 3
2 7
Northwest Territories. 2 0
2 4
British Columbia. 3 2
1 6
Totals. 124 79
10 213
As in the election of 1896, the Liberal Ministry of Sir

Wilfred Laurier found its strong support in the province of
Quebec. Its party suffered unexpected losses in Ontario. The
slight meaning of the election was summed up by Professor
Goldwin Smith as follows: "The net result of the elections
seems to be a Government resting on French Quebec and an
Opposition resting on British Ontario. The minor provinces
have been carried, as usual, by local interests rather than on
general questions. Apart from the distinction of race between
the two great provinces and the antagonism, before dormant but
somewhat awakened by the war, there was no question of importance
at issue between the parties. Both concurred in sending
contingents to South Africa. The Liberals, though they went in
at first on the platform of free trade—at least, of a tariff
for revenue only—have practically embraced protection under
the name of stability of the tariff, and are believed to have
received from the protected manufacturers contributions to
their large election fund. The other special principles, such
as the reduction of expenditure and discontinuance of the
bonus to railways, proclaimed by Liberals before the last
election, have been dropped. So has reform of the Senate. It
is not likely that the Liberal victory will be followed by any
change either in legislation or government, or by any special
reform. Mr. Bourassa and Monet, of the French-Canadian members
who protested against the contingent, have been re-elected.
Great as may be the extent and warmth of British feeling, the
statement that Canadians were unanimously in favour of
participation in the war must not be taken without
qualification. For myself, I felt that so little principle was
at stake that I voted for two Conservatives on their personal
merits."
{65}
CANAL, The new Bruges.

BRUGES: A. D. 1900.
CANAL, The Chicago Drainage.

CHICAGO: A. D. 1900.
CANAL, City of Mexico Drainage.

MEXICO: A. D. 1898.
CANAL, The Elbe and Trave.

GERMANY: A. D. 1900 (JUNE).
CANAL, Interoceanic, The Project of the: A. D. 1581-1892.

The early inception of the project.
Movements towards its realization.
"The thought of uniting the two great oceans by means of a

canal across the American isthmus sprang up, as is known, from
the moment the conviction was reached that the passage which,
from the days of Columbus, was thought to exist towards the
Southern Sea, was not a reality. … Nevertheless the first
survey of the land was not carried out until the year 1581,
when, in obedience to superior instructions, Captain Antonio
Pereira, Governor of Costa Rica, organized an expedition and
explored the route by way of the San Juan river, the lake, and
the rivers emptying into Gulf Nicoya, Costa Rica. Thirty-nine
years later Diego de Mercado submitted to King Philip III his
famous report of January 23, 1620, suggesting the route by the
river and lake, and thence through Costa Rican territory along
the Quebrada or Barranca Honda to Salinas Bay, then called
Puerto del Papagayo. Either because the magnitude of the
undertaking was at that time superior to the necessities of
trade, or, as was said, because Spain considered the canal
antagonistic to her interests, the era of independence arrived
without the execution of the project ever having been entered
upon. After independence the Congress of Central America, in
which Costa Rica and Nicaragua were represented as States of
the Federation which succeeded the Colonial Government,
enacted on June 16, 1825, a decree providing for the
construction of the canal, and in that same year Don Antonio
José Cañas, Diplomatic Representative of Central America in
Washington, addressed the Secretary of State, Mr. Henry Clay,
informing him of this resolution and stating that: 'A company
formed of American citizens of respectability was ready to
undertake the work as soon as a treaty with the United States
insuring the coöperation of the latter was signed; that he was
ready to enter into negotiations for the treaty, and that
nothing would be more pleasant for Central America than to see
the generous people of the United States joining her in the
opening of the canal, sharing the glory of the enterprise, and
enjoying the great advantages to be derived from it.' The
Government of Central America could not carry the undertaking
into effect, notwithstanding that among the means employed to
reach the desired result there figures the arrangement
concluded with the King of Holland in October, 1830. But,
though the hopes centered in the undertaking were frustrated,
to the honor of Central America the declarations of that
Congress, which constitute, like the concession for the canal
itself, one of the loftiest public documents ever issued by
any nation of the earth, have become a matter of record. The
Central American Federation dissolved, this important matter
attached to Nicaragua and Costa Rica directly, and the
boundary line between the two republics having been determined

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World Internet Development Report

2021: Blue Book for World Internet

Blue Book on AI and Rule of Law in the World (2021)

Internet of Things. Systems Design. Lab Book Charith

The Internet of Things John Davies

MicroPython for the Internet of Things (2nd Edition)

Negotiating Internet Governance Roxana Radu

Chemical, Gas, and Biosensors for Internet of Things

Performance and Security for the Internet of Things:

Internet sex work : beyond the gaze Sanders

World Internet Development

Translated by CCTB Translation Service

ISBN 978-981-19-9322-0 ISBN 978-981-19-9323-7 (eBook)

Jointly published with Publishing House of Electronics Industry

© Publishing House of Electronics Industry 2023

Beijing, China Chinese Academy of Cyberspace

1.3.3 The United Kingdom Takes the Lead in Cybersecurity

2.4.2 Blockchain Plays a Decisive Role in the Strategic

4.2.6 Digital Economy Helps to Fight the COVID-19

5.4.2 Local Governments Become E-Government Entities

7.4.1 Cyber Resilience Becomes a Buzz Word in the Field

8.4.1 Cyber Economy Thrives and the Legislation

9.4.5 Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

© Publishing House of Electronics Industry 2023 1

1.1 World Internet Development in 2021

1.1.1 The Construction of Network Infrastructure

1 Data Source: The report of Point Topic, a market research firm.

1.1.2 The Innovation on Digital Technology Continues

Information industry plays a dominant role in global economic development. Digital

3 Cankaoxiaoxi.com: “Russian Experts: Russia Is Investigating China’s Experience in Establishing

Decade”, March 15, 2021, http://digitalpaper.stdaily.com/http://www.kjrb.com/kjrb/html/2021-03/

on Breakthrough Technologies”, March 22, 2021, http://digitalpaper.stdaily.com/http://www.kjrb.

21, 2021, http://www.xinhuanet.com/tech/2021-04/22/c_1127360875.htm.

1.1.3 Global Digital Economy Grows Against Headwinds

8 Data Source: IDC: Worldwide Semiannual Telecom Services Tracker.

published by the People’s Bank of China on July 16, 2021.

January 25, 2021.

1.1.4 The Construction of Digital Government Steadily

1.1.5 Internet Media Convergence Forms a Trend

1.1.6 Cybersecurity Risks Keep Rising, and Supply-Chain

19 Data Source: Crunchbase, Cybersecurity Research Report 2021.

Data-security protection signifies a hot topic in annual global cyberspace security, on

1.1.7 The Rule-of-Law Construction in Cyberspace

In recent years, the rule-of-law construction in cyberspace developed steadily, the

1.1.8 International Competition on Digital Rule-Making Is

1.2 Internet Development in Representative Countries

1.2.1 Index Construction

Global Internet Development Index (GIDI) System comprehensively measures a

1.2.2 GIDI System

Table 1.1 shows GIDI System in 2021.

1.2.3 Analysis of Results

Through the calculation of indicators, the scores of Internet Development Index in

Table 1.1 GIDI System in 2021

Table 1.1 (continued)

Table 1.1 (continued)

Table 1.1 (continued)

Table 1.1 (continued)

remain relatively balanced in Internet development, ranking top in the scores of