Chapter 1 – Introduction to Personality Theory

Sigmund Freud:
- Combined philosophical speculation with a Primitive scientific method
- a neurologist trained in science
- began to listen to his patience to find out what hidden conflicts lay behind their
assortment of symptoms
- was the first to develop a truly modern theory of personality mostly based on his
clinical observation
- developed a “grand theory” that is one that attempted to explain all personality for
all people
- The general trend over the course of the 20th century was to base theories more
and more unscientific observations rather than on clinical ones
• both sources are valid foundations for theories of personality

What is Personality?
- Individuals within every living species exhibit differences or variablity
- most agree the word personality originated from the Latin word persona which
referred to a theatrical mask worn by Roman actors in Greek dramas.
o Roman actors wore a mask persona to project A roll or false appearance.
- when psychologist use the term personality, they are referring to something more
than role people play.
- Personality: A pattern of relatively permanent traits and unique characteristics that
give both consistency and individuality to a person's behavior
- Traits: Contribute to individual differences in behavior, consistency of behavior
overtime, and stability of behavior across situations.
o Traits may be unique, common to some group, or shared by the entire species,
that their pattern is different for each individual. Each person has a unique
personality.
- Characteristics: Unique qualities of an individual that includes attributes as
temperament, physique, and intelligence.
What is a Theory:
- Theory Defined:
o A scientific theory Is a set of related assumptions that allows scientists to use
logical deductive reasoning to formulate testable hypothesis.
▪ First, A theory is a set of assumptions. A single assumption can never fill
all the requirements of an adequate theory.
▪ Second, a theory is a set of related assumptions.
 ▪ Isolated assumptions can neither generate meaningful hypothesis nor
possess internal consistency- 2 criteria of a useful theory.
▪ Third, Key word in the definition is assumptions. The components of a
theory are not proven facts in the sense that their validity has been
absolutely established.
▪ Fourth, logical deductive reasoning is used by the researcher to
formulate hypotheses.
• Begin at a general theory and through deductive reasoning, arrive
at a hypothesis that can be tested
• The hypotheses are not components of a theory but flow from it
▪ Fifth, it has to be testable. Doesn’t have to be tested immediately but
needs to be able to AT LEAST BE TESTED IN THE FUTURE
- Theory and it’s Relatives
o Theory is related to philosophy
▪ Epistemology – the nature of knowledge
o Theories are built on scientific evidence that has been obtained in an unbiased
fashion
▪ Theories deal with “if then” statements
o Philosophy deals with “oughts” and “shoulds”
- Speculation
o Theories rely on speculation. Tied to gathered data and to science
▪ Science is the branch of study concerned with observation and
classification of data and with the verification of general laws through the
testing of hypothesis.
▪ Theories provide ground for producing testable hypothesis
- Hypothesis
o Hypothesis Is an educated guess or prediction specific enough for its validity to
be tested through the use of the scientific method.
o Hypothesis are more specific than theories
o using deductive reasoning (going from the general to the specific) a scientific
investigator can derive testable hypothesis from a useful theory and then test
these hypothesis
▪ the result of these tests whether they support or contradict the
hypothesis feedback into the theory
o using inductive reasoning (going from the specific to the general) the investigator
then alters the theory to reflect the results. As the theory grows and changes
other hypothesis can be drawn from it and when tested they in turn reshape the
theory.
- Taxonomy:
o Taxonomy – is the classification of things according to their natural relationships.
 ▪ Taxonomy is essential to the development of science because without
classification of data, science could not grow
▪ Classification does not constitute a theory
▪ Taxonomies can evolve into theories when they begin to generate
testable hypothesis
▪ Robert McCrae and Paul Costa began classifying People into 5 staple
personality traits
• eventually this became known as the big 5 taxonomy
- Why Different Theories:
o Theories are not immutable laws they're built not on proven facts but on
assumptions that are subject to individual interpretation.
o All theories are a reflection of their authors’ personal backgrounds, childhood
experiences, philosophy of life, interpersonal relationships, and unique manner
of looking at the world.
o The usefulness of a theory does not depend on its common-sense value or on its
agreement with other theories; rather, it depends on its ability to generate
research and to explain research data and other observations.
- Perspectives in Theories of Personality
o One of the primary functions of scientific theory is to describe and explain
o Psychodynamic:
▪ Began with Freud, focuses on the importance of early childhood
experience and on relationships with parents is guiding forces that shape
personality development.
▪ Seize the unconscious mind a motives as more powerful than the
conscious awareness.
▪ Psychoanalysis traditionally uses dream interpretation to uncover the
unconscious thoughts, feelings, and impulses as a main form of
treatments of neurosis and mental illness.
o Humanistic-Existential Theories:
▪ The primary assumption of the humanistic (positive psychology) approach
is that people strive toward meaning, growth, well-being, happiness, and
psychological health.
▪ States of positive emotion and happiness foster psychological health and
pro-social behavior.
▪ Existential theorists assume that not only are we driven by a search for
meaning, but also that negative experiences such as failure, awareness of
death, death of a loved one, and anxiety, are part of the human condition
and can foster psychological growth.
 o Dispositional Theories:
▪ Dispositional theorists argue that the unique and long-term tendencies in
particular ways are the essence of our personality.
▪ These unique dispositions, such as extroversion or anxiety are called
traits.
▪ Traits serve the function of making certain behaviors more likely in some
people.
o Biological-Evolutionary Theories:
▪ Behavior, thought, feelings, in personality are influenced by differences in
basic genetic, epigenetic, and neurological systems between individuals.
▪ the reason some People have different traits, dispositions, and ways of
thinking stems from differences and their Geno type and central nervous
system parentheses brain structures an neurochemistry
▪ Human thought behavior and personalities have been shaped by forces of
evolution natural and sexual selection
▪ the body, brain, and environment coexist in Co evolve more than any
other psychological perspective this one emphasizes what we think feel
and do is always an interaction between nature (biological) and nurture
(environment)
o Learning-(Social) Cognitive Theories:
▪ All behaviors are learned through Association and or its consequences
whether it is reinforced or punished
▪ To shape desired behavior, we have to understand and then established
the conditions that bring about those particular behaviors
▪ The cognitive perspective argues then how we think about ourselves
and other People, as well as the assumptions we make and the
strategies we use for solving problems, are the keys to understanding
differences between People.
▪ Whether we believe we can do something successfully or not influences
our behavior as well as our personality.
▪ What personality we have is shaped by how we think and perceive the
world.
Theorists’ Personalities and Their Theories of Personality:
- Psychology of Science: Studies both science in the behavior of scientists; that is, it
investigates the impact of an individual scientist’s psychological process and personal
characteristics on the development of their scientific theories and research.
o The psychology of science examines how scientists’ personalities cognitive
processes developmental histories and social experience affect the kind of
science they conduct and the theories they create.
 o Personality differences influence one’s theoretical orientation as well as one’s
inclination to lean toward the “hard” or “soft” side of discipline
o We believe that personality theories reflect the theorist’s personality
o personality differences among theorists account for fundamental disagreements
between those who leaned towards the quantitative side of psychology
(behaviorist, social learning theorists, and trait theorist) and those inclined
towards the clinical and qualitative side of psychology (psycho analysis,
humanist, an existentialist).
o a theorist personality partially shapes his or her theory, but it should not be the
sole determinant of that theory.
▪ The acceptance of one or another theory should not rest only on your
personal values and predilections.
▪ when evaluating A and choosing a theory you should acknowledge the
impact of the theorist’s personal history on the theory, but you should
ultimately evaluate it on the basis of scientific criteria that are
independent of that personal history.
▪ The scientific process may be influenced by the personal characteristics of
the scientist, but the ultimate usefulness of the scientific product is an
must be evaluated independently of the process
What Makes a Theory Useful?
- A useful theory has a mutual and dynamic interaction with research data.
- First, a theory generates a number of hypothesis that can be investigated through
research, thus yielding research data.
o This data flows back into the theory and restructures it.
o From this newly contoured theory, scientists can extract other hypothesis,
leading to Morris research and additional data
- 2nd a useful theory organizes research data into a meaningful structure and provides
an explanation for the results of the scientific research
- A useful theory:
o 1 – Generates research
o 2- is falsifiable
o - organizes data
o 4- guides action
o 5- is internally consistent
o 6- parsimonious
- Generates Research:
o The most important criteria of a useful theory is its ability to simulate in
guide further research
o a useful theory will generate 2 different kinds of research descriptive research
and hypothesis testing
 ▪ Descriptive research, which can expand an existing theory, is
concerned with the measurement, labeling, and categorization of the
units employed in theory building.
• The more useful the theory, the more research generated
by it; the greater the amount of descriptive research the
more complete the theory
▪ Hypothesis testing leads to an indirect verification of the usefulness
of the theory
• a useful theory will generate many hypotheses that, when
tested, add to a database that may reshape an enlarge the
theory
- Is Falsifiable
o Falsifiable - A theory must be precise enough to suggest research that may
either support or fail to support its major points
▪ If a theory is so vague that both positive and negative research results
can be interpreted as support, then that fit theory is not falsifiable
and ceases to be useful
▪ Falsifiable is not the same as false; it means that negative research
results will refute the theory an forced the theorists to either discard
it or modify it
- Theories that rely heavily on unobservable transformations in the unconscious are
exceedingly difficult to either verify or falsify
- Example: Freud's theory suggests that many of our emotions and behavior are
motivated by unconscious tendencies that are directly opposite to the ones we
express
o Ex: unconscious hate might be expressed as conscious love
o Because Freud's theory allows for such transformations within the
unconscious, it is nearly impossible to either verify or falsify
o a theory that can explain everything explains nothing
- Organizes Data
o A useful theory should also be able to organize those research data that are
not English compatible with each other
o without some organization or classification, research findings would remain
isolated in meaningless
o a useful theory of personality must be capable of integrating what is currently
known about human behavior and personality development it must be able
to shape as many bits of information as possible into a meaningful
arrangement
- Guides Action
o The ability to guide the practitioner over the rough course of day-to-day
problems
o Good theory provides a structure for finding many answers of those
▪ Without a useful theory, practitioners would stumble in the darkness
of trial and error techniques
▪ with a sound theoretical orientation, they can discern a suitable
course of action.
- Is Internally Consistent
o A useful theory need not be consistent with other theories, but it must be
consistent with itself
o An internal consistent theory is one whose components are logically
compatible
o A good theory will use concepts in terms that have been clearly an
operationally defined
▪ Operational definition is one that defines the units in terms of
observational events or behaviors that can be measured
- Is Parsimonious
o Parsimony - When two theories are equal in their ability to generate
research, be falsified, give meaning to data, guide the practitioner, and be
self-consistent
Dimensions for a Concept of Humanity
(1) First dimension is determinism versus free choice
(2) A second issue is one of pessimism versus optimism
(3) A third dimension for viewing a theorist's concept of humanity is causality versus
teleology
- Causality: behavior is a function of past experiences
- Teleology: An explanation of behavior in terms of future goals or purpose
(4) A fourth consideration; conscious versus unconscious determinants of behavior.
(5) the fifth question is one of biological versus social influences on personality.
(6) A sixth issue is uniqueness versus similarities
Research in Personality Theory
- Reliability: a measuring instrument which yields consistent results
- Validity: Is the degree to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to
measure
o Personality Psychologists are primarily concerned with two types of
validity:
• Construct Validity – the extent to which an instrument
measures some hypothetical construct
• Ex: Construct such as extroversion,
aggressiveness, intelligence, and emotional
stability have no physical existence; they are
hypothetical constructs that should relate to
observational behavior
o Three important type of construct
validity:
▪ (1) Convergent Validity
▪ (2) Divergent Validity
▪ (3) Discriminant Validity
• Predictive Validity - the extent that a test predicts future
behavior
Key Terms and Concepts:
- The term “personality” comes from the Latin persona, or the mask that People
present to the outside world, but psychologists he personality as much more than
outward appearances
- personality includes all those relatively permanent traits or characteristics that
renders some consistency to a person's behavior
- a theory is a set of related assumptions that allows scientists to formulate testable
hypothesis
- personality theories cover at least 5 distinct perspectives psychodynamic humanistic
positive dispositional biological evolutionary a learning /social cognitive
- 6 criteria determine the usefulness of a scientific theory
o does the theory generate research?
o is it falsifiable?
o does it organize and explain knowledge?
o does it suggest practical solutions to everyday problems?
o is it internally consistent?
o Is it parsimonious?
- each personality theorist has either an implicit or explicit concept of humanity
- concepts of human nature can be discussed from 6 perspectives
o determination versus free choice
o pessimism versus optimism
o causality versus technology
o conscious versus unconscious determinants
o biological versus social factors
o uniqueness versus similarities in people