Unit 12.

1 Fluids
Topic 1: Fluid statics
In this Topic we look at fluid statics (Syllabus p. 24), in particular:
• Density in solids and liquids and specific gravity.
• Pressure in solids and liquids.
• Pascal'sLaw.
• Buoyancy and Archimedes' Principle.
• Surface tension and capillarity.

Introduction
Matter comes in three states that are distinguished by the strength of the bonds holding the
molecules of the matter together. The three states of matter are:
Solids: these have strong bonds between their molecules making them very difficult to
deform.
Liquids: these have relatively weak bonds between molecules which allow them to be
deformed without effort. Liquids have a fixed volume, but their shape is determined by
the shape of the container holding them.
Gases: these have virtually no bonds existing between their molecules, so can spread
into any available space. The volume of a gas is determined by the size of the container
holding it.
This Unit on fluids covers Topic 1, fluids at rest or fluid statics, and Topic 2, fluid in
motion or fluid dynamics.

Density in solids and liquids and specific gravity

The deusity (p) of an object of total mass M and volume V is given by p = M.
V
The units are always in kg/m". The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of the
density of the substance to the density of pure fresh water (pwater = 1 X 103 kg/rn') at 4 "C.
It is only a ratio and has no units. An object with specific gravity less than 1 will float and
an object with a specific gravity greater than 1 will sink. Similarly, an object will float in
water if its density is less than the density of water and sink if its density is greater than that
of water. The table below gives specific gravity values of some few common substances.

Gold 19.3

Mercury 13.6

Alcohol 0.7893

Benzene 0.8786

Pressure in solids and liquids

When an object is immersed in a fluid or gas it experiences a uniform inward force over its
entire surface, mainly due to the weight of the fluid sitting on top of it or surrounding it. This
applies to solids as well. The pressure on the object is defined to be the force per unit area.
14 Unit 12.1 Fluids

P= !_
A
The unit of pressure is Pascals (Pa) and 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 Example: At the earth's surface, the
pressure felt by an object due to the weight of the atmosphere above it is one atmosphere
which is equivalent to 1.01 x 105 Pa. This is also equivalent to 760 mm of mercury
Atmospheric pressure can also be measured in millibars using a barometer.
Pressure is force perpendicular to a surface/area of the surface. In a static fluid (liquid or
gas), the pressure increases with depth due to the weight of the fluid. It is easy to show that
the pressure at depth h is given by
P = Po + pgh,
where p = density (mass/volume), g = acceleration due to gravity and Po = pressure at the
surface. The same equation would work for pressure in a stack of rectangular plywood
of the same width and length. The difference is that the pieces of plywood do not push
sideways but straight down vertically on top of one another.
If a tank of liquid is open to the atmosphere, Po is atmospheric pressure. You should also be
aware that if you travel downward a distance l1h, the pressure increase is l1P = pgl1h. This is
also true for gases.

Principles of hydraulic lift using Pascal's Law

Pascal's Law states that any pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted
undiminished to every point of the fluid. Thus, in the figure below:

F,

f---- Liquid

© Oxford University Press www.oup.com.au

 Topic 1: Fluid statics 15

A pressure of PI = fL applied downward to the surface on the left of the container gets
A
transmitted as an equal pressure upward of P2 = Pion the surface on the other side of the
container. The force on the other side is given as:

F2= P2A2 = F{ ~: )

If Al is less than A2' the transmitted force, F2, is greater than the applied force, Fl' This is
the principle behind the hydraulic press. For example, the transmitted force F2 is used to
balance the weight of a car in the hydraulic lift.
The figure below shows an example of Pascal's Law in application. A car mechanic is
jerking a car using a hydraulic lift by stepping on the smaller surface with his foot.

Buoyancy and Archimedes' Principle

The behaviour of an object submerged in a fluid is governed by Archimedes' Principle.
Archimedes (a Greek mathematician who lived during the period of 212 BC-287 BC)
determined that a body that is completely or partially submerged in a fluid experiences an
upward force called the Buoyant Force, B, which is equal in magnitude to the weight of
the fluid displaced by the object. This principle can be used to explain why ships loaded
with millions of kilograms of cargo are able to float in the ocean and large rivers.

Surface tension and capillarity

Have you been to a fish pond? You would observe that an insect called a dragonfly is able
to sit on top of the water. How is it possible? Similarly, a razor blade made of aluminium
metal can float on the surface of water. This seems to violate Archimedes' principle because

© Oxford University Press www.oup.com.au

16 Unit 12.1 Fluids

the density of aluminium is twenty-seven times greater than the density of water. In fact,
the reason why the razor blade does not sink is not the buoyant force, but the water's
surface teusion. If the razor blade penetrates that surface, it will sink.
The molecules in a liquid are attracted to one another due to an elastic force which exists
between the molecules. This attraction is not as strong as in a solid, and decreases as the
temperature increases. This attraction plays itself as a tension on the surface of a fluid,
similar to the tension in a pulled rope or on the membrane of a drum. The surface tension,
y, is defined as a tension force divided by the length, L, where the force acts:

F
y=-
L

The unit of surface tension is in N/m. Since a force times a length is a given energy, the
surface tension can also be defined as an energy per unit area, j/rrr'. For a cylindrical tube
with radius r we get L = (21tr).

The capillary action

If an object on the liquid made contact with liquid surface at an angle (8) less than
90 degrees, the surface tension force has a vertical resultant component pulling the surface
upwards. In a very thin tube, the weight of the column of liquid is so small that the surface
tension pushes the column of liquid upwards. This rising is called capillary action. The
capillary action is responsible for transporting nutrients and water from the soil through
the roots up to the trunk and eventually to branches and leaves of plants and trees.
The word capillary means air in Latin. The rise would be very large if the tube were air
thin. The figure below shows an illustration of capillary action. The diagram is enlarged for
illustration of capillary rise.

angle of contact with the

side of the tube and liquid.

Consider a vertical capillary tube of a circular cross-section of radius r inserted into an

open vessel of water as shown in the figure above. The contact angle between the tube and
water is less than 90°. The surface of the water in the capillary is concave, thus creating
a pressure difference between the two sides of the top surface. This pressure difference is
given by:
25 25
PINSIDE - P OUTSIDE= (Pa + P) - Pa = r sec = --;:-= cos 8 = pgh

© Oxford University Press wwwoup.com.au

 Topic 7: Fluid statics 17

where p = density, h = capillary rise,S = surface area and g = gravitational pull, taking into
account the fact that A and B must be at the same pressure.
Consider a vertical capillary tube of a circular cross-section of radius r inserted into an
open vessel of water as shown in the figure above. The contact angle between the tube
and water is less than 900. The surface of water in the capillary is concave, thus creating
a pressure difference between the two sides of the top surface. This pressure difference is
given by:
2y 2y
PINSlDE- P OUTSIDE = (Pa + P) - Pa = r sec = -;:- cos 8 = pgh

where p = density; h = capillary rise, y = force per unit length of the tube and g = gravitational
pull, taking into account the fact that A and B must be at the same pressure.

© Oxford University Press www.oup.com.au