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Understanding Problems of Illness and Test Yourself 61
Health Care 58 Key Terms 61
Chapter Review 59
3 Alcohol and Other Drugs 63 Societal Consequences of Drug Use and

Abuse 79
The Global Context: Drug Use and The Cost to Children and Family 79
Abuse 64 Crime and Drugs 80
Drug Use and Abuse around the World 65 The High Price of Alcohol and Other Drug Use 81
Drug Use and Abuse in the United States 67 Physical and Mental Health Costs 81
Sociological Theories of Drug Use and The Cost of Drug Use on the Environment 83
Abuse 67 Treatment Alternatives 83
Structural-Functionalist Perspective 68
Conflict Perspective 68
Symbolic Interactionist Perspective 69
• The Human Side: Real Stories, Real
People 84
Inpatient and Outpatient Treatment 85
Biological and Psychological Theories 70
Twelve-Step Programs 85
Frequently Used Legal Drugs 71 Drug Courts 86
Alcohol: The Drug of Choice 71
• Self and Society: The Consequences of

Alcohol Consumption 72
The Tobacco Crisis 73 •
Strategies for Action: America Responds 86
Alcohol, Tobacco, and Prescription Drugs 86
Social Problems Research Up Close:
Smoking in the Movies 90
Prescription Drugs 75
Illegal Drugs 91
Frequently Used Illegal Drugs 75 Understanding Alcohol and Other
Marijuana Madness 76
Drug Use 95
Cocaine: From Coca-Cola to Crack 76
Chapter Review 95
Methamphetamine: The Meth Epidemic 77
Test Yourself 96
Heroin: The White Horse 78
Key Terms 97
Synthetic Drugs 78
4 Crime and Social Control 99 Demographic Patterns of Crime 116

Gender and Crime 116
The Global Context: International Crime Age and Crime 117
and Social Control 100 Race, Social Class, and Crime 118
Sources of Crime Statistics 102 Region and Crime 119
Official Statistics 102
Victimization Surveys 103
Self-Report Offender Surveys 103
• Social Problems Research Up Close: A
Question of Race 120
Crime and Victimization 120
Sociological Theories of Crime 104 The Societal Costs of Crime
Structural-Functionalist Perspective 104 and Social Control 122
Conflict Perspective 106 Physical Injury and the Loss of Life 122
Symbolic Interactionist Perspective 106 The High Price of Crime 123
Types of Crime 107 Social and Psychological Costs 123
Street Crime: Violent Offenses 108
Street Crime: Property Offenses 109 • Self and Society: Fear of Criminal
•
Victimization 125
The Human Side: The Hidden The Cost to Children and Families 126
Consequences of Rape 110 Strategies for Action: Crime
Vice Crime 111 and Social Control 126
Organized Crime 112 Local Initiatives 127
White-Collar Crime 113 Criminal Justice Policy 128
Computer Crime 114 Legislative Action 134
Juvenile Delinquency and Gangs 115
vi Contents
Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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International Efforts in the Fight against Chapter Review 138
Crime 136 Test Yourself 138
Understanding Crime and Social Control 137 Key Terms 139
5 Family Problems 141 Factors Contributing to Domestic Violence and

Abuse 164
The Global Context: Family Forms
and Norms Around the World 142
Contemporary U.S. Families:
• Animals and Society: Pets and Domestic
Violence 165
Strategies for Action: Strengthening
Patterns, Trends, and Variations 144
•
Families 167
Social Problems Research Up Close: The Expanding the Definition of Family 167
Polyamorists Next Door 148 Relationship Literacy Education
Marital Decline? Or Marital Resiliency? 150 and the Healthy Marriage Initiative 167
Sociological Theories of Family Problems 151 Workplace and Economic Supports 168
Structural-Functionalist Perspective 151 Reduce Unplanned Nonmarital
Conflict and Feminist Perspectives 151 Childbearing 168
Symbolic Interactionist Perspective 153 Covenant Marriage 168
Problems Associated with Divorce 153 Strategies to Strengthen Families during and after
Social Causes of Divorce 153 Divorce 169
Consequences of Divorce 155 Domestic Violence and Abuse Prevention
• The Human Side: Recollections from Adult

Children of Parental Alienation 159
Strategies 169
Help for Adult Abuse Victims 170
Help for Child Abuse/Neglect Victims 171
Domestic Violence and Abuse 159 Legal Action against Abusers 171
Intimate Partner Violence and Abuse 159
•
Understanding Family Problems 172
Self and Society: Abusive Behavior Chapter Review 173
Inventory 160 Test Yourself 174
Child Abuse 162 Key Terms 174
Elder, Parent, Sibling, and Pet Abuse 163
Part 3 Problems of Inequality
6 Economic Inequality, Wealth, Health Problems, Hunger, and Poverty 188

Substandard Housing and Homelessness 189
and Poverty 177
The Global Context: Economic Inequality,
Wealth, and Poverty Around the World 178
• Self and Society: Food Security Scale 190
Legal Inequality 192
Political Inequality and Alienation 192
Defining and Measuring Poverty 179 Crime, Social Conflict, and War 192
Global Measures of Poverty 179 Natural Disasters, Economic Inequality, and
U.S. Measures of Poverty 180 Poverty 193
Sociological Theories of Economic Inequality, Educational Problems and Poverty 193
Wealth, and Poverty 181 Marriage Opportunity Gap and Family Problems
Structural-Functionalist Perspective 181 Associated with Poverty and Economic
Conflict Perspective 181 Inequality 194
Symbolic Interactionist Perspective 183 Intergenerational Poverty 194
Economic Inequality, Wealth, Strategies for Action: Reducing Poverty and
and Poverty in the United States 184 Economic Inequality 195
U.S. Income Inequality 184 International Responses to Poverty and Economic
U.S. Wealth Inequality 184 Inequality 195
The Wealthiest Americans 185 Reducing U.S. Poverty and Economic
Patterns of Poverty Inequality 197
in the United States 186 The Safety Net: Public Assistance and Welfare
Consequences of Economic Inequality Programs in the United States 198
and Poverty 188
Contents vii
• Animals and Society: Companion Animals
as “Lifechangers” and “Lifesavers”
for Homeless Individuals 202
• Social Problems Research Up Close:
Patchwork: Poor Women’s Stories of
Resewing the Shredded Safety Net 206
Welfare in the United States: Myths and Understanding Economic Inequality, Wealth,
Realities 203 and Poverty 208
• The Human Side: A Student Activist

Speaks Up against Criminalizing the
Homeless 204
Chapter Review 209
Test Yourself 210
Key Terms 211
7 Work and Unemployment 213 Child Labor 225

Health and Safety in the U.S. Workplace 226
The Global Context: The New
Global Economy 214
Capitalism and Socialism 215
• The Human Side: Working Conditions in
the Poultry Processing Industry 228
Job Stress 228
The Globalization of Trade and Free Trade Work/Life Conflict 230
Agreements 216 Alienation 230
Transnational Corporations 217 Labor Unions and the Struggle for Workers’
Sociological Theories of Work Rights 231
and the Economy 218 Strategies for Action: Responses to Problems
Structural-Functionalist Perspective 218 of Work and Unemployment 233
Conflict Perspective 218 Strategies for Reducing Unemployment 233
Symbolic Interactionist Perspective 219 Worker Cooperatives: An Alternative to
Problems of Work and Unemployment 219 Capitalism 234
Unemployment 219
•
Efforts to End Slavery, Child Labor, and
Social Problems Research Up Close: Job Sweatshop Labor 235
Loss at Midlife 220 Responses to Workplace Health and Safety
Employment Concerns of Recent College Concerns 237
Grads 222 Work-Life Policies and Programs 238
• Self and Society: How Do Your Spending

Habits Change in Hard Economic
Times? 223
Efforts to Strengthen Labor 239
Understanding Work and
Unemployment 240
Slavery 224 Chapter Review 241
Sweatshop Labor 225 Test Yourself 242
Key Terms 242
8 Problems in Education 245 School Dropouts 261

Crime, Violence, and School Discipline 262
The Global Context: Cross-Cultural Variations Inadequate School Facilities 264
in Education 246
Sociological Theories of Education 248
• The Human Side: I Used to Be a Teacher
Recruitment and Retention of Quality
Teachers 265
265
Conflict Perspective 250 The Challenges of Higher Education 268

Who Succeeds? The Inequality of Educational
Attainment 252
• Self and Society: Transitions 269
Strategies for Action: Trends and Innovations
in American Education 270
Social Class and Family Background 252
Educational Policy across the States 270
Race and Ethnicity 255
Advocacy and Grassroots Movements 272
Gender 257
Character Education 273
Problems in the American Educational Distance Education 274
System 259 The Debate over School Choice 274
Lack of Financial Support 259
Understanding Problems in Education 276
Low Levels of Academic Achievement 259
• Social Problems Research Up Close: Don’t

Call Them Dropouts 260
Chapter Review 278
Test Yourself 278
Key Terms 279
viii Contents
9 Race, Ethnicity, and Forms of Racism and Prejudice 299
Immigration 281
The Global Context: Diversity
Two-Faced Racism 300
Learning to Be Prejudiced: The Role of
Worldwide 283 Socialization and the Media 301
The Social Construction of Race and Discrimination against Racial and Ethnic
Ethnicity 283 Minorities 302
Patterns of Racial and Ethnic Group Individual versus Institutional Discrimination 302
Interaction 285 Colorism 303
Racial and Ethnic Group Diversity in the Employment Discrimination 304
United States 286 Housing Discrimination and Segregation 306
U.S. Census Data on Race Educational Discrimination and Segregation 306
and Hispanic Origin 287 Racial Microaggressions 307
Mixed-Race Identity 288 Hate Crimes 307
Race and Ethnic Group Relations in the Strategies for Action: Responding to
United States 288 Prejudice, Racism, and Discrimination 309
Immigrants in the United States 289 The Equal Employment Opportunity
U.S. Immigration: A Historical Perspective 289 Commission 310
Guest Worker Program 290 Affirmative Action 310
Illegal Immigration 290 Educational Strategies 311
Becoming a U.S. Citizen 292 Retrospective Justice Initiatives: Apologies and
Myths about Immigration and Immigrants 293 Reparations 312
Sociological Theories of Race and Ethnic
Relations 294
• Self and Society: How Do You Explain
White Racial Advantage? 313
Understanding Race, Ethnicity, and
Conflict Perspective 295 Immigration 314
•
Chapter Review 315
The Human Side: A Cherokee Citizen’s Test Yourself 316
View of Andrew Jackson 298 Key Terms 317
Prejudice and Racism 299
10 Gender Inequality 319 Family Relations and Cultural Sexism 337
The School Experience and Cultural Sexism 339
The Global Context: The Status of Women Media, Language, and Cultural Sexism 341
and Men 321 Religion and Cultural Sexism 343
Inequality in the United States 323
•
Social Problems and Traditional Gender Role
Social Problems Research Up Close: Socialization 343
Overdoing Gender 324 The Feminization of Poverty 344
Sociological Theories of Gender The Social-Psychological Costs of Gender
Socialization 344
•
Inequality 324
Structural-Functionalist Perspective 325 The Human Side: Fix Society. Please. 346
Conflict Perspective 325 Gender Role Socialization and Health
Symbolic Interactionist Perspective 326 Outcomes 347
Gender Stratification: Structural Sexism 327 Gender-Based Violence 348
Education and Structural Sexism 327 Strategies for Action: Toward Gender
Work and Structural Sexism 329 Equality 349
Income and Structural Sexism 331 Grassroots Movements 349
Politics and Structural Sexism 333 U.S. State and National Policies 351
Civil Rights, the Law, and Structural International Efforts 353
Sexism 334
•
Understanding Gender Inequality 353
Self and Society: Women, Men, and Chapter Review 354
Leadership 335 Test Yourself 355
The Social Construction of Gender Roles: Key Terms 355
Cultural Sexism 337
Contents ix
11 Sexual Orientation and the
Struggle for Equality 357
• The Human Side: “I Needed to Do
Something . . .” 371
Discrimination against Lesbians, Gays, and
The Global Context: A Worldview of the Bisexuals 372
Status of Homosexuality 359 Workplace Discrimination and Harassment 372
Homosexuality and Bisexuality in the Marriage Inequality 373
United States: A Demographic Children and Parental Rights 376
Overview 360 Violence, Hate, and Criminal Victimization 377
Sexual Orientation: Problems Associated with The Consequences of Anti-LGBT Bias 379
Identification and Classification 360 Physical and Mental Health 379
LGBT Individuals and Same-Sex-Couple
Households in the United States 361
The Origins of Sexual Orientation 361
• Social Problems Research Up Close: The
Social Environment and Suicide Attempts
of Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Youth 380
Can Gays, Lesbians, and Bisexuals Change Their Substance Abuse 380
Sexual Orientation? 362 Economic Inequality, Poverty, and
Sociological Theories of Sexual Orientation Homelessness 381
Inequality 363 Aging and Retirement 382
Structural-Functionalist Perspective 363 Strategies for Action: Toward Equality
Conflict Perspective 364 for All 383
Symbolic Interactionist Perspective 365 LGBT Status and the Media 383
Cultural Origins of Anti-LGB Bias 366 Law and Public Policy 384
Religion 366 Educational Strategies and Activism 386
Rigid Gender Roles 368 Understanding Sexual Orientation and the
Myths and Negative Stereotypes 368 Struggle for Equality 388
Prejudice against Lesbians, Gays, and Chapter Review 389
Bisexuals 369 Test Yourself 390
• Self and Society: Attitudes Toward Gay

and Lesbian Issues 370
Key Terms 390
Part 4 Problems of Globalization
12 Population Growth and Aging 393 Ageism: Prejudice and Discrimination toward the
Elderly 403
The Global Context: A Worldview of Family Caregiving for Our Elders 405
Population Growth and Aging 394
World Population: History, Current Trends,
and Future Projections 394
• Social Problems Research Up Close: The
Elder Care Study 406
Retirement Concerns of Older Americans and the
The Aging of the World’s Population 396 Role of Social Security 407
Sociological Theories of Population Growth Strategies for Action: Responding to Problems
and Aging 398 of Population Growth and Aging 409
Structural-Functionalist Perspective 398 Efforts to Curb Population Growth: Reducing
Conflict Perspective 399 Fertility 409
•
Animals and Society: Pet Overpopulation
in the United States 400
• The Human Side: Our Decision to Be
Childfree 413
Efforts to Increase Population 414
Social Problems Related to Population Combating Ageism and Age Discrimination in the
Growth and Aging 401 Workplace 414
Environmental Problems Options for Reforming Social Security 415
and Resource Scarcity 402 Understanding Problems of Population
Poverty, Unemployment, and Global Growth and Aging 416
Insecurity 402
•
Chapter Review 417
Self and Society: Ageism Survey 403 Test Yourself 418
Poor Maternal, Infant, and Child Health 403 Key Terms 418
x Contents
13 Environmental Problems
The Global Context: Globalization and the
421 • The Human Side: Fracking Stories Told by
Someone Who Isn’t Gagged 440
Light Pollution 442
Environment 422 Social Causes of Environmental
Bioinvasion 423 Problems 443
Environmental Migrants 423 Population Growth 443
Environmental Problems and the Growth of Industrialization and Economic Development 443
Transnational Corporations and Free Trade Cultural Values and Attitudes 444
Agreements 424 Strategies for Action: Responding to
Sociological Theories of Environmental Environmental Problems 444
Problems 424 Environmental Activism 444
Structural-Functionalist Perspective 424 Environmental Education 446
•
Reduction of Carbon Emissions 447
Social Problems Research Up Close: The
Climate Deception Dossiers 426
• Self and Society: Attitudes toward
Government Interventions to Reduce
Global Warming 448
Environmental Problems: An Overview 429 Green Energy and Energy Efficiency 449
Energy Use Worldwide 429 Modifications in Consumer Products and
Depletion of Natural Resources: Our Growing Behavior 450
Environmental Footprint 431 Slow Population Growth 450
Threats to Biodiversity 432 Sustainable Economic and Human
Air Pollution 432 Development 451
Global Warming and Climate Change 433 The Role of Institutions of Higher
Land Pollution 436 Education 452
Water Pollution 437 Understanding Environmental Problems 453
Problems Associated with Fracking 438 Chapter Review 455
Chemicals, Carcinogens, and Health Test Yourself 456
Problems 439 Key Terms 457
14 Science and Technology 459 Societal Consequences of Science and

Technology 480
The Global Context: The Technological Social Relationships, Social Networking, and
Revolution 461 Social Interaction 480
Postmodernism and the Technological Fix 464 Loss of Privacy and Security 481
• Self and Society: What Is Your Science and

Technology IQ? 465
Unemployment, Immigration, and
Outsourcing 482
The Digital Divide 483
Sociological Theories of Science and
Problems of Mental and Physical Health 485
Technology 466
Malicious Use of the Internet 485
The Challenge to Traditional Values and
Beliefs 487

Gender and the Internet 468
Strategies for Action: Controlling Science and
Technology 487
Technology and Corporate America 487
Technology and the Transformation of
Society 468
Technology and the Workplace 469
• Animals and Society: The Use of Animals in
Scientific Research 488
Science, Ethics, and the Law 488
The Computer Revolution 470
Runaway Science and Government Policy 490
Information and Communication Technology and
Understanding Science and Technology 491
the Internet 472
Chapter Review 492
Science and Biotechnology 475
• The Human Side: What Happens to Women

Who Are Denied Abortions? 478
Test Yourself 493
Key Terms 494
Contents xi
15 Conflict, War, and Terrorism 497 Death and Disability 523
Rape, Forced Prostitution, and the Displacement
The Global Context: Conflict in a Changing of Women and Children 523
World 498 Social-Psychological Costs 524
War and Social Change 499 Diversion of Economic Resources 525
•
The Economics of Military Spending 500
Self and Society: National Defense and the
U.S. Military 501
Combat, Mental Illness, and Military
Suicides 526
Sociological Theories of War 503 Destruction of the Environment 527
Structural-Functionalist Perspective 503 Strategies in Action: In Search
Conflict Perspective 505 of Global Peace 529
Symbolic Interactionist Perspective 507 Redistribution of Economic Resources 529
Causes of War 509 The United Nations 529
Conflict over Land and Other Natural Mediation and Arbitration 531
Resources 509 Arms Control and Disarmament 532
Conflict over Values and Ideologies 510 The Problem of Small Arms 534
Racial, Ethnic, and Religious Hostilities 510 Understanding Conflict, War, and
Defense against Hostile Attacks 511 Terrorism 535
Revolutions and Civil Wars 512 Chapter Review 536
• The Human Side: Life and Death in a

Refugee Camp 513
Nationalism 514
Test Yourself 537
Key Terms 537
Terrorism 515
Types of Terrorism 515
Patterns of Global Terrorism 517
The Roots of Terrorism 518 Appendix: Methods of Data Analysis A-1
America’s Response to Terrorism 518
• Animals and Society: The Unsung Heroes

among Us 520
Glossary G-1
References R-1
Name Index I-1
Social Problems Associated With Conflict,
War, and Terrorism 523 Subject Index I-3
xii Contents
Features
Self and Society

Social Opinion Survey 9
Warning Signs for Mental Illness 36
The Consequences of Alcohol Consumption 72
Fear of Criminal Victimization 125
Abusive Behavior Inventory 160
Food Security Scale 190
How Do Your Spending Habits Change in Hard Economic Times? 223
Transitions 269
How Do You Explain White Racial Advantage? 313
Women, Men, and Leadership 335
Attitudes Toward Gay and Lesbian Issues 370
Ageism Survey 403
Attitudes toward Government Interventions to Reduce Global Warming 448
What Is Your Science and Technology IQ? 465
National Defense and the U.S. Military 501
Social Problems Research Up Close

The Sociological Enterprise 16
Are Americans the Healthiest Population in the World? 32
Smoking in the Movies 90
A Question of Race 120
The Polyamorists Next Door 148
Patchwork: Poor Women’s Stories of Resewing the Shredded Safety Net 206
Job Loss at Midlife 220
Don’t Call Them Dropouts 260
Two-Faced Racism 300
Overdoing Gender 324
The Social Environment and Suicide Attempts of Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Youth 380
The Elder Care Study 406
The Climate Deception Dossiers 426
Gender and the Internet 468
Combat, Mental Illness, and Military Suicides 526
The Human Side

A Sociologist’s “Human Side” 20
Testimony from Medical Marijuana Patients 46
Real Stories, Real People 84
The Hidden Consequences of Rape 110
xiii
Recollections from Adult Children of Parental Alienation 159
A Student Activist Speaks Up against Criminalizing the Homeless 204
Working Conditions in the Poultry Processing Industry 228
I Used to Be a Teacher 265
A Cherokee Citizen’s View of Andrew Jackson 298
Fix Society. Please. 346
“I Needed to Do Something . . .” 371
Our Decision to Be Childfree 413
Fracking Stories Told by Someone Who Isn’t Gagged 440
What Happens to Women Who Are Denied Abortions? 478
Life and Death in a Refugee Camp 513
Animals and Society

Improving Mental Health through Animal-Assisted Therapy 56
Pets and Domestic Violence 165
Companion Animals as “Lifechangers” and “Lifesavers” for Homeless Individuals 202
Pet Overpopulation in the United States 400
The Use of Animals in Scientific Research 488
The Unsung Heroes among Us 520
xiv Features
Preface
U
nderstanding Social Problems is intended for use in college-level sociology courses.
We recognize that many students enrolled in undergraduate sociology classes are
not sociology majors. Thus, we have designed our text with the aim of inspiring
students—no matter what their academic major or future life path may be—to care about
social problems. In addition to providing a sound theoretical and research basis for sociol-
ogy majors, Understanding Social Problems also speaks to students who are headed for
careers in business, psychology, health care, social work, criminal justice, and the non-
profit sector, as well as to those pursuing degrees in education, fine arts and the humani-
ties, or to those who are “undecided.” Social problems, after all, affect each and every one
of us, directly or indirectly. And everyone—whether a leader in business or politics, a
stay-at-home parent, or a student—can become more mindful of how his or her actions, or
inactions, perpetuate or alleviate social problems. We hope that Understanding Social
Problems plants seeds of social awareness that will grow no matter what academic, occu-
pational, and life path students choose.
New to This Edition

The tenth edition of Understanding Social Problems features expanded coverage of Na-
tive Americans, women in the military, LGBT issues, prescription drug abuse, “frack-
ing,” climate deniers, terrorism, and human rights issues. Learning objectives are now
presented at the beginning of each chapter to guide student learning. Other pedagogical
features that students and professors have found useful have been retained, including a
running glossary, list of key terms, chapter reviews, and Test Yourself sections. Most of
the opening vignettes in the tenth edition are new, as are many of the What Do You
Think? questions, which are designed to engage students in critical thinking and stimu-
late classroom discussion. Many of the boxed chapter features (The Human Side, Self
and Society, Social Problems Research Up Close, and Animals and Society) have been
updated or replaced with new content. Finally, the tenth edition has new or updated
research, data, tables, figures, and photos in each chapter, as well as new and revised
material, detailed as follows.
Chapter 1 (“Thinking about Social Problems”) now includes the results of a global
survey on social problems around the world, including a table with rankings of the
“greatest problems in the world” by region. This revised chapter also features an updated
Self and Society and Social Problems Research Up Close, as well as new data from Gallup
Polls, the Pew Research Center, and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Chapter 2 (“Physical and Mental Health and Health Care”) begins with a new open-
ing vignette about the Ebola epidemic. A new Social Problems Research Up Close feature
asks, “Are Americans the Healthiest Population in the World?” There is a new table on
“Successful People with Mental Illness.” New topics include peer-to-peer mental health
support groups on campus, food deserts, Indian Health Service, Military Health Service,
and the male health disadvantage. Updated topics include the Affordable Health Care
Act, medical debt, and complementary and alternative health care. A new What Do You
Think? question asks readers if they agree with the 2014 Supreme Court ruling that craft
store chain Hobby Lobby and other closely held for-profit companies may choose not to
pay for coverage of birth control in their workers’ health plans if the company’s owner
has religious objections.
Preface xv
Chapter 3 (“Alcohol and Other Drugs”) begins with a new opening vignette, followed
by a new Social Problems Research Up Close feature on the portrayal of cigarette smok-
ing in popular movies. The chapter has been reorganized for this edition: Misuse of
prescription drugs has been added to the section on “Frequently Used Legal Drugs”; and
sections on “Tobacco Advertising,” “Alternative Nicotine Delivery Systems,” “Preven-
tion” of alcohol, tobacco and prescription drug abuse, and “Synthetic Marijuana” have
also been added. The “Health Costs of Drug Use” section is now divided into legal and
illegal drugs, as are the strategies for action.
There are numerous new topics including the dramatic increase in teenagers’ use of
heroin and prescription drugs, the modification of the D.A.R.E. curriculum, e-cigarette
use, the impact of heavy drinking on others in the home, the impact of alcohol consump-
tion combined with other drugs on driving, drug overdoses, a cost–benefit analysis of
drug courts, Internet drug sales and e-pharmacies, the sociological risk factors in drug
use, the MPOWER program of the World Health Organization, and pro-tobacco and anti-
tobacco social forces on tobacco use.
Chapter 4 (“Crime and Social Control”) contains a new opening vignette, a new sec-
tion on technology and crime, and two new features. The Social Problems Research Up
Close examines the role of race in criminal justice policies, and the Self and Society as-
sesses students’ fear of criminal victimization. New crime and social control topics
include a discussion of Agnew’s General Strain Theory; incarceration as racism; public
perceptions of black criminals; General Motors, Honda, and Takata as corporate crimi-
nals; gangs and schools; police shootings of unarmed minorities; the safety gender gap;
the socioemotional impact of violent crime; aging and crime; the difficulty in assessing
crime prevention and recidivism; recent crime legislation; social forces leading to and
away from “get tough” crime policies; and federal reforms and the “Smart on Crime
Initiative.”
Chapter 5 (“Family Problems”) opens with a new vignette about the domestic vio-
lence case of Janay and Ray Rice. We added several new topics, including polyamory and
poly families, grandfamilies, gray divorces, relationship literacy education, intentional
communities, and the “Period of Purple Crying.” The updated and reorganized section
on “Strategies for Action” includes a new section on “Strategies to Strengthen Families”
and focuses on expanding definitions of family. There is also a new discussion of Child
Protective Services. The revised chapter includes updated global data on child abuse,
updated statistics on domestic violence, new Census Bureau data on interethnic and
interracial marriages and relationships, and new Pew Research data on U.S. marriage
and family patterns and values. A new Social Problems Research Up Close feature pres-
ents research on “The Polyamorists Next Door.”
Chapter 6 (“Economic Inequality, Wealth, and Poverty”) opens with a new vignette
about a dog, Cosmo, who enjoys a higher standard of living than many poor people. This
revised chapter includes new data on inequality within the top 1 percent, inequality in
the global distribution of household wealth, inequality in the United States, and updated
census data on poverty and poverty thresholds. New topics include wage theft, corporate
tax inversion, plutocracy, and the marriage opportunity gap. New figures display average
U.S. family wealth and distribution of U.S. wealth, and a new table presents the United
Nations’ 17 sustainable development goals. A new What Do You Think? question asks
why wage theft gets so little attention in the media compared with other types of theft.
Chapter 7 (“Work and Unemployment”) opens with a new vignette about unsafe
working conditions in Bangladesh’s garment industry. New topics in this revised chapter
include communism, full employment, frictional unemployment, and “right-to-work”
laws. We have added new research on work-related stressors and health and a new table
on common work-related stressors, and new research on life satisfaction among union
members compared with nonunion members. This chapter frames employment-related
concerns as human rights issues and presents examples of how and why these human
rights are being violated in workplaces around the world.
Chapter 8 (“Problems in Education”) has been significantly revised with a new open-
ing vignette, and all new chapter features. The Self and Society asks students to assess
the importance of various aspects of their high school experiences in securing a job, and
xvi Preface
The Human Side recounts the story of a former teacher who describes why she left the
profession. The Social Problems Research Up Close, using a national sample, examines
the process that leads students to drop out of high school. New What Do You Think?
topics include the worldwide availability of Sesame Street, the desirability of same-sex
classrooms, the case of a black college student suing his white roommates, and the future
of teacher tenure. The section on “Crime, Violence, and School Discipline” is now reor-
ganized into four areas: “Crime and Violence against Students,” “Crime and Violence
against Teachers,” “School Discipline,” and “Bullying.”
New topics include comparisons of student outcomes by socioeconomic status in
China and the United States, a longitudinal study of students from first grade to young
adulthood, the social costs of dropouts, the impact of a disadvantaged school environ-
ment on teacher effectiveness, the diversity gap, “degrees of inequality” in higher educa-
tion, for-profit online colleges and universities, merit-based versus need-based financial
aid, “separate but unequal” college admissions, Parents’ Revolution and the Network for
Public Education, and the UNC scandal.
Chapter 9 (“Race, Ethnicity, and Immigration”) opens with a new vignette about the
anti–Columbus Day movement. This chapter features a new The Human Side feature: “A
Cherokee Citizen’s View of Andrew Jackson.” There is a new section and table on racial
microaggressions, and a new section on implicit prejudice. Other new topics include
colorism, “sundown towns,” and state laws banning Sharia law. The revised chapter
includes updated U.S. Census data on Hispanic, racial, and foreign-born U.S. popula-
tions, new FBI data on hate crimes, and an updated section on white power music. New
What Do You Think? questions ask (1) about views toward Rachel Dolezal’s choice to
identify as black, (2) if black racism toward whites is equivalent to white racism toward
blacks, (3) what students think about the phrase “Black lives matter,” and (4) if Barack
Obama would have been elected president if he had darker skin color.
Chapter 10 (“Gender Inequality”) features a new The Human Side—a suicide note
written by a transgender teen—and a new Self and Society on whether men, women, or
both make strong financial and political leaders. There is also a new subsection on same-
sex education under “The School Experience and Cultural Sexisms” heading.
New topics and terms include the “missing girls” of China, vulnerable employment,
family well-being and the gender pay gap, attributional gender bias, reinforcement of
gender stereotypes in same sex classrooms, gender role content analyses of the 10 most
popular programs on Cartoon Network and of 120 children’s films from 11 countries,
income differentials, Freeman and Freeman’s Stressed Sex: Uncovering the Truth about
Men, Women, and Mental Health, human trafficking of women and girls, A Voice for
Men, the Paycheck Fairness Act, and the Workplace Advancement Act.
Chapter 11 (“Sexual Orientation and the Struggle for Equality”) has been signifi-
cantly revised in light of the recent Supreme Court decision legalizing gay marriage in
the United States. A new section, “The Consequences of Anti-LGBT Bias,” has also been
added that includes topics on the relationship between LGBT status and (1) physical and
mental health; (2) substance abuse; (3) economic inequality, poverty, and homelessness;
and (4) aging and retirement. There is also a new opening vignette, and two new features.
The Self and Society assess student attitudes toward gay and lesbian issues and The Hu-
man Side, “I Needed to Do Something . . .,” an essay by Tim Cook, CEO of Apple, on why
he felt he had to come out to the public.
New topics and terms include estimates of the U.S. LGBT population and the number
of LGBT married couples; results of public opinion polls; the Obergefell v. Hodges deci-
sion and reactions to it; the backlash against LGBT rights successes; religious freedom
laws and the corporate response; societal beliefs about the origin of sexual orientation;
banning sexual orientation change efforts; social forces that led to greater social support
for LGBT individuals; demographic differences between same- and different-sex cou-
ples; gay fathers’ connectivity between emotional and cognitive parts of their brains; the
American Sociological Association’s amicus curiae brief; “corrective rape” of lesbians;
LGBT higher rates of depression, suicide, poverty, homelessness, and physical illness;
dissenting opinions in Obergefell; the social costs of continued homonegativity; the “gay
stimulus package”; the First Amendment Defense Act; children’s response to learning a
Preface xvii
parent is gay; and the self-fulfilling prophecy of stereotypical gay men and women’s
appearances.
Chapter 12 (“Population Growth and Aging”) includes a new The Human Side fea-
ture describing one woman’s decision (with her husband) to remain childfree. This
revised chapter includes updated information about Social Security and updated figures,
tables, and data from the Population Reference Bureau. A new What Do You Think?
question asks if professors should retire after a certain age.
Chapter 13 (“Environmental Problems”) begins with a new vignette about the 2015
Indian heat wave. A new Social Problems Research Up Close feature, “The Climate
Deception Dossiers,” presents documentation of how the fossil fuel industry has de-
ceived the public on issues related to global warming and climate change. The revised
chapter also includes new sections on climate deniers, fracking, environmental mi-
grants, and hunters and anglers as environmentalists. A new The Human Side feature,
written specifically for this text, is titled, “Fracking Stories Told by Someone Who Isn’t
Gagged.” There is also a new figure on “The Cycle of Fracking Denial.” New topics in-
clude charismatic megafauna, NIMBY (“Not in My Backyard”), the landmark Dutch
court ruling that orders the government to step up efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emis-
sions, and the 2015 Senate vote that climate change is real. The section on religion and
environmentalism has been updated, including the addition of Pope Francis’s call to
action on climate change and environmental protection. This revised chapter also men-
tions the Permanent People’s Tribunal consideration of whether fracking violates human
rights, and also discusses how state officials and employees in Florida were ordered to
not use the terms global warming or climate change. A new What Do You Think? feature
asks students what Pope Francis’s statement “There can be no renewal of our relation-
ship with nature without a renewal of humanity itself” means to them.
Chapter 14 (“Science and Technology”) begins with a new opening vignette on medi-
cal technology. There are also two new features and two updated features. The Human
Side concerns the consequences, for one young woman, of being denied an abortion, and
the Social Problems Research Up Close examines gender differences, or lack thereof, in
Internet use. Both the Self and Society and Animals and Society features have been
updated. New topics or terms include the increased use of “digital agents” for blue- and
white-collar jobs, technology corporate lawsuits, the Internet of Things (IoT), use of
social media in political unrest, the growth of genetically modified (GM) organisms, GM
foods and their consequences, wearable technology, the use of nanotechnology in “nano-
foods,” new state restrictions on abortion, genetic cloning, reproductive cloning, and
therapeutic cloning, the expansion of cybersecurity breaches and Internet vulnerability,
cyberattack threats to global security, automation of language and reasoning skills, the
FCC’s right to regulate net neutrality (no blocking, no throttling, no paid prioritization),
slowness rage, the deep or dark web, Silk Road, Acxiom—the “cookie” collecting com-
pany, reform of the NSA’s surveillance program, and the Marketplace Fairness Act. New
What Do You Think? topics include the impact of self-driving cars, restrictions on pri-
vately owned drones, “right to forget” Internet laws, social groups on Mars, and sexism,
racism, and diversity in the gaming community.
Chapter 15 (“Conflict, War, and Terrorism”) begins with a new opening vignette. There
is a new The Human Side on the refugee crisis, and a new Self and Society feature on “Na-
tional Defense and the U.S. Military.” The “Economics of Military Spending” has new
subsections on weapons sales and the cost of war. Feminist theories of war and an expanded
section on women in the military are now standalone headings. Reorganization of the chap-
ter also includes adding two new sections (“Guantánamo Detention Center” and “Weapons
of Mass Destruction”) under the “America’s Response to Terrorism” heading.
New topics of discussion include the use of unoccupied aerial vehicles (drones), the
direct and indirect costs of violence, the devastation of Afghanistan and Syrian society,
refugees and asylum seekers, women in the military, “rally around the flag,” gender
norming, occupationally specific standards validation, conflict minerals, civil war in
Yemen, Charlie Hebdo and the terrorist attacks in Paris and Garland, Texas, Boko Haram,
the evolution and funding of the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS), public attitudes
toward the use of ground troops in the Middle East, the Charleston, South Carolina,
xviii Preface
killings, the grievance models of terrorism, micro-aggression psychological models of
terrorists, ecocide, the nuclear weapons agreement with Iran, and the public’s national
priorities by political party.
Features and Pedagogical Aids

We have integrated a number of features and pedagogical aids into the text to help stu-
dents learn to think about social problems from a sociological perspective. Our mission
is to help students think critically about social problems and their implications, and to
increase their awareness of how social problems relate to their personal lives.
Boxed Features
Animals and Society. Several chapters contain a feature called Animals and Society,
which examines issues, problems, policies, and/or programs concerning animals
within the context of the social problem discussed in that chapter. For example,
Chapter 5 (“Family Problems”) includes an Animals and Society feature that examines
“Pets and Domestic Violence,” and in Chapter 14 (“Science and Technology”), the
Animals and Society feature discusses “The Use of Animals in Scientific Research.”
Self and Society. Each chapter includes a Self and Society feature designed to help
students assess their own attitudes, beliefs, knowledge, or behaviors regarding some
aspect of the social problem under discussion. In Chapter 5 (“Family Problems”), for
example, the “Abusive Behavior Inventory” invites students to assess the frequency of
various abusive behaviors in their own relationships. The Self and Society feature in
Chapter 3 (“Alcohol and Other Drugs”) allows students to measure the consequences
of their own drinking behavior and compare it to respondents in a national sample,
and students can assess their fear of criminal victimization in Chapter 4 (“Crime and
Social Control”).
The Human Side. Each chapter includes a boxed feature that describes personal
experiences and views of individuals who have been directly affected by social
problems. The Human Side feature in Chapter 4 (“Crime and Social Control”), for
example, describes the horrific consequences of being a victim of rape, and The
Human Side feature in Chapter 9 (“Race, Ethnicity, and Immigration”) presents a
Cherokee citizen’s view of Andrew Jackson. In Chapter 10 (“Gender Inequality”), The
Human Side features a suicide note from a transgender teenager.
Social Problems Research Up Close. This feature, found in every chapter, presents
examples of social science research, summarizing the sampling and methods involved
in data collection, and presenting findings and conclusions of the research study.
Examples of Social Problems Research Up Close topics include job loss in midlife,
polyamorists and poly families, gender and Internet use, tactics used by the fossil fuel
industry to deceive the public about global warming and climate change, two-faced
racism, and mental illness and suicide among U.S. veterans.
In-Text Learning Aids

Learning Objectives. We have developed a set of learning objectives that are presented
at the beginning of each chapter. The learning objectives are designed to help students
focus on key concepts, theories, and terms as they read each chapter.
Vignettes. Each chapter begins with a vignette designed to engage students and draw
them into the chapter by illustrating the current relevance of the topic under
discussion. For example, Chapter 5 (“Family Problems”) begins with the domestic
violence incident involving football player Ray Rice and his wife Janay Rice. Chapter 9
(“Race, Ethnicity, and Immigration”) opens with details concerning the anti–Columbus
Day movement and Chapter 15 (“Conflict, War, and Terrorism”) describes an ISIS
training camp for young boys.
Preface xix
Key Terms and Glossary. Important terms and concepts are highlighted in the text
where they first appear. To reemphasize the importance of these words, they are listed
at the end of every chapter and are included in the glossary at the end of the text.
Running Glossary. This tenth edition continues the running glossary that highlights
the key terms in every chapter by putting the key terms and their definitions in the text
margins.
What Do You Think? Sections. Each chapter contains multiple sections called What Do
You Think? These sections invite students to use critical thinking skills to answer
questions about issues related to the chapter content. For example, one What Do You
Think? question in Chapter 4 (“Crime and Social Control”) asks students, “What
perpetuates the myth of the male-only serial killer?” and a What Do You Think?
question in Chapter 11 (“Sexual Orientation and the Struggle for Equality”) asks,
“Should gay men and women who are subjected to violence in their home country be
eligible for political asylum in the United States?”
Understanding [Specific Social Problem] Sections. All too often, students, faced with
contradictory theories and research results walk away from social problems courses
without any real understanding of their causes and consequences. To address this
problem, chapter sections titled “Understanding [specific social problem]” cap the
body of each chapter just before the chapter summaries. Unlike the chapter summaries,
these sections sum up the present state of knowledge and theory on the chapter topic
and convey the urgency for rectifying the problems discussed in the chapter.
Supplements
The tenth edition of Understanding Social Problems comes with a full complement of
supplements designed for both faculty and students.
Supplements for Instructors

Online Instructor’s Resource Manual. This supplement offers instructors learning
objectives, key terms, lecture outlines, student projects, classroom activities, Internet
exercises, and video suggestions.
Online Test Bank. Test items include multiple-choice and true-false questions with
answers and text references, as well as short-answer and essay questions for each
chapter.
Cengage Learning Testing Powered by Cognero. The Test Bank is also available
through Cognero, a flexible, online system that allows instructors to author, edit, and
manage test bank content as well as create multiple test versions in an instant.
Instructors can deliver tests from their school’s learning management system,
classroom, office, or home.
Online PowerPoints. These vibrant, Microsoft® PowerPoint® lecture slides for each
chapter assist instructors with lectures by providing concept coverage using images,
figures, and tables directly from the textbook.
Supplements for Students

MindTap Sociology for Understanding Social Problems. With MindTap™ Sociology
for Understanding Social Problems students have the tools to better manage their time,
allowing them flexibility in when and where they complete assignments. Course
material that is specially customized by the instructor in an easy-to-use interface keeps
students engaged and active in the course. MindTap helps students achieve better
grades by cultivating a true understanding of course concepts, and includes a mobile
app to help keep students on track. With a wide array of course specific tools and
xx Preface
apps—from note taking to flashcards—MindTap is a worthwhile and valuable
investment in students’ education.
Students will stay engaged with MindTap’s interactive activities and remain moti-
vated by information that shows where they stand at all times—both individually and
compared to the highest performers in class. MindTap eliminates the guesswork, focus-
ing on what’s most important with a learning path designed specifically by the instruc-
tor. Students can master the most important information with built-in study tools such
as visual chapter summaries that help students stay organized and use time efficiently.
Acknowledgments
This text reflects the work of many people. We would like to thank the following for their
contributions to the development of this text: Libby Beiting-Lipps, Product Manager;
Jessica Alderman, Associate Content Developer; Cheri Palmer, Senior Content Project
Manager; Jill Traut, Project Manager at MPS Limited; Vernon Boes, Senior Art Director;
Deanna Ettinger, Intellectual Property Analyst; and Nick Barrows, Intellectual Property
Project Manager. We would also like to acknowledge the support and assistance of Carol
L. Jenkins, Ben Lewis, Sharon Wilson, Molly Clever, Marieke Van Willigen, James and
Mabelle Miller, and Don and Jean Fowler. To each, we send our heartfelt thanks. Special
thanks also to George Glann, whose valuable contributions have assisted in achieving
the book’s high standard of quality from edition to edition.
Additionally, we are indebted to those who read the manuscript in its various drafts
and provided valuable insights and suggestions, many of which have been incorporated
into the final manuscript:
Annette Allen, Troy University
Sandra Alvarez, American International College
Christie Barcelos, Greenfield Community College
James Botts, Belmont Abbey College
Alondo Campbell, Santa Ana College
Margaret Choka, Pellissippi State Community College
Mirelle Cohen, Olympic College
Cynthia Coleman, Tompkins Cortland and Empire State College
Tonja Conerly, San Jacinto College—South
Gayle D’Andrea, Reynolds Community College
We are also grateful to all reviewers of the previous editions.
Finally, we are interested in ways to improve the text and invite your feedback and
suggestions for new ideas and material to be included in subsequent editions. You can
contact us at mooneyl@ecu.edu, knoxd@ecu.edu, or cschacht@suddenlink.net.
Preface xxi
Andrew Rich/Getty Images
Unless someone like you cares a whole awful lot,

nothing is going to get better. It’s not.”
Dr. SeuSS
The Lorax
1
Thinking about
Social Problems
Chapter Outline Learning Objectives

What Is a Social Problem? After studying this chapter, you will be able to . . .
Elements of Social Structure and Culture 1 Define a social problem.
● Self and Society: Social Opinion Survey 2 Discuss the elements of the social structure
The Sociological Imagination and culture of society.
Theoretical Perspectives 3 Understand the connections between private
● Social Problems Research Up Close: troubles and public issues, and how they relate
to the sociological imagination.
The Sociological Enterprise
Social Problems Research 4 Summarize structural functionalism, conflict
theory, and symbolic interactionism and their
● The Human Side: A Sociologist’s “Human Side” respective theories of social problems.
Ten Good Reasons to Read This Book
5 Describe the stages in conducting a research study.
Understanding Social Problems
Chapter Review
corporate corruption, the gap between the rich and
poor, etc.), which were the clear majority of responses,
and noneconomic issues such as immigration, distrust
of government, health care, the family, education, and
poverty (Gallup 2015a). Moreover, a recent survey in-
dicates that just 28 percent of Americans are satisfied
“with the way things are going in the United States”—
a number significantly lower than a decade ago when
42 percent of Americans were satisfied with the direc-
tion of the country (Gallup 2015b).
We should not, however, confine our concerns to
social problems in the United States. Globalization
requires an understanding of the interrelationship
Rubberball/Fotosearch
between countries and regions around the world.
Although some social problems are clearly global in
nature, others appear to only impact the nation in
which they occur. The economy, for example, is often
After the economic turndown of 2008, the u.S. Congress
discussed in terms of the U.S. job growth, the U.S.
passed the American recovery and reinvestment Act of
2009. The stimulus package was designed to help failing inflation rate, or American’s consumer confidence.
industries, create jobs, promote consumer spending, rescue And yet, in 2015, when China’s stock market plunged,
the failed housing market, and encourage energy-related the NYSE recorded its steepest losses since the
investments. To date, the distribution of stimulus funds
recession of 2008. Nonetheless, whether measured by
amounts to over $840 billion (recovery.gov 2015).
travel patterns, languages spoken, or student study
abroad, Americans have shown little interest in other
countries. Calling this “unfamiliarity with the world”
In a JUne 2015 Gallup Poll, a random sample of a crisis, Ungar (2015) comments that the “continued
Americans was asked, “What do you think is the most ignorance of, or indifference toward, how other people
important problem facing this country today?” Lead- see the world is a concrete threat to our own security
ing problems included economic issues (i.e., wages, and safety (p. 1).
Problems related to poverty, inadequate education, crime and violence, oppression of

minorities, environmental destruction, and war and terrorism as well as many other social
issues are both national and international concerns. Such problems present both a threat and
a challenge to our national and global society. The primary goal of this textbook is to facilitate
increased awareness and understanding of problematic social conditions in U.S. society and
throughout the world.
Although the topics covered in this book vary widely, all chapters share common
objectives: to explain how social problems are created and maintained; to indicate how
they affect individuals, social groups, and societies as a whole; and to examine programs
and policies for change. We begin by looking at the nature of social problems.
What Is a Social Problem?

There is no universal, constant, or absolute definition of what constitutes a social problem.
Rather, social problems are defined by a combination of objective and subjective criteria
that vary across societies, among individuals and groups within a society, and across
historical time periods.
4 CHaPTeR 1 Thinking about Social Problems
Objective and Subjective Elements of Social Problems
Although social problems take many forms, they all share two important elements: an objective
social condition and a subjective interpretation of that social condition. The objective element
of a social problem refers to the existence of a social condition. We become aware of social
conditions through our own life experience, through the media, and through education. We
see the homeless, hear gunfire in the streets, and see battered women in hospital emergency
rooms. We read about employees losing their jobs as businesses downsize and factories close.
In television news reports, we see the anguished faces of parents whose children have been
killed by violent youths.
WHAT
For a condition to be defined as a social problem, there must be public awareness of do you
the condition. How do you think the widespread use of communication technology—
such as smartphones, Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube—has affected public awareness
THINK?
of problematic social conditions? Can you think of social problems that you became
aware of through communication technology that you probably would not have been
aware of if such technology were not accessible?
The subjective element of a social problem refers to the belief that a particular social Some Americans
condition is harmful to society or to a segment of society and that it should and can be view gun control
changed. We know that crime, drug addiction, poverty, racism, violence, and pollution as a necessary
exist. These social conditions are not considered social problems, however, unless at least
a segment of society believes that these conditions diminish the quality of human life. means of
By combining these objective and subjective elements, we arrive at the following reducing
definition: A social problem is a social condition that a segment of society views as gun violence
harmful to members of society, and is in need of remedy.
whereas others
believe that
Variability in Definitions of Social Problems
gun control
Individuals and groups frequently disagree about what constitutes a social problem. For
example, some Americans view gun control as a necessary means of reducing gun violence
is a threat to
whereas others believe that gun control is a threat to civil rights and individual liberties. civil rights
Similarly, some Americans view the availability of abortion as a social problem, whereas and individual
others view restrictions on abortion as a social problem.
Definitions of social problems vary not only within societies but also across
liberties.
societies and geographic regions. Table 1.1 graphically portrays responses to a global
survey (44 countries, N 5 48,643) concerning the most pressing social problems in the
world. Note that in the more advanced regions (Europe and the United States), social
inequality is considered the most dangerous world problem, while in Africa, AIDS and
other infectious diseases are viewed as the most important issues facing the world. Not objective element of a
surprisingly, religious and ethnic hatred was the top response for Middle Easterners social problem Awareness
(Pew 2014). of social conditions through
one’s own life experiences
and through reports in the
TaBLe 1.1 The Greatest Problems in the World, 2014 (44 Countries, N 5 48,643) media.
religious Pollution Nuclear AIDS & Other subjective element of a

& ethnic Hatred Inequality & environment Weapons Diseases social problem The belief
Middle East 34% 18% 9% 20% 10% that a particular social con-
dition is harmful to society,
Europe 15 32 14 19 5
or to a segment of society,
Asia 13 18 22 21 12 and that it should and can
Latin America 9 18 25 26 19 be changed.
Africa 24 18 7 22 29 social problem A social
U.S. 24 27 15 23 7 condition that a segment of
■ Top Choice
society views as harmful to
NoTE: Regional medians, Russia and Ukraine not included in Europe median. members of society and in
SoURCE: Pew 2014. need of remedy.
What Is a Social Problem? 5
What constitutes a social problem also varies by historical time periods. For example,
before the 19th century, a husband’s legal right and marital obligation was to discipline
and control his wife through the use of physical force. Today, the use of physical force is
regarded as a social problem rather than a marital right.
Lastly, social problems change over time not only because definitions of conditions
change, as in the example of the use of force in marriage, but also because the conditions
themselves change. The use of cell phones while driving was not considered a social
problem in the 1990s, as cell phone technology was just beginning to become popular. Now,
with most U.S. adults having a cell phone, the issue of “distracted driving” has become
a national problem. According to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
(NHTSA 2014), in 2012, over 650,000 daytime drivers used their cell phones or operated
some other kind of electronic device while driving. In the same year, an estimated 421,000
were injured in distracted driving automobile crashes.
WHAT
do you
THINK? Many drivers see using mobile phones while driving as risky when other drivers
do it, but view their own mobile phone use while driving as safe (NHTSA 2013).
Why do you think this is so? Do you think using mobile phones or other electronic
devices while driving is safe?
Because social problems can be highly complex,

it is helpful to have a framework within which to
view them. Sociology provides such a framework.
Using a sociological perspective to examine social
problems requires knowledge of the basic concepts
and tools of sociology. In the remainder of this
chapter, we discuss some of these concepts and
tools: social structure, culture, the “sociological
imagination,” major theoretical perspectives, and
types of research methods.
elements of Social
The Washington Post/Getty Images
Structure and Culture

Although society surrounds us and permeates our
lives, it is difficult to “see” society. By thinking of
society in terms of a picture or image, however, we
can visualize society and therefore better understand
A young girl and her family celebrate President Obama’s 2014 it. Imagine that society is a coin with two sides: On
announcement of immigration reform which, in part, will allow one side is the structure of society, and on the other is
nearly 5 million undocumented immigrants to remain in the the culture of society. Although each side is distinct,
united States (Holland and rampton 2014). Both officials and both are inseparable from the whole. By looking at
the public often disagree on the best strategy to remedy a the various elements of social structure and culture,
social problem. Shortly after President Obama’s address to the
we can better understand the root causes of social
nation, republican opponents heavily criticized the proposal.
problems.
Elements of Social Structure

structure The way society The structure of a society refers to the way society is organized. Society is organized into
is organized including different parts: institutions, social groups, statuses, and roles.
institutions, social groups,
statuses, and roles. Institutions. An institution is an established and enduring pattern of social relation-
institution An established ships. The five traditional institutions are family, religion, politics, economics, and edu-
and enduring pattern of cation, but some sociologists argue that other social institutions—such as science and
social relationships. technology, mass media, medicine, sports, and the military—also play important roles in
modern society. Many social problems are generated by inadequacies in various institu-
tions. For example, unemployment may be influenced by the educational institution’s
failure to prepare individuals for the job market and by alterations in the structure of the
economic institution.
Whereas the
Social Groups. Institutions are made up of social groups. A social group is defined as social structure
two or more people who have a common identity, interact, and form a social relationship. refers to the
For example, the family in which you were reared is a social group that is part of the fam-
organization
ily institution. The religious association to which you may belong is a social group that
is part of the religious institution. of society, the
Social groups can be categorized as primary or secondary. Primary groups, which culture refers to
tend to involve small numbers of individuals, are characterized by intimate and informal
the meanings
interaction. Families and friends are examples of primary groups. Secondary groups, which
may involve small or large numbers of individuals, are task oriented and characterized by and ways of life
impersonal and formal interaction. Examples of secondary groups include employers and that characterize
their employees and clerks and their customers.
a society.
Statuses. Just as institutions consist of social groups, social groups consist of statuses. A
status is a position that a person occupies within a social group. The statuses we occupy
largely define our social identity. The statuses in a family may consist of mother, father,
stepmother, stepfather, wife, husband, partner, child, and so on. Statuses can be either social group Two or more
ascribed or achieved. An ascribed status is one that society assigns to an individual on people who have a common
the basis of factors over which the individual has no control. For example, we have no identity, interact, and form a
control over the sex, race, ethnic background, and socioeconomic status into which we social relationship.
are born. Similarly, we are assigned the status of child, teenager, adult, or senior citizen primary groups Usually
on the basis of our age—something we do not choose or control. small numbers of individuals
An achieved status is assigned on the basis of some characteristic or behavior over characterized by intimate
which the individual has some control. Whether you achieve the status of college gradu- and informal interaction.
ate, spouse, parent, bank president, or prison inmate depends largely on your own efforts,
secondary groups Involv-
behavior, and choices. One’s ascribed statuses may affect the likelihood of achieving other ing small or large numbers
statuses, however. For example, if you are born into a poor socioeconomic status, you may of individuals, groups that
find it more difficult to achieve the status of college graduate because of the high cost of are task oriented and are
a college education. characterized by impersonal
Every individual has numerous statuses simultaneously. You may be a student, parent, and formal interaction.
tutor, volunteer fund-raiser, female, and Hispanic. A person’s master status is the status
status A position that a
that is considered the most significant in a person’s social identity. In the United States, a person occupies within a
person’s occupational status is typically regarded as a master status. If you are a full-time social group.
student, your master status is likely to be student.
ascribed status A status
that society assigns to an
Roles. Every status is associated with many roles, or the set of rights, obligations, and ex- individual on the basis
pectations associated with a status. Roles guide our behavior and allow us to predict the of factors over which the
behavior of others. As students, you are expected to attend class, listen and take notes, individual has no control.
study for tests, and complete assignments. Because you know what the role of teacher
achieved status A status
involves, you can predict that your teachers will lecture, give exams, and assign grades that society assigns to an
based on your performance on tests. individual on the basis of
A single status involves more than one role. The status of prison inmate includes factors over which the
one role for interacting with prison guards and another role for interacting with other individual has some control.
prison inmates. Similarly, the status of nurse involves different roles for interacting with
roles The set of rights, ob-
physicians and with patients.
ligations, and expectations
associated with a status.
Elements of Culture culture The meanings and

ways of life that characterize
Whereas the social structure refers to the organization of society, the culture refers to the a society, including beliefs,
meanings and ways of life that characterize a society. The elements of culture include beliefs, values, norms, sanctions,
values, norms, sanctions, and symbols. and symbols.
Elements of Social Structure and Culture 7
Beliefs. Beliefs refer to definitions and explanations about what is assumed to be true.
The beliefs of an individual or group influence whether that individual or group views a
particular social condition as a social problem. Does secondhand smoke harm nonsmok-
ers? Are nuclear power plants safe? Does violence in movies and on television lead to
increased aggression in children? Our beliefs regarding these issues influence whether
we view the issues as social problems. Beliefs influence not only how a social condition
is interpreted but also the existence of the condition itself.
Values. Values are social agreements about what is considered good and bad, right and
wrong, desirable and undesirable. Frequently, social conditions are viewed as social
problems when the conditions are incompatible with or contradict closely held values.
For example, poverty and homelessness violate the value of human welfare; crime con-
tradicts the values of honesty, private property, and nonviolence; racism, sexism, and
heterosexism violate the values of equality and fairness. Often responses to opinion sur-
veys (see this chapter’s Self and Society feature) reveal an individual’s values. For exam-
ple, agreeing with the statement “a chief benefit of a college education is that it increases
one’s earning power” reflects the American value of economic well-being.
Values play an important role not only in the interpretation of a condition as a social
problem but also in the development of the social condition itself. For example, most
Americans view capitalism, characterized by free enterprise and the private accumulation
of wealth, positively (Newport 2012). Nonetheless, a capitalist system, in part, is responsible
for the inequality in American society as people compete for limited resources.
norms and Sanctions. Norms are socially defined rules of behavior. Norms serve as
guidelines for our behavior and for our expectations of the behavior of others.
There are three types of norms: folkways, laws, and mores. Folkways refer to the customs,
habits, and manners of society—the ways of life that characterize a group or society. In many
segments of our society, it is customary to shake hands when being introduced to a new ac-
quaintance, to say “excuse me” after sneezing, and to give presents to family and friends on
their birthdays. Although no laws require us to do these things, we are expected to do them
because they are part of the cultural tradition,
TaBLe 1.2 Types and examples of Sanctions or folkways, of the society in which we live.
Laws are norms that are formalized and
Positive Negative backed by political authority. It is normative
Informal Being praised by one’s neighbors Being criticized by one’s neighbors for a Sikh to where a turban, and to have long
for organizing a neighborhood for refusing to participate in the hair and a beard. However, when a Hofstra
recycling program neighborhood recycling program University student who was also a Sikh
© Cengage Learning
Formal Being granted a citizen’s award Being fined by the city for failing sought to enlist in his school’s ROTC program,
for organizing a neighborhood to dispose of trash properly he was denied a religious exemption from
recycling program the army’s “grooming policies.” The army
later argued that Mr. Singh could not request
a religious exemption unless he was an ROTC cadet. A newly filed lawsuit against the
United States Army notes the catch-22: Mr. Singh cannot become an ROTC cadet unless he
beliefs Definitions and
is granted a religious exemption and cannot request a religious exemption unless he is an
explanations about what is
assumed to be true.
ROTC cadet (Shortell 2014).
Mores are norms with a moral basis. Both littering and child sexual abuse are violations
values Social agreements of law, but child sexual abuse is also a violation of our mores because we view such
about what is considered behavior as immoral.
good and bad, right and
All norms are associated with sanctions, or social consequences for conforming to or
wrong, desirable and
violating norms. When we conform to a social norm, we may be rewarded by a positive sanction.
undesirable.
These may range from an approving smile to a public ceremony in our honor. When we violate a
norms Socially defined social norm, we may be punished by a negative sanction, which may range from a disapproving
rules of behavior, including look to the death penalty or life in prison. Most sanctions are spontaneous expressions of
folkways, laws, and mores. approval or disapproval by groups or individuals—these are referred to as informal sanctions.
sanctions Social conse- Sanctions that are carried out according to some recognized or formal procedure are referred
quences for conforming to to as formal sanctions. Types of sanctions, then, include positive informal sanctions, positive
or violating norms. formal sanctions, negative informal sanctions, and negative formal sanctions (see Table 1.2).
SElf
and
society Social Opinion Survey
Indicate with a check mark the items you “strongly agree” or “somewhat agree” with.
Strongly Agree
or Somewhat Agree
1. Wealthy people should pay a larger share of taxes than they do now. ________
2. Affirmative action in college admissions should be abolished. ________
3. The federal government should do more to control the sale of handguns. ________
4. A national health care plan is needed to cover everybody’s medical costs. ________
5. The federal government should raise taxes to reduce the deficit. ________
6. Addressing global warming should be a federal priority. ________
7. The chief benefit of a college education is that it increases one’s earning power. ________
8. Gays and lesbians should have the legal right to adopt a child. ________
9. Undocumented immigrants should be denied access to public education. ________
10. How would you characterize your political views?
Far left ________
Liberal ________
Middle of the road ________
Conservative ________
Far right ________
Percentage of first-year college students at bachelor’s institutions who

“strongly agree” or “somewhat agree” with the following statements*
Strongly Agree
or Somewhat Agree
1. Wealthy people should pay a larger share of taxes than they do now. 68.1
2. Affirmative action in college admissions should be abolished. 52.0
3. The federal government should do more to control the sale of handguns. 63.8
4. A national health care plan is needed to cover everybody’s medical costs. 61.3
5. The federal government should raise taxes to reduce the deficit. 36.9
6. Addressing global warming should be a federal priority. 60.8
7. The chief benefit of a college education is that it increases one’s earning power. 72.0
8. Gays and lesbians should have the legal right to adopt a child. 83.3
9. Undocumented immigrants should be denied access to public education. 40.7
10. How would you characterize your political views?
Far left 2.8
Liberal 27.7
Middle of the road 46.3
Conservative 21.2
Far right 1.9
*Percentages are rounded.

SoURCE: Eagan et al. 2014.
Symbols. A symbol is something that represents something else. Without symbols, we

could not communicate with one another or live as social beings.
The symbols of a culture include language, gestures, and objects whose meanings the
members of a society commonly understand. In our society, a red ribbon tied around a car
antenna symbolizes Mothers against Drunk Driving, a peace sign symbolizes the value of
nonviolence, and a white-hooded robe symbolizes the Ku Klux Klan. Sometimes people
attach different meanings to the same symbol. The Confederate flag is a symbol of southern
pride to some and a symbol of racial bigotry to others.
The elements of the social structure and culture just discussed play a central role in symbol Something that
the creation, maintenance, and social responses to various social problems. One of the represents something else.
Elements of Social Structure and Culture 9
goals of taking a course in social problems is to develop an awareness of how the elements
of social structure and culture contribute to social problems. Sociologists refer to this
When we use
awareness as the “sociological imagination.”
our sociological
imagination,
The Sociological Imagination
we are able
The sociological imagination, a term C. Wright Mills (1959) developed, refers to the
to distinguish ability to see the connections between our personal lives and the social world in which
between “private we live. When we use our sociological imagination, we are able to distinguish between
troubles” and “private troubles” and “public issues” and to see connections between the events and
conditions of our lives and the social and historical context in which we live.
“public issues” For example, that one person is unemployed constitutes a private trouble. That mil-
and to see lions of people are unemployed in the United States constitutes a public issue. Once
connections we understand that other segments of society share personal troubles such as intimate
partner abuse, drug addiction, criminal victimization, and poverty, we can look for
between the the elements of social structure and culture that contribute to these public issues and
events and private troubles. If the various elements of social structure and culture contribute to
conditions of private troubles and public issues, then society’s social structure and culture must be
changed if these concerns are to be resolved.
our lives and Rather than viewing the private trouble of obesity and all of its attending health
the social and concerns as a result of an individual’s faulty character, lack of self-discipline, or poor
historical context choices regarding food and exercise, we may understand the obesity epidemic as a
public issue that results from various social and cultural forces, including government
in which we live. policies that make high-calorie foods more affordable than healthier, fresh produce;
powerful food lobbies that fight against proposals to restrict food advertising to children;
and technological developments that have eliminated many types of manual labor and
replaced them with sedentary “desk jobs” (see Chapter 2).
The structural- Theoretical Perspectives

functionalist Theories in sociology provide us with different perspectives with which to view our social
perspective world. A perspective is simply a way of looking at the world. A theory is a set of interrelated
propositions or principles designed to answer a question or explain a particular phenomenon;
emphasizes the it provides us with a perspective. Sociological theories help us to explain and predict the
interconnected- social world in which we live.
ness of society Sociology includes three major theoretical perspectives: the structural-functionalist
perspective, the conflict perspective, and the symbolic interactionist perspective. Each
by focusing on perspective offers a variety of explanations about the causes of and possible solutions to
how each part social problems.
influences and
is influenced by Structural-functionalist Perspective
other parts. The structural-functionalist perspective is based largely on the works of Herbert
Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons, and Robert Merton. According to structural
functionalism, society is a system of interconnected parts that work together in harmony
to maintain a state of balance and social equilibrium for the whole. For example, each
of the social institutions contributes important functions for society: Family provides a
sociological imagination context for reproducing, nurturing, and socializing children; education offers a way to
The ability to see the con- transmit a society’s skills, knowledge, and culture to its youth; politics provides a means
nections between our per- of governing members of society; economics provides for the production, distribution,
sonal lives and the social and consumption of goods and services; and religion provides moral guidance and an
world in which we live. outlet for worship of a higher power.
The structural-functionalist perspective emphasizes the interconnectedness of society
theory A set of interrelated
propositions or principles by focusing on how each part influences and is influenced by other parts. For example,
designed to answer a ques- the increase in single-parent and dual-earner families has contributed to the number of
tion or explain a particular children who are failing in school because parents have become less available to supervise
phenomenon. their children’s homework. As a result of changes in technology, colleges are offering more
technical programs, and many adults are returning to school to learn new skills that are
required in the workplace. The increasing number of women in the workforce has con-
tributed to the formulation of policies against sexual harassment and job discrimination.
Structural functionalists use the terms functional and dysfunctional to describe the
effects of social elements on society. Elements of society are functional if they contribute
to social stability and dysfunctional if they disrupt social stability. Some aspects of society
can be both functional and dysfunctional. For example, crime is dysfunctional in that it is
associated with physical violence, loss of property, and fear. But according to Durkheim
and other functionalists, crime is also functional for society because it leads to heightened
awareness of shared moral bonds and increased social cohesion.
Sociologists have identified two types of functions: manifest and latent (Merton 1968).
Manifest functions are consequences that are intended and commonly recognized. Latent
functions are consequences that are unintended and often hidden. For example, the manifest
function of education is to transmit knowledge and skills to society’s youth. But public
elementary schools also serve as babysitters for employed parents, and colleges offer a place
for young adults to meet potential mates. The babysitting and mate selection functions are not
the intended or commonly recognized functions of education; hence, they are latent functions.
In viewing society as a set of interrelated parts, structural functionalists argue that WHAT
proposed solutions to social problems may lead to other social problems. For exam- do you
ple, urban renewal projects displace residents and break up community cohesion. THINK?
Racial imbalance in schools led to forced integration, which in turn generated violence
and increased hostility between the races. What are some other “solutions” that have
led to social problems? Do all solutions come with a price to pay? Can you think of a
solution to a social problem that has no negative consequences?
Structural-functionalist Theories of Social Problems

Two dominant theories of social problems grew out of the structural-functionalist perspective:
social pathology and social disorganization.
Social Pathology. According to the social pathology model, social problems result from
some “sickness” in society. Just as the human body becomes ill when our systems, organs,
and cells do not function normally, society becomes “ill” when its parts (i.e., elements
of the structure and culture) no longer perform properly. For example, problems such as
crime, violence, poverty, and juvenile delinquency are often attributed to the breakdown
of the family institution; the decline of the religious institution; and inadequacies in our
economic, educational, and political institutions.
Social “illness” also results when members of a society are not adequately socialized to
adopt its norms and values. People who do not value honesty, for example, are prone to dis-
honesties of all sorts. Early theorists attributed the failure in socialization to “sick” people
who could not be socialized. Later theorists recognized that failure in the socialization process
stemmed from “sick” social conditions, not “sick” people. To prevent or solve social prob-
lems, members of society must receive proper socialization and moral education, which may
be accomplished in the family, schools, places of worship, and/or through the media.
Social Disorganization. According to the social disorganization view of social problems,

rapid social change (e.g., the cultural revolution of the 1960s) disrupts the norms in a
society. When norms become weak or are in conflict with each other, society is in a state manifest functions Conse-
quences that are intended
of anomie, or normlessness. Hence, people may steal, physically abuse their spouses
and commonly recognized.
or children, abuse drugs, commit rape, or engage in other deviant behavior because the
norms regarding these behaviors are weak or conflicting. According to this view, the solu- latent functions
tion to social problems lies in slowing the pace of social change and strengthening social Consequences that are
norms. For example, although the use of alcohol by teenagers is considered a violation of unintended and often hidden.
a social norm in our society, this norm is weak. The media portray young people drink- anomie A state of norm-
ing alcohol, teenagers teach each other to drink alcohol and buy fake identification cards lessness in which norms and
(IDs) to purchase alcohol, and parents model drinking behavior by having a few drinks values are weak or unclear.
Theoretical Perspectives 11
after work or at a social event. Solutions to teenage drinking may involve strengthening
norms against it through public education, restricting media depictions of youth and
alcohol, imposing stronger sanctions against the use of fake IDs to purchase alcohol, and
educating parents to model moderate and responsible drinking behavior.
Conflict Perspective
Contrary to the structural-functionalist perspective, the conflict perspective views society
as composed of different groups and interests competing for power and resources. The
conflict perspective explains various aspects of our social world by looking at which
groups have power and benefit from a particular social arrangement. For example,
feminist theory argues that we live in a patriarchal society—a hierarchical system of
organization controlled by men. Although there are many varieties of feminist theory,
most would hold that feminism “demands that existing economic, political, and social
structures be changed” (Weir and Faulkner 2004, p. xii).
The origins of the conflict perspective can be traced to the classic works of Karl Marx.
Marx suggested that all societies go through stages of economic development. As societies
evolve from agricultural to industrial, concern over meeting survival needs is replaced by
concern over making a profit, the hallmark of a capitalist system. Industrialization leads to the
development of two classes of people: the bourgeoisie, or the owners of the means of produc-
tion (e.g., factories, farms, businesses), and the proletariat, or the workers who earn wages.
The division of society into two broad classes of people—the “haves” and the “have-
nots”—is beneficial to the owners of the means of production. The workers, who may earn
only subsistence wages, are denied access to the many resources available to the wealthy
owners. According to Marx, the bourgeoisie use their power to control the institutions of
society to their advantage. For example, Marx suggested that religion serves as an “opiate
of the masses” in that it soothes the distress and suffering associated with the working-
class lifestyle and focuses the workers’ attention on spirituality, God, and the afterlife
rather than on worldly concerns such as living conditions. In essence, religion diverts
the workers so that they concentrate on being rewarded in heaven for living a moral life
rather than on questioning their exploitation.
Conflict Theories of Social Problems

There are two general types of conflict theories of social problems: Marxist and non-Marxist.
Marxist theories focus on social conflict that results from economic inequalities; non-Marxist
theories focus on social conflict that results from competing values and interests among
social groups.
Marxist Conflict Theories. According to contemporary Marxist theorists, social prob-

lems result from class inequality inherent in a capitalistic system. A system of haves and
have-nots may be beneficial to the haves but often translates into poverty for the have-
nots. For example, in 2013, the typical pay for a CEO of a Standard & Poor’s company
increased 9 percent to $10.5 million—257 times the national average. During the same
time period, the wages of a U.S. worker increased just 1.3 percent (Boak 2014). As we
will explore later in this textbook, many social problems, including physical and mental
illness, low educational achievement, and crime, are linked to poverty.
In addition to creating an impoverished class of people, capitalism also encourages
“corporate violence.” Corporate violence can be defined as actual harm and/or risk of harm
inflicted on consumers, workers, and the general public as a result of decisions by corporate
executives or managers. Corporate violence can also result from corporate negligence; the
quest for profits at any cost; and willful violations of health, safety, and environmental laws
(Reiman and Leighton 2013). Our profit-motivated economy encourages individuals who
are otherwise good, kind, and law abiding to knowingly participate in the manufacturing
and marketing of defective products, such as brakes on American jets, fuel tanks on
automobiles, and salmonella-contaminated peanut butter (Basu 2014).
In 2010, a British Petroleum (BP) oil well off the coast of Louisiana ruptured, killing 11
people and spewing millions of gallons of oil into the Gulf of Mexico (see Chapter 13).
Evidence suggests that BP officials knew of the un-
stable cement seals on the rigs long before what has
been called the worst offshore disaster in U.S. his-
tory (Pope 2011). Since May 2010, BP has paid over
$28 billion in claims, advances, settlements, and
other related costs (BP 2015).
Marxist conflict theories also focus on the prob-
lem of alienation, or powerlessness and meaning-
lessness in people’s lives. In industrialized societies,
workers often have little power or control over their
jobs, a condition that fosters in them a sense of pow-
erlessness. The specialized nature of work requires
employees to perform limited and repetitive tasks; as
a result, workers may come to feel that their lives are
Mark Wilson/Getty Images

meaningless.
Alienation is bred not only in the workplace but
also in the classroom. Students have little power over
their education and often find that the curriculum is
not meaningful to their lives. Like poverty, alienation
is linked to other social problems, such as low educa- Preschooler Jacob Hurley, who became seriously ill after eating
tional achievement, violence, and suicide. peanut butter manufactured by the Peanut Corporation of America,
Marxist explanations of social problems imply is shown sitting with his father Peter Hurley, who is testifying before
that the solution lies in eliminating inequality a House energy and Commerce Committee hearing on Capitol Hill
among classes of people by creating a classless in Washington, DC, in January 2009. Nine deaths and over 700 ill-
society. The nature of work must also change to nesses resulted from the salmonella-tainted peanuts and, in 2013,
avoid alienation. Finally, stronger controls must former officials of the company were indicted on over 76 criminal
be applied to corporations to ensure that corporate counts (Schoenberg & Mattingly 2013).
decisions and practices are based on safety rather
than on profit considerations.
non-Marxist Conflict Theories. Non-Marxist conflict theorists, such as Ralf Dahrendorf,

are concerned with conflict that arises when groups have opposing values and interests.
For example, antiabortion activists value the life of unborn embryos and fetuses; pro-
choice activists value the right of women to control their own bodies and reproductive
decisions. These different value positions reflect different subjective interpretations of
what constitutes a social problem. For anti-abortionists, the availability of abortion is
the social problem; for pro-choice advocates, the restrictions on abortion are the social
problem. Sometimes the social problem is not the conflict itself but rather the way that
conflict is expressed. Even most pro-life advocates agree that shooting doctors who per-
form abortions and blowing up abortion clinics constitute unnecessary violence and lack
of respect for life. Value conflicts may occur between diverse categories of people, in-
cluding nonwhites versus whites, heterosexuals versus homosexuals, young versus old,
Democrats versus Republicans, and environmentalists versus industrialists.
Solving the problems that are generated by competing values may involve ensuring
that conflicting groups understand each other’s views, resolving differences through
negotiation or mediation, or agreeing to disagree. Ideally, solutions should be win-win,
with both conflicting groups satisfied with the solution. However, outcomes of value
conflicts are often influenced by power; the group with the most power may use its position
to influence the outcome of value conflicts. For example, when Congress could not get all
states to voluntarily increase the legal drinking age to 21, it threatened to withdraw federal
highway funds from those that would not comply.
Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

Both the structural-functionalist and the conflict perspectives are concerned with how broad
aspects of society, such as institutions and large social groups, influence the social world. alienation A sense of pow-
This level of sociological analysis is called macro-sociology: It looks at the big picture of erlessness and meaningless-
society and suggests how social problems are affected at the institutional level. ness in people’s lives.
Theoretical Perspectives 13
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Chemical
warfare
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where
you are located before using this eBook.
Title: Chemical warfare
Author: Amos A. Fries

Clarence J. West
Release date: October 22, 2023 [eBook #71931]
Language: English
Original publication: New York: McGraw Hill, 1921
Credits: deaurider and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at

https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
generously made available by The Internet Archive)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHEMICAL

WARFARE ***
CHEMICAL WARFARE
McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc.

PUBLISHERS OF BOOKS FOR
Coal Age ▼ Electric Railway Journal
Electrical World ▼ Engineering News-Record
American Machinist ▼ Ingeniería Internacional
Engineering & Mining Journal ▼ Power
Chemical & Metallurgical Engineering
Electrical Merchandising
CHEMICAL WARFARE
BY
AMOS A. FRIES
Brigadier General, C. W. S., U. S. A.
Chief, Chemical Warfare Service
AND
CLARENCE J. WEST
Major, C. W. S. Reserve Corps, U. S. A.
National Research Council
First Edition
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, Inc.

NEW YORK: 370 SEVENTH AVENUE
LONDON: 6 & 8 BOUVERIE ST., E. C. 4
1921
Copyright, 1921, by the

McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.
PREFACE
Shortly after the signing of the Armistice, it was realized that the
story of Chemical Warfare should be written, partly because of its
historical value, and partly because of the future needs of a textbook
covering the fundamental facts of the Service for the Army, the
Reserve Officer, the National Guard, and even the Civilian Chemist.
The present work was undertaken by both authors as a labor of
patriotism and because of their interest in the Service.
The two years which have elapsed since the initial discussion of
the outlines of the book have thoroughly convinced us of the need of
such a work. The Engineers, the Medical Department, and most of
the other branches of the Army have their recognized textbooks and
manuals. There has been no way, however, by which the uninformed
can check the accuracy of statements regarding Chemical Warfare.
The present volume will serve, in a measure, to fill this gap. That it
does not do so more completely is due in part to the fact that secrecy
must still be maintained about some of the facts and some of the
new discoveries which are the property of the Service. Those familiar
with the work of the Chemical Warfare Service will discover, though,
that the following pages contain many statements which were
zealously guarded secrets two years ago. This enlarged program of
publicity on the part of the Chief of the Service is being justified
every day by the ever increasing interest in this branch of warfare.
Where five men were discussing Chemical Warfare two years ago,
fifty men are talking about the work and the possibilities of the
Service today. It is hoped that the facts here presented may further
increase the interest in Chemical Warfare, for there is no question
but that it must be recognized as a permanent and a very vital
branch of the Army of every country. Reasons for this will be found
scattered through the pages of this book.
It should be explained that this is in no sense a complete
historical sketch of the development and personnel of the Chemical
Warfare Service. At least two more volumes are needed,—one on
the Manufacture of Poisonous Gases and one on the Tactics of
Chemical Warfare. We have purposely refrained from an attempt to
give credit to individuals for the accomplishments of the various
Divisions of the Service, because such an attempt would have made
the book too voluminous, and would have defeated the primary
purpose, namely, that it should present the information in as concise
manner as possible. The published and unpublished materials of the
files of all the Divisions have been freely drawn upon in writing the
various chapters, and many old C. W. S. men will undoubtedly
recognize whole sentences which they wrote under the stress of the
laboratory or plant “battle front.” May these few lines be an
acknowledgment of their contributions. Those who desire to consult
the literature of Chemical Warfare will find a fairly complete
bibliography (to about the middle of 1919) in “Special Libraries” for
November, 1919.
Special acknowledgment is made to Dr. G. J. Esselen, Jr., for
having read the manuscript and for helpful and constructive
criticisms. Many of the figures are reproduced by permission of the
Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry; those showing the
Nelson cell were furnished by the Samuel M. Green Company.
Amos A. Fries,
Clarence J. West.
Aug. 1, 1921.
FOREWORD
After all peaceful means of settling disputes between nations
have been resorted to and have failed, war is often declared by one
of the disputants for the purpose of imposing its will upon the other
by force. In order to accomplish this, a superiority must be
established over the adversary in trained men and in implements of
war.
Men are nothing in modern war unless they are equipped with the
most effective devices for killing and maiming the enemy’s soldiers
and thoroughly trained in the use of such implements.
History proves that an effective implement of war has never been
discarded until it becomes obsolete.
It is impossible to humanize the act of killing and maiming the
enemy’s soldiers, and there is no logical grounds on which to
condemn an appliance so long as its application can be so confined.
Experiments in this and other countries during the World War
completely established the fact that gas can be so confined. The
range of gas clouds is no greater than that of artillery and the
population in the area behind the front line must, if they remain in
such range, take their chance. The danger area in the future will be
known to all.
As the first Director of the Chemical Warfare Service, U. S. Army,
I speak with some experience when I say that there is no field in
which the future possibilities are greater than in chemical warfare,
and no field in which neglect to keep abreast of the times in research
and training would be more disastrous.
Notwithstanding the fact that gas was used in the World War two
years before the United States entered the fray, practically nothing
was done in this country before April, 1917, towards the
development of any chemical warfare appliances, offensive or
defensive, and had it not been for the ability of an ally to supply our
troops with such appliances, they would have been as defenseless
as the Canadians were at Ypres when the Germans sent over their
first gas cloud.
This book recites the troubles and successes of this new service
under the stress of war for which it was unprepared and I trust that
its perusal will create a public opinion that will insist upon chemical
preparation for war.
I feel that this book will show that the genius and patriotism
displayed by the chemists and chemical engineers of the country
were not surpassed in any other branch of war work and that to fail
to utilize in peace times this talent would be a crime.
William L. Sibert,
Major General, United States Army,
Retired.
CONTENTS
page
Preface vii
Foreword ix
chapter
I. The History of Poison Gases 1
Modern Development of Gas
II. 10
Warfare
III. Development of the
Chemical Warfare Service 31
The Chemical Warfare Service in
IV. 72
France
V. Chlorine 116
VI. Phosgene 126
VII. Lachrymators 137
VIII. Chloropicrin 144
IX. Dichloroethylsulfide (Mustard Gas) 150
X. Arsenic Derivatives 180
XI. Carbon Monoxide 190
XII. Development of the Gas Mask 195
XIII. Absorbents 237
XIV. Testing Absorbents and Gas Masks 259
XV. Other Defensive Measures 272
XVI. Screening Smokes 285
XVII. Toxic Smokes 313
XVIII. Smoke Filters 322
XIX. Signal Smokes 330
XX. Incendiary Materials 336
XXI. The Pharmacology of War Gases 353
XXII. Chemical Warfare in Relation to
Strategy and Tactics 363
XXIII. The Offensive Use of Gas 385
XXIV. Defense against Gas 405
XXV. Peace Time Uses of Gas 427
XXVI. The Future of Chemical Warfare 435
Index 440
CHEMICAL WARFARE
CHAPTER I
THE HISTORY OF POISON GASES [1]
The introduction of poison gases by the Germans at Ypres in

April, 1915, marked a new era in modern warfare. The popular
opinion is that this form of warfare was original with the Germans.
Such, however, is not the case. Quoting from an article in the Candid
Quarterly Review, 4, 561, “All they can claim is the inhuman
adoption of devices invented in England, and by England rejected as
too horrible to be entertained even for use against an enemy.” But
the use of poison gases is even of an earlier origin than this article
claims.
The first recorded effort to overcome an enemy by the generation
of poisonous and suffocating gases seems to have been in the wars
of the Athenians and Spartans (431-404 b.c.) when, besieging the
cities of Platea and Belium, the Spartans saturated wood with pitch
and sulfur and burned it under the walls of these cities in the hope of
choking the defenders and rendering the assault less difficult. Similar
uses of poisonous gases are recorded during the Middle Ages. In
effect they were like our modern stink balls, but were projected by
squirts or in bottles after the manner of a hand grenade. The legend
is told of Prester John (about the eleventh century), that he stuffed
copper figures with explosives and combustible materials which,
emitted from the mouths and nostrils of the effigies, played great
havoc.
The idea referred to by the writer in the Candid Quarterly Review,
is from the pen of the English Lord Dundonald, which appeared in
the publication entitled “The Panmure Papers.” This is an extremely
dull record of an extremely dull person, only rendered interesting by
the one portion, concerned with the use of poison gases, which, it is
said, “should never have been published at all.”
That portion of the article from the Candid Quarterly Review
dealing with the introduction of poisonous gas by the Germans, and
referred to in the first paragraph above, is quoted in full as follows:
“The great Admiral Lord Dundonald—perhaps

the ablest sea captain ever known, not even
excluding Lord Nelson—was also a man of wide
observation, and no mean chemist. He had been
struck in 1811 by the deadly character of the fumes
of sulphur in Sicily; and, when the Crimean War was
being waged, he communicated to the English
government, then presided over by Lord
Palmerston, a plan for the reduction of Sebastopol
by sulphur fumes. The plan was imparted to Lord
Panmure and Lord Palmerston, and the way in
which it was received is so illustrative of the trickery
and treachery of the politician that it is worth while to
quote Lord Palmerston’s private communication
upon it to Lord Panmure:
“Lord Palmerston to Lord Panmure

“‘House of Commons, 7th August, 1855 “‘I
agree with you that if Dundonald will go out himself
to superintend and direct the execution of his
scheme, we ought to accept his offer and try his
plan. If it succeeds, it will, as you say, save a great
number of English and French lives; if it fails in his
hands, we shall be exempt from blame, and if we
come in for a small share of the ridicule, we can
bear it, and the greater part will fall on him. You had
best, therefore, make arrangement with him without
delay, and with as much secrecy as the nature of
things will admit of.’
“Inasmuch as Lord Dundonald’s plans have

already been deliberately published by the two
persons above named, there can be no harm in now
republishing them. They will be found in the first
volume of ‘The Panmure Papers’ (pp. 340-342) and
are as follows:
“‘(Enclosure)
“‘Brief Preliminary Observations
“‘It was observed when viewing the Sulphur
Kilns, in July, 1811, that the fumes which escaped in
the rude process of extracting the material, though
first elevated by heat, soon fell to the ground,
destroying all vegetation, and endangering animal
life to a great distance, and it was asserted that an
ordinance existed prohibiting persons from sleeping
within the distance of three miles during the melting
season.
“‘An application of these facts was immediately
made to Military and Naval purposes, and after
mature consideration, a Memorial was presented on
the subject to His Royal Highness the Prince
Regent on the 12th of April, 1812, who was
graciously pleased to lay it before a Commission,
consisting of Lord Keith, Lord Exmouth and General
and Colonel Congreve (afterwards Sir William), by
whom a favorable report having been given, His
Royal Highness was pleased to order that secrecy
should be maintained by all parties.
“‘(Signed) Dundonald
“‘7th August, 1855’
“‘Memorandum
“‘Materials required for the expulsion of the
Russians from Sebastopol: Experimental trials have
shown that about five parts of coke effectually
vaporize one part of sulphur. Mixtures for land
service, where weight is of importance, may,
however, probably be suggested by Professor
Faraday, as to operations on shore I have paid little
attention. Four or five hundred tons of sulphur and
two thousand tons of coke would be sufficient.
“‘Besides these materials, it would be necessary
to have, say, as much bituminous coal, and a couple
of thousand barrels of gas or other tar, for the
purpose of masking fortifications to be attacked, or
others that flank the assailing positions.
“‘A quantity of dry firewood, chips, shavings,
straw, hay or other such combustible materials,
would also be requisite quickly to kindle the fires,
which ought to be kept in readiness for the first
favourable and steady breeze.
“‘Dundonald
“‘7th August, 1855’
“‘Note.—The objects to be accomplished being

specially stated the responsibility of their
accomplishment ought to rest on those who direct
their execution.
“‘Suppose that the Malakoff and Redan are the
objects to be assailed it might be judicious merely to
obscure the Redan (by the smoke of coal and tar
kindled in ‘The Quarries’), so that it could not annoy
the Mamelon, where the sulphur fire would be
placed to expel the garrison from the Malakoff,
which ought to have all the cannon that can be
turned towards its ramparts employed in
overthrowing its undefended ramparts.
“‘There is no doubt but that the fumes will
envelop all the defenses from the Malakoff to the
Barracks, and even to the line of battleship, the
Twelve Apostles, at anchor in the harbour.
“‘The two outer batteries, on each side of the
Port, ought to be smoked, sulphured, and blown
down by explosion vessels, and their destruction
completed by a few ships of war anchored under
cover of the smoke.’
“That was Lord Dundonald’s plan in 1855,
improperly published in 1908, and by the Germans,
who thus learnt it, ruthlessly put into practise in
1915.
“Lord Dundonald’s memoranda, together with
further elucidatory notes, were submitted by the
English government of that day to a committee and
subsequently to another committee in which Lord
Playfair took leading part. These committees, with
Lord Dundonald’s plans fully and in detail before
them, both reported that the plans were perfectly
feasible; that the effects expected from them would
undoubtedly be produced; but that those effects
were so horrible that no honorable combatant could
use the means required to produce them. The
committee therefore recommended that the scheme
should not be adopted; that Lord Dundonald’s
account of it should be destroyed. How the records
were obtained and preserved by those who so
improperly published them in 1908 we do not know.
Presumably they were found among Lord
Panmure’s papers. Admiral Lord Dundonald himself
was certainly no party to their publication.”
One of the early, if not the earliest suggestion as to the use of
poison gas in shell is found in an article on “Greek Fire,” by B. W.
Richardson.[2] He says:

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Introduction to 80×86 Assembly Language and Computer

3 Alcohol and Other Drugs 63 Societal Consequences of Drug Use and

• Self and Society: The Consequences of

4 Crime and Social Control 99 Demographic Patterns of Crime 116

5 Family Problems 141 Factors Contributing to Domestic Violence and

• The Human Side: Recollections from Adult

Part 3 Problems of Inequality

6 Economic Inequality, Wealth, Health Problems, Hunger, and Poverty 188

• The Human Side: A Student Activist

7 Work and Unemployment 213 Child Labor 225

• Self and Society: How Do Your Spending

8 Problems in Education 245 School Dropouts 261

Conflict Perspective 250 The Challenges of Higher Education 268

• Social Problems Research Up Close: Don’t

• Self and Society: Attitudes Toward Gay

Part 4 Problems of Globalization

14 Science and Technology 459 Societal Consequences of Science and

• Self and Society: What Is Your Science and

• Social Problems Research Up Close:

• The Human Side: What Happens to Women

• The Human Side: Life and Death in a

• Animals and Society: The Unsung Heroes

Self and Society

Social Problems Research Up Close

The Human Side

Animals and Society

New to This Edition

Features and Pedagogical Aids

In-Text Learning Aids

Supplements for Instructors

Supplements for Students

Unless someone like you cares a whole awful lot,

Chapter Outline Learning Objectives

Problems related to poverty, inadequate education, crime and violence, oppression of

What Is a Social Problem?

4 CHaPTeR 1 Thinking about Social Problems

religious Pollution Nuclear AIDS & Other subjective element of a

What Is a Social Problem? 5

Because social problems can be highly complex,

Structure and Culture

Elements of Social Structure

6 CHaPTeR 1 Thinking about Social Problems

Elements of Culture culture The meanings and

Elements of Social Structure and Culture 7

8 CHaPTeR 1 Thinking about Social Problems

Percentage of first-year college students at bachelor’s institutions who

*Percentages are rounded.

Symbols. A symbol is something that represents something else. Without symbols, we

Elements of Social Structure and Culture 9

The structural- Theoretical Perspectives

10 CHaPTeR 1 Thinking about Social Problems

Structural-functionalist Theories of Social Problems

Social Disorganization. According to the social disorganization view of social problems,

Conflict Theories of Social Problems

• Self and Society: The Consequences of

• Self and Society: How Do Your Spending

• Social Problems Research Up Close: Don’t

• Self and Society: Attitudes Toward Gay

• Self and Society: What Is Your Science and

• Social Problems Research Up Close:

• Animals and Society: The Unsung Heroes