NAU 07212: LINEAR ALGEBRA AND DISCREET

MATHEMATICS

Rosemary Jasson Nzobo (nzobor@gmail.com)

Dar-es-Salaam Maritime Institute (DMI)

May 2024
Contents
1 Counting Techniques 2
1.1 Basic Principles of Counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Permutation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Combination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1
1. Counting Techniques
Counting problems are problems which require one to find the number of ways to arrange or to
select a specified number of distinct elements of a set of a particular size, where the order of
these elements matters or does not matter.

Definition 1.0.1 (Factorial). For each positive integer n, the quantity n factorial denoted by n!
is defined as the product of all the integers from 1 to n i.e n! = 1 × 2 × . . . × (n − 1) × n. By
definition, 0! = 1.

Exercise 1.0.2. Perform the following operations.

1. 7! × 5!.
2. 10! ÷ 5!.
18!6!
3. 13!
.
n!
4. (n−r)!r!
where n = 16 and r = 4.
(n−2)!
5. Simplify: (n−1)!
.
4!n!
6. Evaluate, 3n(n−1)!
.
7. Solve for x given that:
(x−2)!(x+1)!
(a) x!(x−1)!
= 75 .
(b) 9(x − 4)! = (x − 3)!.
5!(n+1)!
(c) 3!(n−1)!n(n−1)
= nx

1.1 Basic Principles of Counting

Theorem 1.1.1 (Sum rule). If a task can be done either in one of n1 ways or in one of n2 ways,
where none of the set of n1 ways is the same as any of the set of n2 ways, then there are n1 + n2
ways to do the task.
Generally, if a task can be done in one of n1 ways, in one of n2 ways,. . . or in one of nm ways,
where none of the set of ni ways of doing the task is the same as any of the set of nj ways, for all
pairs i and j with 1 ≤ i < j ≤ m, then the number of ways to do the task is n1 + n2 + . . . + nm .

Theorem 1.1.2 (Multiplication rule). If the first event can occur in r1 ways, a second in r2 ways
and the third in r3 ways, then the three events can occur in r1 r2 r2 ways.
Generally, if there are n events and each event can occur in ri ways, then n events can occur in
r1 r2 . . . rn ways.

2
Section 1.2. Permutation. Page 3

Example 1.1.3. Sum and multiplicative rules.

1. Suppose that either a member of the mathematics faculty or a student who is a mathematics
major is chosen as a representative to a university committee. How many different choices
are there for this representative if there are 37 members of the mathematics faculty and 83
mathematics majors and no one is both a faculty member and a student?
Solution: Since choosing a member of the mathematics faculty is never the same as choos-
ing a student who is a mathematics major because no one is both a faculty member and a
student, it follows from sum rule that there are 37 + 83 = 120 ways for this representative.
2. A company with 12 offices has three new employees namely Sarah, Jack and John. How
many ways are there to assign different offices to these three employees?
Solution: By Multiplication rule, there are 12 × 11 × 10 = 1320 ways.

Exercise 1.1.4. Multiplication and sum rules

1. A student can choose a computer project from one of three lists. The three lists contain
23, 15, and 19 possible projects, respectively. No project is on more than one list. How
many possible projects are there to choose from?
2. A man has 10 Shirts, 5 trousers and 3 pairs of shoes. In how many ways can he choose
one shirt, one trouser and one pair of shoes?
3. (a) In how many ways can can 7 people be arranged in a row?
(b) How many arrangements are possible if only 4 of them are chosen.

1.2 Permutation.
Permutation involves arrangement of elements where the order matters.

Definition 1.2.1 (Permutation). The number of permutations (arrangements) of r objects taken

from n distinct objects (The number of permutations of n objects taken r at a time) is given by:

n n!
Pr =
(n − r)!

We have the following special cases:

1. If there are n distinct objects and all n objects are arranged at a time, then r = n and the
number of ways of arranging these objects is given by:

n n!
Pr = n Pn = = n!
(n − n)!

2. If there are n objects of which r′ s are not distinct i.e r1 are alike of one kind, r2 are alike
of second kind, . . . ri of i kind, then total number of ordered selections of these objects is
Section 1.2. Permutation. Page 4

given by:
n n!
Pri =
r1 !r2 ! . . . ri !

Example 1.2.2. Permutation

1. In how many ways can a manager display 5 brands of cereals in 3 spaces on a shelf?
Solution: n = 5, r = 3. It follows that,
n n! 5!
Pr = = = 60
(n − r)! (5 − 3)!

2. In how many ways can 5 boxes be arranged in a row?

Solution: Since n = r = 5, the required number of ways is n! = 5! = 120.
3. How many different ways can 4 red, 3 yellow and 2 blue bulbs be arranged in a string of
Christmas tree lights with nine sockets.
Solution: r1 = 4, r2 = 3, r3 = 2 and n = 9. It follows that:
n n! 9!
Pri = = = 1260 ways.
r1 !r2 !r3 4!3!2!

Example 1.2.3. Arrangements with restrictions.

1. How many arrangements of the letters of the word VOWELS are possible if:
(a) There is no restriction.
(b) Each word begins with E?
(c) Each word begins with O and ends with L?
(d) All vowels come together?
(e) All consonants come together.
(f) All consonants does not come together.
There are 6 letters on the word VOWELS hence n = 6.
(a) Since there is no restriction, n = r = 6 so there are n! = 6! = 720 arrangements.
(b) Letter E is fixed, so only n − 1 = 5 letters can be arranged and therefore, there are
5! = 120 arrangements.
(c) Two letters, O and L are fixed so only n − 2 = 4 letters can be arranged. Hence,
there are 4! = 24 arrangements.
(d) The letters O and E come together. Our set becomes {OE, V, W, L, S} hence
n = 5 hence there are n! = 5! = 120 ways of arranging elements of these set. Also
there are 2! = 2 ways of arranging the letters O and E hence there are 2 × 120 = 240
arrangements of the letters of the word VOWELS when all vowels comes together.
Section 1.2. Permutation. Page 5

(e) In this case, VWLS come together and there are 4! = 24 ways of arranging these
letters. Our set then becomes {O, E, VWLS} hence n = 3 hence there are 3! = 6
ways of arranging elements of these set. It follows from product rule that there are
24 × 6 = 144 arrangements of the letters of the word VOWELS when all consonants
come together.
(f) There are 720 − 144 = 576 arrangements.

Exercise 1.2.4. Permutation

1. How many different ways can the word MISSISSIPPI be arranged?
2. How many different car number plates are possible if each plate contains a sequence of
three uppercase English letters followed by three digits, where:
(a) Repetition of letters and digits is allowed.
(b) Repetition of letters is allowed but digits are chosen without repetition.
(c) Neither a letter nor a digit is repeated.
3. In how many ways can 8 girls and 4 boys seat in a row if:
(a) They sit anywhere?
(b) The two boys are together?
(c) The two girls are together?
(d) If all four boys are together?
(e) If all boys are not together?
4. How many numbers greater than 1000 can be formed with digits 3, 4, 6, 8, 9 if a digit cannot
occur more than once in a number?
5. From the digits 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, if a digit cannot be repeated,
(a) How many 4-digits numbers greater than 4000 can be formed?
(b) How many 5-digits numbers greater than 4000 can be formed?
(c) (i) How many numbers greater than 30, 000 can be formed?
(ii) How many even numbers greater than 30, 000 can be formed?
(iii) How many odd numbers greater than 30, 000 can be formed?
Circular arrangements
Circular arrangements are permutations in which object are arranged in a circle.
Consider the arrangement of five letters, abcde in a circle.
Section 1.3. Combination Page 6

As we can see from the diagram, the ar-

rangements

abcde

bcdea

cdeab

deabc

eabcd

are different in a line but identical around

the circle.

To find the number of ways in which n objects can be arranged in a circle, we arbitrarily fix the
position of one object, so that the remaining (n − 1) objects can be arranged as if they were on
a straight line. This gives the following.

Theorem 1.2.5. The number of ways in which n objects can be arranged in a circular form is
given by (n − 1)!

Example 1.2.6. At a dinner party 6 men and 6 women sit at a round table. In how many ways
can they sit if:
(a) There are no restrictions.
(b) Men and women alternate.
(c) A girl named A and a girl named B must sit together.
Solution:
(a) There are (n − 1)! = (12 − 1)! = 11! ways.
(b) First seat all 6 men in a round table (leaving one seat in between). This gives
(6 − 1)! = 5! ways of seating all 6 men in a round table. Since there are 6 girls, there
are 6! ways of seating a girl in between two men. Therefore, there are 5! × 6! ways
these people can sit around a table if men and women alternate.
(c) Seat girls A and B then seat the remaining 10 people. This gives 2! × 10! ways.

1.3 Combination
Combination is a selection of objects where order does not matter.
Section 1.3. Combination Page 7

Definition 1.3.1. The number of ways of choosing r objects from n distinct objects where the
order does not matter is given by:
n
n Pr n!
Cr = =
r! r!(n − r)!

Example 1.3.2. In how many ways can a coach choose three swimmers from among five swim-
mers?
5!
Solution: n = 5, r = 3. Hence n Cr = 5 C3 = 3!(5−2)!
= 10.

Exercise 1.3.3. Combination

1. How many lottery tickets must be purchased to complete all possible combinations of six
numbers, each with a possibility of being from 1 to 49?
2. How many groups can be made from the word HOUSE if each group consists of 3 alpha-
bets?
3. A committee of 5 people is to be formed from 6 men and 4 women. How many ways can
be done if:
(a) there are no restrictions?
(b) one particular person must be chosen on the committee?
(c) At least two women are included?
(d) At most two women are included?