NLP (Neuro-Linguistic Programming)

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NEURO-LINGUISTIC PROGRAMMING
TABLE OF CONTENTS
0 INTRODUCTION 5
1. INTRODUCTION TO NLP 8
1.1 MEMORY, EMOTION AND LEARNING 8
1.2 WHAT IS NEURO-LINGUISTIC PROGRAMMING? 10
1.3 ORIGIN, EVOLUTION AND DEVELOPMENT 13
1.4 ETYMOLOGY: MEANING OF THE NLP 13
1.5 ORIGIN OF THE PNL 15
1.6 PERCEPTION AND LERNING 17
1.6.1 BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY: PERCEPTION AND ACTION 17
1.6.2 SUBJETIVE EXPERIENCE 19
1.6.3 SENSORY EVIDENCE' STRUCTURE 21
1.6.4 PERCEPTION: THE 3 CHANNESL OF THE NLP 22
1.6.5 MAPS AND FILTERS 22
1.6.6 OMISSIONS, GENERALISATIONS AND DISTORTIONS 23
1.6.7 LEARNING 28
1.6.8 STAGES: LEARN, UNLEARN AND RELEARN 29
1.6.9 BANDURA'S LEARNING CURVE 31
1.6.10 CURRENT STATE AND DESIRED STATE 33
2. NL PASSUMPTIONS, FEEDBACK AND GOALS 36
2.1 ASSUMPTIONS AND BASICS OF THE NLP 36
2.2 FEEDBACK 46
2.3 GOALS 48
2.4 BUILDING OBJECTIVES: STRATEGIES 48
2.5 OUTCOME BRIDGE'S TECHNIQUE: TOACHIEVE A GOAL 71
2.6 POPS STRATEGY: HOW TO ACHIEVE A GOAL 73
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3. REPRESENTATIONAL SYSTEMS, EYE ACCESSING CUES, RAPPORT AND SENSORY

CUES 81
3.1 REPRESENTATIONAL SYSTEMS 81
3.2 EYE CUES 87
3.3 EMPATHY Y RAPPORT 90
3.4 GUIDELINES TO STABLISH HARMONY 93
3.5 SENSORY CLUES (VERBALS AND NOT VERBALS) 97
4. METAMODEL OF THE LENGUAGE, CALIBRATION, ASSOCIATED AND
DISSOCIATED, ANCHOR 112
4.1 META-MODEL 112
4.2 CALIBRATION 137
4.3 ASSOCIATED AND DISSOCIATED STATE 140
4.4 ANCHORS 142
4.4.1 USE AND IMPLEMENTATION OF ANCHORS 160
4.4.2 CIRCLE OF EXCELLENCE 161
4.4.3 CHANGE OF PERSONAL HISTORY 166
4.4.4 CREATING NEW BEHAVIOURS 168
5. SUBMODALITIES, HYPNOSIS AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE 171
5.1 SUBMODALITIES 171
5.1.1 TIME LINE 175
5.1.2 SNAP SYSTEM 178
5.1.3 BRIDGE TO THE FUTURE 180
5.1.4 PERCEPTIVE POSITIONS 182
5.2 HYPNOSIS 187
5.2.1 ERICKSONIANA OR NATURAL HYPNOSIS 188
5.2.2 BETTY ERICKSON'S AUTOHYPNOSIS 189
5.3 INTELLIGENCE 191
5.3.1 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE 193
5.3.2 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND NLP 195
5.3.3 THE FIVE ELEMENTS OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE 197
5.3.4 EMOTIONA DEPENDENCE 199
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6 CONFLICTS' RESOLUTION, METAPHORS, ADVANCED POPS MODELS

AND ITS BELIEFS 203
6.1 CONFLICT RESOLUTION (COHERENCE-INCOHERENCE) 203
6.1.1 INCOHERENCE ACCOMPANIAMENT 204
6.1.2 POLARITY: DETECTION AND INTEGRATION 205
6.1.3 LIMITING REFRAMING OF LIMITING EXPERIENCES 207
6.1.4 EXTERNAL CONFLICTS' RESOLUTIONS 213
6.2 METAPHORS 215
6.3 LOGICAL AND NEUROLOGICAL LEVELS 218
6.4 ADVANCED TOTE MODELS 220
6.4.1 NESTED POPS 222
6.5 MENTAL STRATEGIES 223
6.5.1 SUCCESS STRATEGIES 225
6.5.1.1 DISNEY'S CREATIVITY STRATEGY 225
6.5.1.2 MOTIVATION STRATEGY 227
6.6 BELIEFS 229
7 GLOSSARY 234
8 APPENDIX 245
8.1 GENERAL SUMMARY OF NLP TECHNIQUES 245
8.2 CASE STUDY 250
8.3 ANSWERS 284
9 BIBLIOGRAPHY 287
9.1 BOOKS 287
9.2 ARTICLES 290
9.3 WEBS
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0. FOREWORD
The Neuro-Linguistic Programming course is intended for all those who want to become
NLP Practitioners. Unlike the whole range of our other courses, NLP offers a part of
practical and individual exercises to reinforce the knowledge of each concept that you
learn. In order to become a good NLP Practitioner it is of utmost importance to
experience first-hand and put in practice all the techniques explained here as it is
essential to know how people with whom you are going to use these techniques will
feel.
During this course you will acquire the knowledge necessary for an NLP Guide (the Guide
accompanies the Explorer to create change, attain objectives, motivate, etc.), but in
order to achieve this, you also need to act as an Explorer (a person who follows the
Guide’s instructions on the application of different techniques to improve the aspects
he/she might need and achieve goals).
Throughout this course it is very important to develop the ability to observe. Having the
capacity of introspective analysis will enable you to identify your mistakes and as a result
repeat the exercise. In addition, observation is essential for acquiring and assimilating
all the knowledge of this discipline.
Not only can the NLP Practitioner course help you to take advantage of the knowledge
of the whole set of courses offered by the school, but it can also change your vision of
life, the way you interpret the world and the way in which you relate to it.
In this course you will learn different approaches and basic tools of Neuro-Linguistic
Programming and you will acquire a perspective that allows you to understand and
analyse not only yours but also others’ way of thinking and relating. You will also learn
how to understand the reality that surrounds you. Moreover, you will start to place
more value on the importance of non-verbal language in communicative situations.
Thus, you will be able to communicate in a more effective way.
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NLP will help you to understand the underlying processes of how people perceive,
process, interpret and emit an emotional and behavioural response according to their
own reality, and therefore, you will know how to identify the diversity of mental maps
of each individual and as a result upgrade your communication process. By being aware
of the impact that a message can have, you will know how to use different ways of
communicating. Another important element of this course, related to communication
skills, is improvement of the leadership level.
In addition to the above, thanks to this NLP Practitioner course you will learn to boost
your self-confidence in order to improve the relationships in different areas of your life:
family, love life, work environment or friendship. You will also get the opportunity to
enhance the process of self-knowledge which means exploring your inner world,
reflecting on your abilities and limitations, and developing undiscovered areas. On the
other hand, you will design an ecologically focused project aimed at achieving balance
in society.
The knowledge acquired during this course may be useful for anyone who wants to
upgrade their communication skills as well as strengthen and rediscover the abilities
that they already have. NLP is a kind of mental rehabilitation. When our brain has re-
educated, assimilated and internalized this way of functioning, it can apply it both to our
personal development (personal relationships, personal growth, self-knowledge, etc.)
as well as to our professional or academic development.
We believe that this course can improve the professional development of managers,
salespeople, traders, merchants, people dedicated to team management, HR
professionals, teachers, coaches, psychologists, psychiatrists, pedagogues, lawyers,
health professionals, professionals dedicated to the world of marketing or
communication, athletes, among others. In fact, it has been demonstrated that NLP is
an indispensable tool for different communicative situations: sales, negotiations,
interviews, meetings, speeches, seminars, exhibitions, classes, etc.
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The basic skills required to assimilate the course content are the capacity of observation
and self-observation, introspective capacity, analytical capacity, ability to adopt a global
vision, motivation to learn, self-criticism, ability to reflect and draw conclusions, and the
ability to internalize knowledge and put it into practice in different areas of life.
The best way to learn how to use the NLP tool and become a true Practitioner is to follow
step by step the course instructions as well as do all the exercises, and try to resolve all
doubts as we move forward.
At the end of this course book you will find several attached documents, a summary of
the most important concepts and key ideas, and a case study together with
internationally renowned research papers linked in a practical and applied way with NLP,
which will help us to get an even deeper understanding of NLP.
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1. INTRODUCTION TO NLP
1.1 MEMORY, EMOTION AND LEARNING
The learning process is an exercise that not only depends on one’s intellectual capacity,
but also on the emotional state, since emotions have a significant impact on both the
way in which information gets to the brain and on the acquisition and consolidation of
knowledge.
It has been scientifically proven that knowledge is acquired more effectively when
people are in a good state. State is the condition formed by human experience in a given
situation, that is: intellectual, emotional and physical processes that occur in this
situation.
We can distinguish between emotions that contribute to the improvement of the

learning process and those that hinder that process:
a) Emotions that impede the learning process:
- Universal truths: “It is like this”, “I know that”.

- Superiority: “I know everything”, “I know everything related to this topic”, “I
know more about this than the majority of people”.
- Mistrust: “I will never be able to learn it”.
- Complexity perception: “It is very confusing for me, I do not understand it, I
don't like it”.
- Repulsion: “It is new for me, I do not want to learn it”.
b) Emotions that facilitate learning:
- Motivation/passion for learning: “I love learning new things”, "I'm passionate

about this, I want to go deeper into this topic”.
Neuro-anatomist Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1894) was a Spanish doctor from Navarra, a
specialist in histology and pathology. He won the Nobel Prize in medicine in 1906 for
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discovering the mechanisms that govern the morphology and connective processes of
nerve cells. This was a revolutionary theory called “neuron doctrine”, one of the
founding assumptions of brain science, stating that the nervous system consists of
individual cells. Ramón y Cajal discovered, among many other things, that neurons
extend to establish new connections with other neurons, both in development and in
learning.
The latest research on learning and memory clarifies that emotion directly affects the
memory, in other words, an event that is accompanied by emotion will be better
consolidated and as a consequence it will be remembered more easily. Therefore, an
emotion, similarly to motivation, is crucial for assimilating, strengthening, internalizing
and applying knowledge.
- Realistic self-perception: “I have a lot to learn yet.”
- Self-esteem: “I know I can learn how to do this.”
- “Open mind”: “New knowledge enriches me, it helps me to perceive the world
in many ways.”
- Relaxation: "Even if it is new for me and I am confused, I hope that with time, I
will understand it better.”
Practice: Memory, learning and emotion
1. Choose a situation in which you have learned something. Then, close your eyes and
go back to that exact moment as if you were experiencing it again. Imagine the place
where you were, the people you were with, the temperature, the time of the day.
Try to listen to the information that came into your ears in the form of a sound, try
to re-experience the sensations and emotions that you felt when receiving the
information. Next, open your eyes and answer the following questions:
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a) Who or what motivated you to start the learning process?
b) What was your emotional state?
c) How would you describe the obtained result?
Repeat the exercise with three situations in which you have learned something.
2. Choose a situation in which you couldn't learn anything even though you tried hard.
Then, go through the same procedure as in exercise 1 and repeat it three times.
3. Finally, compare the results of both situations and think them through by answering
the following questions:
a. What has facilitated the learning? What has made the learning difficult?
b. What conclusions have I drawn for future learning processes?
c. Was I in a fit state in all those situations? What was my state in the situations
in which I did not acquire the knowledge properly?
1.2. WHAT IS NEURO-LINGUISTIC PROGRAMMING?
According to O'Connor and Seymour (1992), NLP is "the art and science of personal
excellence". These authors agree that it is art because each human being adds their
unique and personal touch to what they are doing, and that it is science because there
is a method and a process for discovering the models used by outstanding individuals in
the field and as a result obtaining optimal results. This process is known as modelling,
and patterns, skills and techniques which are discovered are increasingly used in all
areas and disciplines, as they help to achieve more effective communication, greater
personal development and an acceleration of the learning process. O'Connor and
Seymour consider NLP a practical skill that creates the results which people really want
and can reach.
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There is a belief that human beings interpret the world in the same way. From this
premise, various misleading beliefs, perceptions and sensations that lead to frustration,
anger, disappointment and prejudice, are formed. NLP is aimed at developing a premise
contrary to this position by stating that each person has a map of reality which refers to
a unique representation of the world built from their individual perceptions and
experiences. This reality is changing as it differs from person to person and it is prone to
various interpretations.
Let us think for a moment about this apple. To begin with, we

know that it is an edible fruit. In this case it is red, even though
there is a wide variety of types that vary in shape, colour, taste,
smell and texture. We are all sure that it is an apple, we know
that it is red, that it has a semi-oval shape, its skin is smooth and
it has a rough texture when we chew it; and, also, we are familiar with its smell and
sweet taste. Nevertheless, how do we know for sure that those features are real? Can
we be completely sure about the existence of a physical reality? What would happen if
you were told that we still had to verify if reality is as we perceive it? Nowadays,
scientists who study perception have proven that the perceived reality is a possible
interpretation of physical reality. So it may be that this apple is not really red but that
you perceive it and interpret it as red. In fact, it is known that there are many animal
species that do not perceive colours like human beings. We can extrapolate this to other
concepts such as beauty, since there are as many interpretations of this concept as there
are inhabitants on the planet.
NLP is the study of human behaviour understood as a totally subjective experience, and
a set of specific techniques that reorganize this experience,
with the aim of reaching a specifically defined and established
goal. All the information about the external world comes to
us through the senses or sensory organs: sight, hearing,
smell, taste and touch. This information travels through the
nervous system and reaches the brain where it is perceived, interpreted and processed.
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NLP is the study of how we organize all this information that travels to the brain through
the senses, how we perceive the world through the interpretation of it and how this
interpretation differs from person to person and depends on many environmental and
physical factors. NLP can also be defined as a set of tools created in order to understand
human behaviour. These tools can be applied in any human interaction and in any
context. According to Sambrano (1997) NLP:
- has the ability to make the human being grow and as a result obtain a better quality
of life.
- presents a practical and powerful approach to achieving change on a personal level

since it has a number of techniques that allows an individual to acquire a desired
behaviour.
- is conceived as a powerful tool of communication and synchronization, since

through the communication process the brain can be directed towards achieving
optimum results.
- is essentially a modelling. The specialists who developed NLP studied people who
did things in an excellent way. They found out what their formula was and provided
the means to repeat the experience.
- is an attitude. The "I am going to achieve it" kind of attitude.
- goes beyond a simple set of tools. It originates in linguistics, Gestalt therapy,

semantics in general, body, cognitive and emotional domain.
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1.3. ORIGIN, EVOLUTION AND DEVELOPMENT
NLP originated in 1973, at the University of Santa Cruz, when John Grinder (linguist) and
Richard Bandler (mathematician), both holding a doctorate in psychology, decided to
undertake a study on excellence in communication. They focused on the research of the
successful results of three outstanding therapists: Fritz Perls, innovator in the Gestalt
School; Virginia Satir, prestigious family therapist; and Milton Erickson, renowned
hypnotherapist. By means of studying these three people, Grinder and Richard wanted
to get a model that anyone could apply and learn from. Among other things, they
discovered that the success of these professionals did not depend on the theories or
schools to which they belonged, but on the quality of their practice, and that, in spite of
having very different personalities, they essentially used similar patterns. They
identified, analysed, reformulated and reconstituted these patterns and created a
model applicable to different therapeutic contexts.
NLP began to be used by teachers to improve the teaching-learning processes and by

psychologists to upgrade their therapy methods. And in this way, this model was
extrapolated to a myriad of contexts and disciplines: doctors, lawyers, salespeople,
managers, special education, HR professionals, coaches, etc. All of them recognized NLP
as an effective tool for any communicative situation and any context with a specific
purpose: interviews, meetings, classes, seminars, speeches, negotiations, etc.
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1.4. ETYMOLOGY: MEANING OF "NLP"
NLP is made up of the following areas: programming, neurology and linguistics. Let us
now take a look at the meaning of each of them.
§ Programming: the word programming refers to the effective organization and

planning of different parts of a process in order to obtain the desired results by
optimizing resources. In other words, it is about knowing how thought,
behaviour and emotion are structured and understanding how the human being
has been programmed so that they can be reprogrammed.
§ Neuro: All behaviour comes from neurological mental processes. We make
contact with the world through the processing of information that comes from
the sensory organs that belong to the five senses: visual, olfactory, gustatory
(taste), kinaesthetic (internal and external sensations) and auditory. We
interpret this information, according to our conceptual map and we emit an
emotional and behavioural response.
§ Linguistics: The brain of animals and specifically that of humans is the main organ
that regulates behaviour. The main function of this organ, from the
psychophysiological point of view, is the survival of the species. The brain has
developed innumerable mechanisms that allow human beings to adapt to the
environment in which we live by learning and solving complex problems. And
this is achieved through a tool that differentiates us from the rest of animal
species by its complexity: language. People use language to order ideas and
concepts, to communicate with themselves and with others. It is a process that
has a specific representation, order and sequence. The neurological processes
are encoded in the form of words, the words create concepts, concepts create
ideas and theories, and these form the vision of reality.
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1.5. ORIGINS OF NLP:
The Wild Days: NPL from 1972 to 1981 by Terrence L. McClendon.
"The Wild Days" is a personal account of the historical development of Neuro-Linguistic

Programming written by Professor Terrence Lee McClendon. He talks about his close
experience with NLP parents; John Grinder and Richard Bandler as he embarked on the
enriching adventure of the development and evolution of NLP. It is important to know
this story to understand the spirit and essence of the beginnings of this method.
McClendon himself states that one needs to get to know the NLP parents for a deeper
understanding of their charismatic personality and their passion for the science of
behavioural study.
NLP was born in 1973 in Santa Cruz, California (USA) at the University of California (USC).
That same year, Richard Bandler was a university student and attended classes in
philosophy, mathematics, logic and computer science. One afternoon that year, he was
caught up in a heated discussion in the “Interpretation of personal documents" class
about the lack of pragmatism of the university's psychology courses, in which he said:
"They should be teaching something more practical for people such as Gestalt Therapy”.
At that time Bandler was very interested in Gestalt therapy, family therapy, Rolfing and
other psychotherapies. The method of Structural Integration or Rolfing® owes its name
to Dr. Ida P. Rolf born in New York (USA) in 1896. She graduated in Chemistry from
Barnard College and later earned a PhD in Biochemistry at the Faculty of Medicine and
Surgery of Columbia University. Rolfing is a practice usually applied in series of 10
sessions with the aim of increasing mental and physical well-being. It is beneficial for a
very large group of people as it contributes to the preventive aspect of current medicine.
Bandler, disappointed by courses and activities, decided to create his own programme
for a seminar with the same curricular value as a regular class and relate it to the Gestalt
therapy. The only requirement to be able to undertake his project was the supervision
of a professor.
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The teacher who offered him supervision was John Grinder, who had studied the
theories of Noam Chomsky and the syntax of language. Grinder had served in the United
States Army, participating as an interpreter in several covert operations since he was
fluent in several languages. In one of his missions he was in Africa, so he was proficient
in Swahili.
Grinder realized how talented Bandler was, so he decided to teach him everything he
knew about the structure of human behaviour and promised to model him. With the
guideline of modelling the geniuses of communication, Bandler and Grinder began the
arduous study of analysing the audio and video material of successful people in action.
Some of the geniuses were: Fritz Perls, Virginia Satir and Milton Erickson.
Thanks to these courses given by John and Richard, other groups of experimentation
and practice of the techniques derived from Gestalt and Satir family therapy were born.
These groups enjoyed the participation of authors recognized today for their renowned
work in the field of NLP: Leslie Cameron, Maribeth Anderson, Frank Pucelik, Byron Lewis,
Judith DeLozier, Franck Pucelik, Terrence L. McClendon, David Gordon, Steve Gilian and
Robert Dilts. The picture above is a work by McClendon, specifically of the association
created by some of the authors named previously.
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NLP diagram (source: Introduction to NLP - Joseph O'Connor and John Seymour)
Sensory Acuity Georgy

Education Batenson
The 5 Theory of
senses Systems
Use of the
Systematic
language Therapy
Health
Modelling Milton
Linguistics Erickson
Altered State
Indirect
Resources
Communication
Business
Empowering Bandler
Exports States and Virginia
Grinder Satir
Therapy Model Family Therapy
Rapport
Communicatio n
Skills Fritz Perls
Sport
Gestalt Therapy
Communication
Coaching
Neurology
Law
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1.6. PERCEPTION AND LEARNING
1.6.1 Biological Psychology: perception and action
Rosenzweig, Breedlove and Watson (2005), start their chapter with the general
principles of the perception of human beings:
"Sunlight warms our skin and stimulates our eyes. A chorus of sounds, from the noises
made by insects to the enthusiastic interpretations of opera singers, excites our ears.
The wind bends the hair on our skin and transports the smells that are pleasant or
unpleasant. The foods we eat affect the receptors of the mouth, stomach and brain. A
great variety of energies and substances around us stimulate the senses and provide
the brain with an immense display of information about external and internal events.
The success of an animal, including humans, when undertaking survival tasks depends
on its ability to construct reliable representations of the physical characteristics of the
environment. However, in most cases the sensory systems do not copy or passively and
slavishly reflect the stimuli that affect them, quite the contrary. Evolutionary success
requires much more selective action. For any species, sensory systems construct only
partial and selective representations of the world. "
We receive the information from the external world through different sensory organs.
The faculty that the human being possesses to detect, recognize and evaluate the stimuli
that we receive from the outside depends on the characteristics of the sensory systems,
which contain specialized receivers (image on the next page) to detect certain energies.
These specialized receivers are placed in different systems: mechanical (touch, hearing,
muscle, etc.), photic (vision), thermal (cold, heat), chemical (smell, taste), etc.
In this way, information travels from the sensory surface to the highest levels of the
brain where it is processed; the brain can then emit the corresponding response.
Therefore, everything that we think is the product of our perceptions, and what we
process mentally is constructed with sequences of sight, hearing and meaning, which in
turn we organize in a subjective manner. In this way, internal representations are
elaborated and at the moment that they are given a meaning (using the information that
we have previously learned in our brain) the internal states emerge.
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1. Sensory cell of carotid corpuscle sensitive to chemical stimuli.

2. Taste cell sensitive to molecules present in food.
3. Olfactory neuron sensitive to odogens.
4. Pacinian corpuscle sensitive to mechanical stimuli of pressure.
5. Nerve terminals of the skin sensitive to noxious stimuli that cause
pain.
6. Hair cells of the inner ear sensitive to waves induced by acoustic
stimuli.
7. Retina cells (cones or rods) sensitive to the effects of light.
8. First neuron of the sensory pathway of elongation
mechanoreceptors present in the muscle spindle (skeletal muscle).
1.6.2 Subjective Experience
Bearing in mind that the objective reality refers to the fact itself, which will influence
our lives, the interpretation we make of it is called "subjective experience", which is
nothing else than the personal interpretation of something real which becomes our own
reality after a mental process.
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THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS OF SUBJETIVE EXPERIENCE
1 Outside stimulus impacts us and actions occur, which we perceive through

our senses (sensory organs).
This information is filtered (psychophysiological and cognitive filters:

previous information, learning, experiences, cultural beliefs, etc.) and it
2 reaches the parts of the brain that are responsible for information
processing and an internal representation of what we have perceived and
observed is created and given a meaning.
After the creation of internal representation and meaning, a physiological

3 response occurs (heat, cold, palpitations, tremors, activation or
movement), which we perceive through other internal receivers.
4 As a result of the above an internal state arises: emotion or feeling.
Finally, in accordance with our internal state, we carry out an adaptive

5 behavioural response (from crying, laughing, talking, shouting to even more
complex actions such as making decisions).
SCHEMA OF THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS OF SUBJECTIVE EXPERIENCE
EXTERNAL INTERNAL
WORLD INTERNAL REPRESENTATIONS
Perception INTERNAL
FILTERS
(5 senses) PROCESSES (MIND)
VAK
INTERNAL
External Conscious PERCEPTION
behaviour (BODY)
Internal state
and physiology
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1.6.3. Structure of sensory evidence
NLP defines, in a simplified way, the human experience as follows:
§ Perception and external behaviours (external world): everything that a

human being perceives through the sensory organs of sight, hearing,
taste, touch, etc. For example: “right now I'm reading this manual, sitting
on a chair, with a highlighter in my hand and listening to music. "
§ Internal perception (body): signals coming from the body that can be
experienced at any given time. For example: 'I feel a little tickle traveling
up my stomach when I think about the award that I will get for having
won.'
§ Internal processes (mind): images, internal dialogues, and assessments
that are experienced at a given time. For example: "I have a pressing
feeling in the chest (chest tightness), I feel bad and nervous, I will not
achieve it, as usual, I have heart palpitations and I can't sleep (anxiety).”
MAP OF THE WORLD OF NLP
Ve
Ae
Ki V = Visual
Ke
A = Auditory
External Body K = Kinaesthetic
- Smell
World - Touch
- Taste
i = internal
Mind e = external
Vi, Ai
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1.6.4. Perception: the three channels of NLP
As shown above, we perceive the world mainly through 5 senses: sight, hearing, smell,
taste and touch. NLP classifies them into: VISUAL, AUDITORY and KINAESTHETIC
Sight Visual 3
5
C
Hearing Auditory
S H
E A
Touch
N N
N
S
Taste
Kinaesthetic E
E
L
S
Smell S
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1.6.5. Maps and filters
"It is not the objective facts themselves that disturb the dynamics of the soul,
but what we think about those facts."
Epictetus
Whatever may be the outside world, we use our senses to explore it and define it. The
world provides endless possible sense impressions, and we are only able to perceive a
small part of it. The part that we can perceive is filtered by our unique experience, which
is built through culture, language, beliefs, values, interests and assumptions. Everyone
lives in their unique reality, constituted by their own sense impressions and individual
life experiences, and we act according to what we perceive: our model of the world (O'
Connor and Seymour, 2007).
O’Connor et al. say that the world is so wide and rich that in order to make sense of it
we have to simplify it. Making maps is a good analogy for what we do; it is the way we
give meaning to the world. The maps are selective; they neglect and provide information
at the same time, and are of inestimable importance when it comes to exploring the
territory. The type of map that an individual makes will depend on what they see and
where they want to go. The human being pays attention to those aspects of the world
that are of interest to them and ignores the rest. Therefore, the filters that people put
on their perceptions determine what kind of world we live in.
MAP ≠ TERRITORY
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1.6.6. Omissions, generalisations and distortions
The world is very complex, therefore, we need a series of strategies to simplify and filter
it. The filters that are applied when perceiving reality are manifested through three
mechanisms: omissions, generalizations and distortions. The objective of these
mechanisms is to pay attention to a part of all the information that reaches different
sensory organs, so that we pay attention to certain information and omit or eliminate
the rest. This helps us to reduce or simplify the external reality to dimensions in which
we can feel safe and in control.
§ Generalisation: It refers to creating general concepts from specific instances by

abstracting common characteristics. It is a process by which some elements of
the person's model are detached from the original experience and represent a
total category (Carrión, 2014: 23). Through generalization we create our mental
models; we take an experience that we have gained as a model that is
representative of a group of experiences.
§ Distortion: It is the procedure that allows us to make alterations and
deformations in our experience of the sensory data that we perceive. (Carrión,
2014: 23).
§ Omission or elimination: In this deviation, what we do is pay attention
selectively to certain dimensions of our experience, while excluding others.
Elimination reduces the world to dimensions that we are capable of handling.
We select the information that we address and perceive, and we filter it
according to our state, our interests, our maps, etc.
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We receive information through the senses and filter it through memories and
experiences, and then we generalize, omit or distort part of that information. Based
on the values, beliefs and expectations, we build an internal and individual map,
elaborated by means of images, sounds and sensations that will represent the
individual reality and the territory.
One of the creators of the Laws of Gestalt or Laws of Perception stated the following:
"The whole is greater than the sum of its parts."
Wolfang Köler
It is an important axiom that explains a basic premise of perception, which states that
the elements separately have less sense or meaning that the union of these elements.
Gestalt Psychology is a school of psychology founded in the 20th century in Germany. It

was created by Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, Kurt Koffka and Kurt Lewin who
believed that the human brain organizes the items collected in the form of
configurations (gestalts) or totalities, and it does this through certain laws of
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perception. The term Gestalt means shape or figure in German, but, in psychology it is
often interpreted as pattern or configuration.
Distortions and generalizations
1. In these two drawings (A and B), which stick is longer?
The truth is that in both drawings, both the

top and bottom stick are of the exact same
length. The context makes us see a
difference between the two.
2. What do you see in each picture?
A man with glasses or a naked An old woman or a young

woman? woman?
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3. Which central circle is bigger?
Both measure exactly the same.
4. What do we see in this figure?
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1.6.7. Learning
"(...) It is a process of relatively permanent change in behaviour which results

from experience."
Feldman, 2005
"Learning involves acquisition and modification of knowledge, strategies, skills,

beliefs and attitudes.”
Schunk, 1991
"Learning is a relatively permanent change of the human disposition or capacity

which is not attributable simply to the development process."
Gagné, 1985
Although in a conscious way, we are only able to retain a very small amount of
information that the world offers us, we see and respond to a much greater extent
without realizing it. Our conscious part is very limited and seems to be able to follow a
maximum of seven variables or pieces of information at the same time (O'Connor and
Seymour, 2007). American psychologist George Miller (1956) says that these pieces of
information do not have a fixed size, and can be anything, from driving a car to looking
through the rear view mirror. O’Connor et al. (2007) claim that one way to learn is
through consciously mastering small pieces of behaviour which, combined with longer
chunks, become habitual and unconscious. In this way, O'Connor and Seymour believe
that we build habits and thus, we are free to learn other things. On the other hand, they
indicate that our unconscious is able to simultaneously handle all the vital processes of
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our organism, everything that we have learned, our past experiences, and whatever else
we notice at the present moment.
The notion of conscious and unconscious is fundamental to understanding the model of

how we learn. Something is conscious when we are aware of it at the present moment,
for instance, you are conscious that you are reading this text. On the other hand,
something is unconscious when we are not aware of it at the present moment, for
example, the sounds that exist in the place where you are reading this text. We live in a
culture that makes us believe that most of what we do is conscious, however, most
things that we do, we do unconsciously.
1.6.8. Stages: learning, unlearning, and relearning
According to the traditional point of view, we learn based on four stages:
§ Learning
• 1st Unconscious incompetence: a person does not know how to do

something and ignores the fact that they don't know how to do it.
An example: You have never driven a car and you do not know what it is like.
• 2nd Conscious incompetence: a person is able to see that they still do not
know something. This is the stage in which they learn more.
An example: You have taken a few driving classes, you know the basic
elements and instructions: the wheel, pedals, gears, how to turn the wheel
and change gear, where to look, etc.
• 3rd Conscious competence: a person already has the ability but they have
not yet mastered it.
An example: You can drive the car but it requires your full attention.
• 4th Unconscious competence: this stage is the purpose of the effort; all
those patterns that have been learned are harmonized in a joint unit.
An example: You can now drive a car while listening to music or a
conversation on the radio.
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Practice: How did you learn?
Recall a situation in which you learned something. Think of something simple like
skating, more complex such as driving, or even more so like doing a new job. Analyse
your experience by going through the different stages of learning defined previously.
1. Recall and describe the biggest difficulty you had to overcome in the 2nd stage
(conscious incompetence).
Recall and describe in which part of the process you had to work hard placing emphasis
on the 3rd stage (conscious competence).
Think and describe a situation in the 4th stage that made you leave the unconscious
competition and go back to the 2nd stage (conscious incompetence).
It may happen that the knowledge and skills that we acquire are inefficient or that our
filters (beliefs, values, ideologies, criteria, etc.) make us miss out on information that
might be necessary for achieving the desired objective of learning. In such cases we have
to go back to the previous stages (unlearning) and then move forward again with the
knowledge acquired in an optimal way (relearning).
§ Unlearning
- Process in which a person goes back from the 4th stage of learning to the 2nd
one. This happens whenever we want to improve the quality of our learning
process or discard false information from our memory.
§ Relearning
- Process in which a person progresses again in learning, moving from stage 2
to stage 4 , and acquiring improved or revised knowledge.
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N
L
E Conscious incompetence L
A
E
R Conscious competence
N A
Unconscious competence
R
People, who want to continuously grow, evolve and develop through achieving the
objectives that they have set, need to go through a continuous process of learning and
be fully immersed in the flow of learning, unlearning and relearning.
1.6.9. The Bandura Curve
Albert Bandura is an acclaimed psychology professor at Stanford University responsible

for many contributions to psychology including cognitive-behavioural tendency
(psychological trend that is aimed at studying human behaviour taking into account the
following variables: behaviour, thoughts, and emotions). Bandura is recognized for his
work on social learning theory. This theory, studied by Bandura among other authors,
suggests that the combination of environmental (social) and psychological factors
influences behavior.
Bandura represents the learning process by means of the following chart.
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Consolidation of
the experience
Beginning of
the learning E.D.
We take
data
E.P.
U.I. I.C. C.C. C.I.
Rejection of FAILURE
learning Abandoning learning
E.P. = Present state

E.D. = Desired state
U.I. = Unconscious incompetence
C.I. = Conscious incompetence
C.C. = Conscious competence
U.C. = Unconscious competence
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Practice: Learning facilitator
Carefully read the instructions and then do the exercise, preferably with your eyes
closed. Remember that this exercise can be repeated whenever you want to learn
something new.
1. Choose a concept, topic or area that you would like to expand or improve your
knowledge in. Think that you still have to learn a lot about the topic that you have
chosen, and also reflect on the benefits you will gain from learning it.
2. Structure, plan and determine how you can acquire the knowledge. For example:
courses, books, workshops, articles, magazines, teachers, friends, experts in the
field, etc.
3. Then, think about three previous experiences in which you remember that you
learned something.
4. Out of those three experiences choose only one that you feel had a more profound
emotional impact.
5. Now reconnect with that experience, imagine that you are experiencing the situation
in which you learned something important to you: look back on what you saw, what
you heard, what you thought, what surprised you, what you liked, all the things you
thought about.
6. Try to relive the emotions that you felt.
7. When you feel that you are emotionally connected, imagine that you are learning
that new topic, see the whole environment around you, listen to the sounds that
travel to your eardrums, and give in to this flow of emotions that is leading you to
the new experience that truly delights you.
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8. Imagine yourself putting into practice the acquired knowledge and think how you
will enjoy the benefits derived from learning.
9. Open your eyes, and if it is possible, begin to study the issue that you have worked
on in the exercise.
1.6.10. Current state and desired state
As we have seen previously, the internal representations refer to all the information that
comes to us from the external world (once filtered), plus the internal perception of the
body itself. On the other hand, this internal representation is followed by a physiological
reaction, which together establish the so-called internal state:
INTERNAL STATE = INTERNAL REPRESENTATIONS + PHYSIOLOGY
From this equation, as if it was a mathematical equation, we can make the necessary
modifications to change our behaviour and reach a desired state so that a change or the
appearance of a problem is nothing more than the distance that exists between the
present state and the desired state. Since our internal states (capacities-emotions) are
a subjective construction of our perceptions that were once filtered, we may achieve
undesirable results. It is necessary to learn that we have the capacity to change the
internal state. Once the present state has been detected, we can make the optimal
modifications either in the internal representations or in the physiology so as to reach
the desired state.
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PROBLEM or
DIFFICULTY
CURRENT STATE
(PROBLEM STATE) ≠ DESIRED STATE (DESIRED
GOAL)
The problem is the difference between the present state and the desired state. When
we set an outcome in the future somehow a "problem" has been created in the present
and each problem in the present can be transformed into outcome. The behaviour,
thoughts and feelings will be different in the present state and in the desired state. In
addition, in order to pass from one state to another, resources are needed (O'Connor
and Seymour, 2007). As O'Connor and Seymour state in their book Introduction to NLP,
motivation is a driving power behind undertaking this journey. The desired state should
be something that we really want to achieve. At the same time, we need be fully
committed to the goal, and believe that it is achievable, useful and practical.
The means to achieve the planned goal are the skills, techniques or mental states. NLP
techniques are powerful resources when it comes to overcoming barriers, resistance
and interference. It is very important to have sensory acuity and sensitivity so as to
perceive the external world and be aware of the opportunities. Moreover, this will allow
better adaption to the environment and flexibility as one can choose among the full
range of techniques, resources and skills.
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2. NLP PRESUPPOSITIONS, FEEDBACK AND GOALS
2.1. PRESUPPOSITIONS AND BASICS OF NLP
NLP is not considered a theory, but a model. This model puts forward its epistemological
postulates stating that "we cannot prove these ideas and we cannot prove that they are
true or correct nor are they composed of a final reality, but we accept them and we do it
because we find them useful in the task of making changes and achieving things”. It is
based on a set of useful presuppositions for understanding communication strategies
and change. They are like bases that encourage the understanding of the functioning of
the subjective structure of each person. These NLP assumptions have been drawn from
the following fields:
• General semantics (Alfred Korzybski).
• Transformational Grammar (Noam Chomsky).
• Theory of Systems (Gregory Bateson).
• Cybernetics (W. Ross Sabih).
• Pragmatism (William James).
• Phenomenology (Edmund Husserl).
• Logical Positivism (Bertrand Russell and Alfred Whitehead).
• Neuroscience (different authors who study: anatomy, physiology, molecular

biochemistry and the nervous system).
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§ Presuppositions
The presuppositions of the NLP make reference to:
- How we perceive reality and reality itself.
- The capabilities of people.
- The interrelationships among humans.
- The nature of change in the human being.
§ The map is not the territory

Everything that happens in our brain with regard to a specific event does not
correspond to this event itself, but only consists of our perception of that event.
The human being tries to give meaning to the events so that they fit into the
model of the particular world of each one; for this purpose, internal
representations of the world are constructed in the mind. They are composed of
information received through the senses, in addition to language. These internal
representations (maps) and their construction are determined by genetic factors
and by personal history, and cannot be confused with reality. According to Alfred
Korzybski (1941): "the map is not the territory, each map is constructed by the
cartographer himself, it is self-reflective, and no map can cover the entire
territory". Bandler and Grinder developed this idea in a broader sense.
With that in mind, the conflict among people arises when an individual wants to
impose their map as an absolute reality since people respond to our map, which
is a construction or perception of reality, but not reality itself.
From NLP, maps that really matter are the effective maps, which allow
adaptation to a greater number of situations that are useful and help to achieve
the desired objective.
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§ Everyone has the resources necessary to achieve the objectives they want to:
"People function perfectly well, it is just that they are engaged in bad programmes
(depression, lack of decision, being defensive, etc.)"
Richard Bandler
" Successful people in all fields are driven... I am not talking about driven in the way
type A personalities are, but driven with curiosity. They are driven to do what they do
better each time.”
Richard Bandler
NLP argues that every human being has an innate ability to face problems and create
the state of necessary resources to achieve their definition of success. Following this line
of thought it can be said that NLP adopts an educational aspect.
NLP tries to help people to discover and reach their own resources as well as enhance
the skills and abilities they already possess. Every human being genetically possesses an
organized neural network with an infinite number of functions, including the ability to
learn and the will and motivation to do it.
"Most people do not use their own brains actively and intentionally. The brain is like a
great machine without a shutdown button. If we do not give it some task it keeps working
and working until it gets bored. If we put a person in a private prison of sensations where
there was no external experience, that person would begin to generate internal
experiences. If the brain goes through the day without doing anything, it will start to do
something and it seems that it does not care what it is. We may care, it does not (...)."
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"... if the brain is not given some indications, either it will work randomly by itself or there
will be other people who will find ways to direct it, and they will not always have your
best interest in mind. But even if they do, they can be wrong.”
Richard Bandler (1985)
"There are no facts, only interpretations."
Nietzsche
§ Modelling: All behaviour (biologically feasible) can be learned:
"Fortunately, most of human behaviour is learned by observation, by modelling."

Bandura
According to NLP, modelling is the process in which a sequence of patterns of thought,

language and behaviour is reproduced. It is done through the temporary adoption of the
identity and beliefs of the person being modelled, and specifically focusing on the skills
we want to model. However, we need to bear in mind that behaviours are modelled,
but not people.
The mind captures, processes and stores the information of the external environment
through the senses in the form of images, sounds, sensations, smells and tastes. This set
of elements stores them so as to later develop different abilities. In NLP this process is
known as strategies, which is nothing more than an order of sequences of these images,
sounds and sensations that allow us to act. The brain uses strategies to generate
experiences: loving, hating, learning, motivating, attending, teaching, spelling, speaking,
and any other behaviour. Therefore, the abilities function by means of the development
and sequential order of representation systems.
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"All our external behaviour is controlled by strategies of internal behaviour".
Robert Dilts
§ Failure does not exist, there are always results
Failure does not exist, there are only results. It can be used as feedback, useful
corrections, and a great opportunity to become aware of things that would otherwise
go unnoticed. "Failure is just a way of describing a result that you did not want. You can
use the results you get to redirect your efforts. Feedback keeps the goal in view."
(O'Connor and Seymour, 2007: 33). Likewise, an error can be perceived as an
opportunity to learn, improve and grow as a person. If something does not work, we
have to change it so as to obtain different results; we need to bring about a change to
reach the desired objective.
"If you always do what you have always done, you will always get what you have
always got. If what you're doing doesn't work, do something else."
Joseph O’Connor and John Seymour
When a person makes a decision, they will always try to choose the best alternative
possible. It is only natural that sometimes we do not understand the decisions or
behaviour of the people that surround us since we tend to read the world through our
personal map. If the exercise of reading the map of the other person is done, we will
understand the reason for their behaviour, the reason why they have chosen one
alternative and not the other that, in our opinion, would be the best.
From the point of view of reading the map of other people, instead of feeling anger or
rage as a result of not understanding certain behaviour, emotions such as compassion,
optimism, tenderness, hope, but above all understanding will be triggered.
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§ Flexibility
“In any interaction, the person who has the most choices of what to do, the greatest
flexibility of behaviour, will be in control of the situation.”
O’Connor, J. and Seymour, J.
Reflection: Have you ever become offended/angry because of the

behaviour or the decision taken by another person?
1. Why were you annoyed?
2. Think why this decision or behaviour occurred.
3. Read the person's own map.
4. Is their map different from yours?
5. Was it the best option they had at that time?
6. Is that person flexible?
7. Do they have a wide range of techniques and resources to act?
8. Understand this person.
§ System: mind and body
Nowadays, scientists in the field of health have defined a model which is used to
evaluate and treat human beings. It is known as the Biopsychosocial Model. The
biopsychosocial approach systematically takes into consideration biological
(chemical and biological), psychological (thoughts and emotions) and social
factors and their interactions in understanding health, illness, and health care
delivery. It is prominent in various fields: medicine, psychology, pedagogy,
sociology, etc., as it perceives the mind-body as a single entity composed of two
elements that interrelate. Currently, it is known that there are many physical
Page 41
diseases whose origin can be influenced by emotional stress: ulcers, ulcerative

colitis, migraines, arthritis, asthma, allergies and even cancer.
The mind is a functional organ of the human body, and its physiology can be
altered not only by the administration of a drug, but also by thoughts and
emotions which act in the brain as if they were drugs because they modify the
brain in a chemical-electrical way. It is known that we use exactly the same
neurological pathways in our externalized behavior as we do in our internal
functions. Therefore, learning by internal functions can be externalized to
behavior.
Reflection: Do you feel emotionally bad about some aspects of your life? In
what part of your body do you feel it? Neck? Chest? Head?
In which organ do you feel that emotional pain? Stomach? Intestines? Heart? Let us
remember that this place might be an indication of a physical disease.
§ All behaviour has a positive intention
All human behavior originates from positive intentions. However, this does not
mean that all behavior is correct, but it simply implies that all behavior is driven
by the necessity to meet specific needs. What happens when the behavior is not
appropriate is that it seeks to achieve something important and, as a result, the
person sets in motion their mechanisms and resources. The intention at that
time is positive, but the person can apply filters through limited knowledge and
misconceptions, so that they will lead to incorrect or inappropriate behavior.
When we realize that a person is carrying out malicious behavior (hurting, lying,
taking revenge, etc.), we need to do the exercise of finding out what the positive
intention of their behavior is. The result of this exercise might turn out to be
much more profound and complex than we thought.
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When we apply this assumption to other people, what we need to do first is to

discover the positive intention that lies behind the behavior. Some people may
discover that there was a positive intention of which they were not aware, and
others may create an internal representation that might help them to
understand the behavior.
It can be said that all behavior is useful in some context, although this does not
justify immoral, unethical or harmful behavior. It simply helps to explain a part
of human behavior and distinguish between behavior and person.
Reflection: Every behaviour has a positive intention; therefore

every behaviour is useful in some context.
Try to think of some behaviour that you do not like, that you do not feel
good about. And then think about the last time you displayed such
behaviour.
• Find out what the positive intention was.
• Think why it was useful the last time, and why you think it might
be useful in the future.
• Link it to the theory learned in this NLP assumption.
• What have you learned about yourself?
The human being is much more than the behaviour they display. The question is what
the purpose of carrying out different behaviours in each context is without justifying or
judging the behaviour. The behaviour may differ from the personality.
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§ Communication: the meaning of my communication is measured by the

response of the receiver.
"The meaning of communication is the response you get."

O’Connor and Seymour
Communication can be defined as the system of integrated behaviors that calibrate,

regularize, maintain and, therefore, enable the relationships between people. As a
consequence of this, we can say that communication is a mechanism of social
organization, in the same way that the transmission of information is the mechanism of
communicative behaviour (Carrión, 2014).
As indicated by Carrión (2014: 66), communicating implies not simply transmitting

information because in order to communicate, a series of factors, also known as
patterns of effective communication, are necessary. It is very important to keep in mind
that in order to carry out effective communication, that is, to make sure that the person
or group to whom the message is addressed, understands it, and if not, we may assume
that the communicator has not been able to put into practice the effective
communication patterns.
The elements of communication:
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The person in charge of the communication is the communicator (transmitter), whose

objective is to get the meaning of the message that he has in mind to coincide with the
desired response obtained by the receiver, including the verbal and non-verbal
response. The human being is always communicating, even unconsciously. People
continually send signals to others, in many cases feelings, emotions, thoughts, ideas and
decisions are not verbalized, but our non-verbal language is communicating through
various signals that contain information about all those elements.
The code (sign system that the transmitter uses to convey the message) that we use to
communicate has an impact on the perception and reception of the message: much of
the communication is carried out through non-verbal language: tone, volume and
rhythm of the voice, facial expressions, breathing, body posture, body temperature,
gestures, etc. There are people who give priority to non-verbal communication saying
that it speaks volumes about one’s true intentions, others prioritize the verbal way of
conveying information and others consider both equally important. That is why it is so
important that there is coherence between communication channels. The congruence
between different channels adds reliability and validity to the communication.
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The person who establishes the communication framework is the person in charge of
channelling this communication: we are immersed in a frame of reference. When we
are observing something according to the communication framework we will attend to
some details or to others, and we will establish priorities. Therefore, when
communicating, the person who establishes the communication frame is the one that
controls the interpersonal field. Normally, this exercise is unconscious so that conscious
values cannot be applied.
Reflection: The communicator (transmitter) is in control of the

communication.
Recall any communicative situation in which there has been a
misunderstanding.
What do you think that the transmitter of the message could have
done to control communication and thus be able to close the circle?
2.2. FEEDBACK
In a communicative situation, when the transmitter issues a message and receives a

response, it is said that they receive feedback.
We get feedback when we receive a signal that we have understood the message in a
communicative situation, but we also receive feedback both when we have done
something right at work and they praise us explaining what we have done, as well as
when they inform us about an error that we have committed and they correct us. Be
that as it may, feedback must be received as a gift since it helps us learn and improve.
Feedback needs to be brief, concrete and clear. It should be given in the first person and
at the right time. We can distinguish between two types of feedback:
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§ Praising: positive reinforcement ("You have done a great job, thank you for your
effort").
§ Constructive criticism: explaining what can be done to improve ("I think that you
could greatly improve your performance if you did "A" instead of "B", what do
you think?)
HOW TO RECEIVE FEEDBACK HOW TO GIVE GOOD FEEDBACK
- "Open mind ": open attitude and being - Empathy and humility, without
receptive. impositions.
- Being grateful. - An attitude of great honesty and

improvement.
- Recognizing the positive intention.
- Giving an extensive explanation of the
- Asking for explanation and examples to
reasons.
improve.
- Recognizing and praising the correct or
- Recapitulating without generating
valid aspects.
tension.
- Advising on concrete improvements
- Assessing the situation.
and giving clear and easy to understand
- Deciding how and when the areas for examples.
improvement can be applied.
- Avoiding the words "no", "problem",
and replacing "but" with "and".
- Finding the right time for both, the

transmitter and receiver.
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2.3. GOALS
- “Would you tell me, please, which way I ought to go from here?
- That depends a good deal on where you want to get to, said the Cat.
- I don't much care where, said Alice.
- Then it doesn't matter which way you go, said the Cat.”
Lewis Carroll, Alice in Wonderland.
§ Definition
An objective is defined as the end towards which certain actions or desires of somebody
are directed, it is something that one’s efforts or actions are intended to attain or
accomplish. Likewise, an objective can be defined as the desired state of a person or a
group.
In addition, objectives can be interpreted as an expression of the values of a person or

a group, since they are a source of motivation and guidance. The human being needs
objectives for self-motivation or self-stimulation, and for the sense of fulfilment that
achieving them gives. For these reasons, it is of great importance to learn how to
develop good use of objectives. According to O'Connor et al. (2007), the more accurately
and positively you define what you want, and the better you programme your brain to
seek out and be aware of the possibilities, the more likely you are to achieve your
objectives. Opportunities exist when they are recognized as opportunities.
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2.4. FORMULATION OF OBJECTIVES: STRATEGIES
It is common practice that people, when having difficulties reaching their goals, ask
themselves the following questions:
- What have I done wrong?
- How long have I had this problem?
- Why is this happening to me?
- What are the drawbacks and how should I overcome them?
- Who is responsible?
NLP studies how language affects thoughts, emotions, behaviours and physiology. In the
same way it affects the expectation to achieve our goals. A strategy is defined to
encourage the achievement of the goals.
The steps to learn how to define objectives:
1. Positive definition of the goal.
2. Specific description based on senses.
3. Individual responsibility for achieving the objective.
4. Reviewing the goal: time and scope.
5. Checking if the objective is ecological.
6. Analysing the resources and limitations.
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§ Positive definition of the goal
When you reflect on the goal or the objective that you want to reach, you have to make
a positive definition, that is, describing where you want to go, but not mentioning where
you do not want to go. You should include things that you want and omit those that you
do not want.
The way to transform a negative objective into a positive one:
Negative goal: "I do not want to be stressed at work".
Once the goal is defined, which in this case is negative, we can consider the following
issues to redefine it:
- If you did not feel stressed at work, how would you feel?
- How would you like to feel at work?
- What do you think is the optimal mood so as to feel good at work and be able to
perform well?
Positive objective: "I want to feel relaxed at work."
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Exercise: The positive goals

Change the negative objectives into positive ones following the
example:
Negative goal: "I don't want to feel stressed at work".

Positive goal: "I want to feel relaxed at work ".
NG: "I don't want to eat junk food".

PG:
NG: "I don't want to argue with my partner".

PG:
NG: "I don't want to feel anxious at work".

PG:
NG: I don't want to get mad at my staff".

PG:
§ Strategies to set positive goals
The objectives are usually formulated in relation to a present state, a problem, a

difficulty or a concern. If the definition is negative it is no longer an objective, since it
represents a point you do not want to reach. The strategies are the following:
Polarization: It is the opposite of what I do. An example: "I do not want to feel stressed
at work", the person could say: "I want to be relaxed at work".
Comparison: I want to do things like X. An example: "I would like to be as relaxed as my

supervisor".
Theorization: I want to do things the way they should be done. An example: "I would
like to have techniques: breathing, positive self-talk, self-confidence, muscle relaxation,
etc."
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Productivity: I want to do more A and B. An example: "I want to be calmer, speak slower
and show a positive attitude".
As if: An example: If I had reached my desired state, I would be calm when

communicating, I would speak slower and I would express a positive attitude ".
It is advisable to use strategies to define objectives that are appropriate in each case.
Practice: Identify and define a positive goal
Detect a problem that is worrying you. Then, identify what the problem state is by
answering the following question:
Define the objective using the strategies explained:
What is the problem state?
My problem is that I _____________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
1. What do you want to avoid? Denial of the problem state.

I want to stop_______________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
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2. What is the opposite of your problem state? Polarize the problem state.
Instead, I want_________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
3. Whose example would you like to follow? Look for an external reference; make a
comparison.
I want to act like___________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
4. Theorize: What are the basic principles for defining the structure of your desired
state? Define these principles by developing point 3.
I want to embody the characteristics_________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
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5. Productivity: Define a productive outcome, developing the qualities that you

already have. What qualities do you need to develop in order to achieve the desired
state?
I want to be more___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
6. "As if": If you had already reached this desired state, what would you be doing
differently? What would you do more and/or better?
If I had already reached my desired state, I would__________________________
___________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Verify if the objective is attainable, workable, feasible, self-motivating, well defined

and clear.
§ Specific description based on the senses
To keep tabs on the evolution of the path towards the goal, you can answer a series of
questions associated with sensations.
- What will I observe when I achieve the objective? What sounds will I hear? What
images will I see? What smells will I smell?
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It is about describing the goal but adding all the sensory details: sight, hearing, taste,
smell and touch. It means experiencing the context and the sensations of the desired
state.
- How can I evaluate if I am achieving the objective? How will I know if I am

approaching the goal?
It is necessary to define with whom we will check the progress towards the achievement
of the goal: with colleagues, friends, our partner, our family, etc.
All these questions need to be formulated assuming that the objective will be achieved,
for example: "How will I feel once I have managed to do X?" Instead of, "How would I
feel if I was able to do X?”
Practice: Set a goal. What do you want to achieve during this NLP course?
QUESTION ANSWERS
What do you want to achieve during this

NLP course?
How will you know that you have

achieved it?
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List the VAK sensory evidence, emotions

and feelings you will experience when you
achieve the goal:
- Which emotions will you experience?
- Which feelings will arise?
- What sensations will you have?
- What will you hear?
- What will you see?
Describe how do you think this course

will change your life.
In which areas will you be able to observe

that you have fulfilled the objective of the
course?
What will you achieve in these areas?
* Recommendation: save this table along with your annotations in a file and retrieve it at the
end of the course.
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§ Individual responsibility for achieving the goal.
The fulfilment of the objective should always be the responsibility of the person who
sets it so we need to prevent third parties from intervening.
Human beings are social beings constantly interacting with other human beings, so the
goals that we are trying to attain always involves other people because thanks to their
feedback, we can observe whether we have achieved the objective or not. However, we
should be aware of the fact that we are the ones who need to get down to work, instead
of waiting for the third parties to do so. The questions that have to be raised to avoid
shifting responsibility and control to third parties are:
Objective: "Arguing less with employees".
Right questions:
- What can I do to get my message across?
- How can I find out if they have understood the instructions?
- What can I do to have the situation under control without creating tension?
- How should I communicate so that they don't get me wrong or get the impression
that I am telling them off?
Wrong attitude:
- I want my employees not to argue with me.
- I don't want my employees to raise their voice.
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§ Reviewing the goal: timeframe and scope.
The objective is feasible if it is of an adequate size.
O'Connor and Seymour (2007) explain it in the following way:
The goal should be an appropriate size; if it is too big it should be divided into smaller
and more attainable targets. For example, let us imagine that someone’s objective is to
be a professional soccer player. It is obvious that this objective will not be fulfilled in a
week, probably not even in a year. The question that we need to ask ourselves is: What
prevents me from achieving it? As it is a long-term objective, we can split it into smaller
objectives (MINOR GOAL): finding a club and/or a coach, buying a good ball and
equipment, improving physical fitness and technique, etc. On the other hand, it may also
happen that the goal is too small and trivial to motivate. In this case we should look for
a more inspiring objective (MAJOR GOAL). In order to verify it, you can ask yourself:
What will I get?
MAJOR GOAL
Motivating, generating more
energy
How will I achieve

What will I get?
it? GOAL
MINOR GOAL
Feasible and
attainable
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§ Major goal and positive intention
Bearing in mind that one of the presuppositions of NLP is that all behaviour has a positive
intention; it is recommended that the objectives always have a positive intention. When
it comes to the formulation of objectives, positive intention refers to a goal that is
considered not only legal but also ethical: "feel good about yourself", "increase self-
esteem", "improve communication with others and with oneself ", etc. In order to
transform the goal into a positive intention, the following questions can be asked: What
will I get out of achieving this goal? For what reasons do I need to achieve it? What
aspects will I change? Where will it take me? These questions should always be forward
(for what?) and not backward-looking (why?).
It is necessary to investigate until we reach the definition of the positive objective which
can always be achieved. Dilts, R. et al. (1998) demonstrate in their book Identification
and Change of Beliefs, the importance of breaking down a belief to discover what the
reasons and the origins of that belief are; that is what they call belief strategies.
Belief strategies are the ways in which we hold beliefs. They have a structure formed by
images, sounds or sensations that operate largely unconsciously. In addition, they are a
series of test procedures that we use to decide whether something is credible or not.
The belief strategies work automatically and can put constraints on the achievement of
goal. The automatic and almost unconscious nature of these belief strategies means that
they can intervene negatively in the definition of objectives. That is why asking questions
and breaking down negative beliefs is so important when an objective is poorly defined.
It is essential to ask until you get a positively defined objective.
An example:
- I am going to kill him!
- Okay, you want to kill your co-worker, could you explain to me what you would get
out of it?
- Revenge and relief!
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- I understand that, but what will you get out of taking revenge?
- I can show everybody the jerk that he is and the entire world will see that I am a good
worker.
- Aha! And if you could carry out this behaviour of relief and revenge, what benefits
would you receive?
- People would respect me and trust me. I would show who I really am.
- And how would you benefit from that?
- I would feel better about myself, I would improve my self-esteem, and I would respect
myself more.
QUESTION DIAGRAM
Improve my self-esteem
Feel better about myself and respect
myself more.
What for?
What will you get out of this?
People will respect me and trust

me; I will show who I really am.
What for?
Revenge and relief.
What for?
I want to kill my co-worker.
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Practice: Positive major objective
This exercise can be done by yourself, or you can practise with someone (friend, family
member, acquaintance).
1. Choose a negatively defined goal that does not meet the aforementioned
characteristics. In the case of practising with another person, you will be the
Guide and the other person needs to choose the objective, for example, taking
revenge on his boss, destroying his co-worker, etc.
2. The Guide asks a series of questions until an objective with positive intention
appears and this will be the optimal objective for the subject, or for oneself in
case of having done the exercise individually. Example: What will you get out of
it? For what reason do you need to do that? For what reason do you want to do
that?
§ Analysing if the objective is ecological
As O'Connor and Seymour (2007) state: "no one exists in isolation: we are all part of a
larger system, family, friendships and society in general." Therefore, the consequences
of achieving the objectives in these wider contexts need to be considered. Will it have
side effects for me or for the people I relate to? What will I have to do give up or take
on to achieve it?
Ecology is one of the most important points in NLP. Let us take a look at the definition
of ecology according to the Cambridge Dictionary:
Ecology - the relationships between the air, land, water, animals, plants, etc., usually of
a particular area, or the scientific study of this.
Ecology in NLP refers to the relationship between an organism and its environment.
Likewise, the main objective from the point of view of NLP is that the changes made by
the individual fit and adapt to the environment in an optimal and healthy way. It is
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necessary to formulate the objectives with an ecological and systemic consciousness.

Ludwig Von Bertalanffy (1968) cites in his book, General Systems Theory, a premise of
the former Canadian prime minister named Ernest Charles Manning.
"…[An] interrelationship exists between all elements and

constituents of society. The essential factors in public problems,
issues, policies and programmes must be considered and evaluated
as interdepending components of a total system".
Ernest Charles Manning
Ludwig Von Bertalanffy was an Austrian biologist and philosopher who promoted the
General Systems Theory; an explanation of nature and life as a complex system, subject
to interactions and dynamics. With this theory, the holistic and integrating vision to
interpret reality is retaken.
In short, the changes that occur at the individual level will not only impact us, but also
the elements that belong to our system, that is, the achievement of objectives has
systemic implications.
Human beings have a tendency to generalize the formulation of objectives, as if a new

behaviour was appropriate in all situations and circumstances, when in fact it may
happen that this behaviour might be adequate only in some circumstances. For
example: "I want to show more understanding when my employees are not productive",
you can ask then: "Is there a situation when your employees are not productive and you
do not want to be understanding?"
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These are some questions that we can ask in order to formulate ecological goals:
- What consequences will I face when I achieve the goal?
- What do you think are the things or behaviours that will not change?
- What benefits and losses will I have?
- What advantages does the current state have for me?
- How can I enhance the positive things in my current situation?
- Will this objective affect the actions of others? Will it affect my actions?
- Will the people involved get any benefits? And what will they lose?
- Do I want to keep this goal forever?
- What could discourage me from wanting the goal forever?
- What will be the consequences of not achieving the goal?
§ Analysing the resources and limitations
In order to analyse resources and limitations, it is essential to define the objectives and
be able to carry them out.
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§ Limitations
" Identify limiting beliefs. First it will be necessary to recognize the limiting beliefs or
interferences to be able to deal with them. Dilts, R. et al. (1998), humorously call them
"internal terrorists" because they prevent a person from evolving. However,
interference or limiting beliefs can be recognized as a communication for which
another set of resources is needed before moving forward.”
Dilts, R.
Dilts, Hallbom, and Smith
The question we might ask is: What currently prevents you from achieving the goal you
have formulated?
§ Available resources
What resources do you have to attain the objective? What do you really need in
order to achieve it? Do you already have it? And in case you do not have it, how
are you going to get it? Resources can be internal (specific abilities or positive
states of mind) or external. If you find out that you need external resources, you
may need to set a subsidiary objective to achieve it. (O'Connor and Seymour,
2007; 40)
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§ Additional resources
Are other objectives necessary for achieving my goal within my reach? Should I
consider a subsidiary objective in order to get more resources?
§ Action plan
Once we have worked on these questions, it is time to ACT.
OVERVIEW OF THE FORMULATION OF OBJECTIVES
O’Connor et al show in their book, Introduction to NLP, that all the steps of the
formulation of the objectives can be summarized in the following mnemonic: POPSERS.
Think about what you want and

what you don't want:
P Positive
ü What would I want to have?
ü What do I really want?
O
What we want to do is only our
responsibility:
Own Part ü What would I do to reach my
P goal?
ü How can I start getting it?
Imagine the objective in the most

specific way possible:
S Specificity
ü Who, where, when, what,
how?
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Think of the sensory evidence that

will indicate whether we have
achieved what we wanted or not:
E Evidence ü What will I see, hear and feel

when I achieve it?
ü How will I know that I have

achieved it?
Seeing if we possess the necessary

resources for carrying out the
R Resources objective.
ü What resources do I need to

fulfil the objective?
Analysing if the goal has a proper

size.
S Size
ü Is the objective attainable?
ü Is it too big? Or is it too small?
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Practice: Objectives
The exercise that we will do now is concerned with the formulation of objectives. The
objective that you will set should be real.
Define the objective: specify a goal that's

currently important to you.
Rate from 1 to 10 (1 is the lowest level and

10 the highest) your degree of motivation
for achieving the goal.
What for? For what reason do you want

to achieve this goal?
What will you get out of it?
Positive intention: Is the statement

positive?
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If not, transform it.
Control: Is it up to you to reach the

desired goal?
If not, what do you have under your

control?
VAK Evidence: What will let you know that

you have attained the desired state?
-
-
You'll see, hear, feel…
-
-
Emotions:
-
Ecology:
Advantages and disadvantages: What will

you gain and what will you lose by
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achieving the goal? And what about the

people around you?
Is there an objective in conflict?
Once the goal is reached: Do you want it

in every moment of your life?
If not, detail how and when you want your

goal fulfilled.
Action plan: Steps that you need to follow 1.

from now until the fulfilment of the
objective.
2.
3.
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4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Resources: Do I have the resources

necessary for achieving the objective?
Which resources do you have? Which do

you need?
What are you going to do to get those that

are missing?
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Notes (comments):
2.5. BUILDING OUTCOME BRIDGES IN ORDER TO ACHIEVE A GOAL
The bridging technique is a successful strategy technique aimed at identifying the steps
essential for achieving a goal.
It is a temporary orientation technique; the Guide needs to situate the Explorer in the
future where he/she has already achieved the desired objective. The Explorer becomes
aware of the sensory evidence (VAK) and then returns to the present state and analyses
the experience, knowing the steps necessary for reaching the objective.
Basically what we are doing is bringing the outcome into present time in order to build
a bridge to the desired future.
The steps that we need to follow so as to carry out this technique:
- Close your eyes; look ahead and imagine what you would like to achieve in the
future.
- Describe every detail of that future, focusing on what you hear, see and feel.
- Live that experience and feel it for a while.
- Return to the present evaluating the new information.
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Let us suppose that the objective is to reach the top of a mountain. Seeing ourselves
from the valley will most probably put us off climbing. However, if we look at the top
(objective) from the very top, we visualize ourselves above and situate ourselves there
(VAK evidence). The only thing that we need to do is do it. In this way, the person feels
motivated and empowered.
The aim of implementing this kind of exercise is creating a goal that we should address,
rather than tracing a path that will take us to it. It is a perfect tool for those cases when
people are unable to define what they really want, both in their personal and
professional lives, and it is often much easier to create goals that we do not want rather
than those that we do want.
Applications of the technique:
- Generating an action plan.
- Training for every step that needs to be taken.
- Generating intermediate goals.
- Generating sensory evidence of the goal.
BRIDGE TO THE FUTURE DIAGRAM
Specifying the Situating in the Analysis of the

target objective (top): process
present and first Ask for:
Space person
I'm in ... Steps to Ecological
Time
doing … follow: proof:
VAK Evidence
PEAK What are the
steps that you
have followed
to get here?
Has something
Where? When? - Stages not been good
How will you know - Minor in your
that you have Objectives environment?
reached it? VALLEY - Strategies
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2.6. TOTE STRATEGY: HOW TO ACHIEVE A GOAL
T = Test
O = Operation TEST-OPERATION-TEST-EXIT
T = Test
E= Exit
This learning model, described by George A. Miller, Eugene Galanter and Karl H. Pribram
in 1960 in their book, Plans and the Structure of Behaviour, suggests that when you know
that you want something to happen, you run strategies until you achieve your goal.
§ The basic principles of this model:

- Behaviour is more than stimulus-response.
- Behaviour is intentional.
- We respond to the differences, not to the results (information).
- Reducing the differences between the present and desired state.
- The more options (operations) the greater the probability of success.
- Each step incorporates feedback.
This model enables us to keep track of strategies, understanding how they work and also
understanding how they can be changed when we do not obtain the expected results.
In NLP, the sensory evidence of the achievement of an objective is very important, as it
indicates that we have achieved the formulated objective. We simply need to answer
the question: How will I know that I have achieved the objective?
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When we want to achieve something and formulate a goal (DS = Desired State), it starts
with so-called Input (PS = Present State). As we have seen previously, one of the steps
to formulate an objective is to define sensory evidence, which allows us to verify if we
have reached our goal or not. We attain the objective when the sensory evidence of the
present state is the same as that of the desired state. If this is not the case, we need to
carry out as many operations as necessary until the objective is achieved. When we do
so, the Exist system can be performed.
TOTE
Beginning of STATE EXIT

the Test VAK YES Desired State
PS Sensorial Evidence
DS
¿PS = DS?
NO
We keep doing Test-

Operation -Test again and
again, until we get a YES
OPERATION
Actions and responses to
problems
FLEXIBILITY
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Example:
- Input (test): I need to buy a new computer. My criteria: new, white, Sony, price 700
euros.
- Operation: I surf the Internet and go to computer stores.
- Test: I compare the information that I have gathered with my criteria and if there is
nothing that lives up to my expectations I go back to operation phase to expand the
search.
- Exit: When I find a computer that satisfies my needs and meets my criteria the whole
process comes to an end. If it does not happen, we can modify the criteria, as for
example look for another brand, colour, price, etc.
§ Self-modelling - TOTE strategy

It is a way to analyse the process from the beginning to the end of the achievement of
an objective through the TOTE strategy. If the result is satisfactory, a model can be used
to achieve other objectives. The strategies are separate from the content, and for this
reason, you can use strategies of how to encourage creative writing to help others to be
creative in any aspect: at their work, in the education of children, in the kitchen, etc.
The procedure is to investigate the four elements of the TOTE scheme, therefore you
need to ask and answer the following questions:
1. Exit (test): What do you want to achieve? What is your goal?
2. How do you know that you are achieving it? VAK.
3. Operations: What actions are you carrying out to attain your goal?
4. In the event of not reaching the desired objective/state, what actions would
you take?
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To ensure that the process is perfect, we will take into account the following premises:
ü Knowing the sensory evidence. By means of feedback you will know if you are getting
closer to the desired state.
ü Having a clear idea of the results that we want to achieve.
ü Flexibility: The more options we have, the more chances of success we get.
Example: A manager, who is not able to delegate or lead his employees, ends up
getting overloaded with work and failing to obtain good results.
A comparison between effective and ineffective processes
Effective Ineffective
communication communication
context context
Learning, teamwork, Reaching the objectives of

Goals? developing skills and the company, doing my
company performance. duties perfectly.
Observing the behaviour

Sensory evidence of
of my employees (facial
achieving the
expression, gestures, Seeing the result of the
objective feelings, etc.) and task.
perceiving my inner
VAK
sensations.
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Behaviours that are Explaining the procedures Putting in more hours and
carried out to achieve to my employees and asking someone for help at
the goal giving feedback. certain times.
Conducting training
If the desired goal is
sessions, supervising and Feeling overwhelmed,
not achieved how
evaluating why the stressed out and hopeless.
should we act?
message was not received.
To improve the ineffective strategy, we can implement the following actions:
ü Add the effective elements of the TOTE to the ineffective ones.
ü Change the ineffective elements of the TOTE for the effective ones.
These actions allow us to take advantage of the ineffective strategies without rejecting
them as we should remember that they provide material that can be used. Instead of
eliminating and perceiving the limiting strategies as incorrect, we can supplement them.
Page 77
Practice: TOTE.
Practice goal: achieving a goal, self-modelling.
1. Think and identify two behaviours:
a. Something that you feel you do well and with good results.
b. Something you want to improve so as to get results similar to those

mentioned in "a".
2. Ask the questions of the TOTE for each situation, put the answers in the following
table.
3. Suggest new answers to these questions, adding elements of the effective TOTE
to the ineffective one.
Try to do this exercise with someone. You are the Guide and the other person is the
Explorer.
The task of the Guide is to accompany the Explorer during the entire process, especially
in point 3, where more support is needed. There, both of them need to make an effort
and be creative.
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Effective context Ineffective context
Goals?
Sensory
evidence of
achieving the
objective
VAK
Behaviours that
are carried out
to achieve the
goal
Page 79
If the desired
goal is not
achieved, how
should you act?
Page 80
3. REPRESENTATIONAL SYSTEMS, EYE ACCESSING CUES,

RAPPORT AND SENSORY CUES
3.1. REPRESENTATIONAL SYSTEMS
"If the doors of perception were cleansed, everything would appear to man as it is:
infinite". William Blake
William Blake was a 19thcentury poet and painter who is regarded as a seminal figure in
the history of poetry and visual arts of the Romantic Age. He was a great source of
inspiration for Aldous Huxley.
As Aldous Huxley pointed out, the doors of perception are our senses: our ears, mouth,
skin. They are our only means of contact with the world. It is our neurological system
that helps us to interpret the world in which we live. We form our experiences through
our senses. These experiences are stored in our mind and are no more than images,
inner sounds and internal sensations.
We observe the world through a series of active perceptual filters: the world we perceive
is not a real world; the territory, it is a map created by our neurology. Hence, what we
are looking at will be filtered again by our beliefs, interests and concerns (O'Connor and
Seymour, 2007).
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§ System operation
In the first place, the human being chooses a modality of the representational system (it
depends on what predominates in each person: what we see, hear, taste, smell, touch
or individual body sensations). Starting from this perspective, internal representations
are formed. They acquire a meaning and this is when the internal states are triggered.
3 3
5 Sight Visual Visual
C
Hearing Auditory H Auditory S

S
A Y
E
Touch N S
N
N T
S
Taste
Kinaesthetic E
Kinaesthetic E
E
L M
S Smell
S S
NLP uses three main systems: V (Visual), A (Auditory) and K (Kinaesthetic), called
Representational Systems.
Each human being has their own way of understanding the external environment. It is a
relative issue which differs from person to person. Some senses might be given priority
over others, depending on the individual. This directly interferes with the way people
interpret reality. There are people who unconsciously focus more on the visual channel,
they remember better what they see, and they also communicate through visual terms.
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Other people may place more emphasis on the auditory channel, and the same thing
happens: they concentrate more on the auditory information, that is, on what people
say, they remember auditory details better, and their language is influenced by auditory
terms. Finally, there are people who prioritize the kinaesthetic channel (taste, smell,
touch and internal sensations) and they interpret the external world through
kinaesthetic nuances.
TABLE OF OPERATION OF REPRESENTATIONAL SYSTEMS
Incoming Internal Subjective

Information Information Experience
From the external world Such information is

the information reaches It enters our nervous constructed as
1st the brain through the 2nd system and it is 3rd experience and
senses or sensory interpreted as: therefore, it is
organs: remembered:
Visual (eyes) Images V (images, display)
Auditory (Ears) Sounds A (noise, sounds)
K (feelings,
Kinaesthetic
Sensations sensations,
(body/skin)
emotions)
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Reflection: representational systems

This exercise involves going through all the representational systems, either of a
current or a specific experience chosen.
For example, “ I'm currently experiencing (I can smell, I hear, feel, touch, see, inner
feelings, internal sounds, etc.)".
Practice: Which representation system do I have?
Choose the option that best defines your preferences. This questionnaire will show, at
least approximately, which is your preferred channel.
1. You have difficulties finding your hotel in a city where you have only been a couple
of days. What do you do?
K. You keep walking looking for landmarks.
A. You ask.
V. You check the map.
2. You have to learn how to use new software. What do you do?
K. You ask a friend for help.
V. You have a look at the manual that comes with the programme or you look for the
Internet consultation.
A. You call an acquaintance and ask.
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3. You prefer lecturers that use:
V. Flow charts, notes, slides.
K. Field trips, labs, practical sessions.
A. Discussions, guest lecturers.
4. Recall a situation where you have learned how to do something new, such as the
operation of a mobile phone. How did you learn best?
V. Through visual indications: images, diagrams and written instructions.
A. Listening to someone's explanations.
K. Experiencing, testing it yourself.
5. You have bought a device that you have to install yourself. What will help you
most?
A. Listening to a tape describing what steps you should follow.
K. Getting down to work and learning along the way.
V. Seeing a video or consulting printed instructions.
6. You are going to take care of a friend's house during his absence. You have to learn
quickly how to look after a garden and pets. The best thing to do will be:
V. Seeing how someone else does it.
A. Getting instructions and a thorough explanation.
K. Being accompanied while doing it.
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7. You have to make a presentation in front of a small group of people. To make

yourself feel comfortable you prefer to:
A. Be sure about the tone of voice and words that you are going to communicate.
V. Have diagrams and notes that you can consult during the presentation.
K. Rehearse the presentation several times.
8. Which of the following hobbies do you enjoy most?
K. Walking/gardening/dancing.
V. Drawing/painting/sightseeing/taking photos.
A. Listening to music/singing/telling stories.
9. To acquire a new skill you prefer to:
A. Listen to a description and ask questions.
V. See diagrams and presentations.
K. Do exercises.
10. When you tell your friends about a concert or event that you have attended, first
you:
V. Describe the situation.
A. Tell them how it sounded.
K. Transmit sensations that you had.
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11. Which of these activities do you devote most time to?
A. Listening to your thoughts or talking to yourself.
V. Daydreaming.
K. Delving into your feelings.
12. Usually you think and speak:
K. Slowly.
A. Normally.
V. Quickly.
13. You normally breathe from:
V. The upper part of your chest.
A. The lower part of your chest.
K. The abdomen.
Count and results:
V = ____ A = ____ K = ____
The representational system that has obtained the

highest score will be the lead system.
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There are people who are better at certain tasks or skills; who have learned to use one
representational system better than the other, so it has become natural for them to
perform some actions without any effort and unconsciously. Sometimes a
representational system is not very well developed, which can make certain activities
difficult. There is no system better than another; everything depends on what a person
wants to do (O'Connor and Seymour, 2007).
§ Language and representational systems
O'Connor et al. state in their book that people use language to describe their thoughts,
so our choice of words will indicate which representational system we use. These
sensory-based words, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, are referred to in the NLP texts as
predicates. The habitual use of a certain type of predicates will indicate the person’s
preferred representational system. That said, the secret of good communication is not
so much what is said, but how it is said. Linking in with the predicates of the other person
is a key to a harmonious conversation.
3.2. EYE ACCESSING CUES
In addition to predicates, there are other types of signals that can provide information
about our lead and preferred representational system. There are visible changes
throughout our body depending on what we are thinking or how we are thinking. The
way we think affects our body, and how we use our body affects the way we think.
Moreover, to go further, we move our eyes in different directions in a systematic way
according to what we are thinking. Some neurological studies show that both lateral
and vertical eye movement seem to be associated with activating different parts of the
brain. These movements are called "Lateral Eye Movements", and in NLP they are called
eye accessing cues, because they give insights as to how people are accessing
information. As a general rule, the same patterns are fairly consistent across all races
with some possible exceptions. (O’Connor and Seymour, 2007: 71). Bandler and Grinder
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made this discovery when they asked certain questions in class and people looked in the
same direction to answer them.
The patterns are as follow:
- When most right-handed people move their eyes up and to the left, they bring to
mind images previously seen (it is a process of accessing the images that are
remembered). Vr = Visual remembered.
- If they move their eyes up and to the right, they are creating an image by joining
pieces that they have probably never seen before. Vc = Visual constructed.
- When the eyes move to the height of the ears to the left, they indicate the process
of auditory recovery of words or sounds that are remembered. Ar = Auditory
remembered.
- If the eyes move to the average height of the head to the right, they indicate auditory
construction of phrases or sounds. Ac = Auditory constructed.
- If the eyes move down and to the left, the person is accessing an internal dialogue,
values, principles, judgments or evaluations. Ad = Auditory digital.
- When the eyes move down and to the right, people access the kinaesthetic
perception (feelings, sensations, smells, tastes) and emotions. K = kinaesthetic.
It often happens that people with focused and absent eyes seem to be creating images;
however, they also may be conducting an internal dialogue in that way.
If a person moves their eyes upwards, you can predict that they are seeing images
internally, so if you are talking to them using visual words you can locate their
wavelength and achieve more effective communication.
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§ Lead System
It may happen that the lead system is different from the preferred representational
system. It is possible for a person to use the digital auditory system (internal dialogue)
as a guide, but while listening he/she may not be able to process the information at the
same time, so some time needs to be given for the representational system to truly
manifest itself after the lead system.
3.3. EMPATHY AND RAPPORT
Definition:
Empathy (noun)
/ˈem.pə.θi/
- the ability to share someone else's feelings or experiences by imagining what it would be like to
be in that person's situation.
Fernández-Pinto et al. (2008) in their research on empathy, state that it is a fundamental

variable in the study of human behaviour, and its analysis is of enormous interest both
in the field of psychopathology (Letourneau, 1981) and in the study of prosocial
behaviour (Coke, Batson and McDavis, 1978), among others.
The first time the term empathy was formally used was in the 18th century, with the
German term "Einfülung" which can be translated as "feeling inside" (Fernández-Pinto,
2008). Some philosophers such as Leibniz and Rousseau (cited in Fernández-Pinto et al.,
2008) placed emphasis on the need to put oneself in another’s position in order to be
good citizens. On the other hand, empathy is understood as the ability to vicariously
experience the emotional states of another person which is crucial in many forms of
adaptive social interaction (Moya-Albiol, Herrero and Bernal 2010).
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Empathizing is like imagining oneself and imagining another person in a situation

(Fernández-Pinto et al., 2008). The term empathy or "rapport" (harmonious
understanding, feeling in tune with another’s emotional state) implies the existence of
a relationship or contact between two people that is characterized by respect and
mutual trust. Rapport is essential for carrying out an effective communicative situation:
a dialogue, a negotiation, a therapeutic interlocution, etc.
The internal attitude of a person, and the willingness to accept the other person are
crucial for being empathic and building a close rapport. It is necessary to leave aside
your own beliefs and judgments so as to truly understand the other person. Someone
who is confused, overwhelmed by their own problems or full of negative emotions will
find it very difficult to establish a good rapport with others.
There are a large number of techniques that favour a good rapport by helping to work
on the inner attitude and enhancing the interest towards other people. By applying
these techniques, people become more open and are more likely not only to trust others
but also to live interior experiences. This way, they open up to us and introduce us to
their maps and their reality model. This is how we can help people.
§ Levels of empathy:
As we have mentioned, empathy is often described as walking in another person’s shoes

by entering another person’s world of thoughts and feelings. There are many levels of
empathy ranging from superficial accompaniment, which is honest but does not involve
total involvement, to a deeper level of understanding. When this harmonious
understanding (rapport) is reached, we feel completely in tune with the emotions of the
other person, as if we were experiencing it first-hand.
Empathy can be manifested in all kinds of emotions, whether positive or negative. Let
us say our co-worker has been given a prize for the best project. Empathizing with
him/her at a deep level would mean being able to feel the same joy and satisfaction as
he/she does, leaving behind our feelings and experiences and completely focusing on
him/her.
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An expression that reflects the importance of empathy and how it is immersed in our
language is when a person experiences the loss of a loved one and what they hear is:
"My thoughts are with you". A phrase that can be used for more events is "I'm sorry".
Several authors agree that empathy is one of the variables that intervenes in emotional
intelligence. In fact, there are tools for evaluating emotional intelligence that include
empathy.
3.4. GUIDELINES FOR ESTABLISHING RAPPORT
How can we enter the circle of communication? How can we respect and appreciate
another person's model of the world while maintaining our integrity? In education,
therapy, counselling, business, sales, training rapport or empathy is essential for
establishing an environment of credibility, trust and participation. What should we do
to create rapport with people? How can we build a relationship of trust and interest,
and how can we improve and extend this natural skill? (O'Connor and Seymour, 2007)
What is important in order to properly establish rapport?
ü Atmosphere of trust: both similarities and differences need to be respected.
ü Predisposition: attitude of wanting harmony and connection.
ü Rapport: showing the other person: "I'm just like you, you can trust me".
§ Types of techniques for establishing rapport
- Verbal: attachment to the representational system of the other person (VAK),

using the same language and beliefs through recapitulation.
- Non-verbal: accompanying with body movements, i.e., movements of the hands,

head, facial muscles and eyes and synchronizing your breath.
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§ Techniques for establishing rapport
1. Linguistics: using the words that match your preferred channel of perception. For
example:
a. Visual: Do you see what I am trying to explain?
b. Auditory: Does what I’m saying sound good to you?
c. Kinaesthetic: How do you feel about it?
2. Active listening: we need to be concentrated reading the global message of the

person with whom we want to establish rapport. To be able to listen actively you
need to lay aside your views, values and yourself and focus on the feelings and
emotions of the other person, understand the message and the reason for their
feelings. It can be achieved if there is feedback.
3. Feedback: asking for clarification and taking an active interest in the other person’s
concerns. You can use paraphrasing (explanation of the content of a text to clarify
and/or facilitate the assimilation of information in all aspects) which consists of
repeating in your own words what the other person has just said: "This means that
...", then it means that ...?", "If I understood correctly ...". Doing this we can clarify
the content of the message as well as show interest, support, company and
understanding.
4. Recap: repeating and summarizing the main points of what has been said. In order
to recapitulate, it is very important to be attentive to keywords, which carry an
emotional content since they are pronounced with more emphasis and can be
distinguished from the pronunciation of the less important words.
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Active listening NON-active listening

- Remaining silent. - Being distracted.
- Keeping eye contact - Not maintaining eye contact.
- Paying attention to the verbal and - Responding to other stimuli that
non-verbal language. occur in the context.
- Paying attention to the feelings - Interrupting or trying to finish the
and connecting with them. sentences.
- Being patient, giving the other - Judging.
person time to express - Arguing.
themselves freely. - Demonstrating that you know
- Paraphrasing to demonstrate what the person wants to say and
interest and that the message is rushing them into doing so.
understood. - Giving hasty solutions.
Reflection: Rapport and communication

This exercise consists of 3 parts:
1. Observe different communicative situations (known or unknown):
conversations between friends, a couple talking in a restaurant or any
other situation chosen at random. You should take notes of whether or
not the communication is being conducted with rapport and why. Next,
give it some thought and make constructive criticism of these people.
2. Analyse if in your daily routine you maintain rapport with people with
whom you have communicative situations. How do you feel when you
notice that the other person does not care about rapport?
3. Put into practice what you have learned: use techniques for establishing
rapport the next time someone is explaining something to you.
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§ Specific guidelines for situations at work: meetings, briefings, talks in the

corridors (but you know that they are important), negotiation, sale, etc.
ü Knowledge, opinions and ideas that you have are derived from your mental map,
your point of view and your perspective: remember that "the map is not territory",
all the maps are valid and real for the interlocutor, and we need to respect and listen
to others without passing judgments.
ü Approach your point of view, pay attention to it and adapt it to the way you relate
to others: this is important to differentiate your own beliefs and values, and feel
more comfortable with them.
ü Different points of view enrich work and performance: it is very enlightening to

meet colleagues who have different points of view or opinions; this is how things are
built.
ü Paraphrase: it is crucial when you want someone to feel understood.
ü Listen actively to all points of view, those you agree with and those you object to.
ü Eliminate universal truths: to do this, try to eliminate words like "right" and "wrong"
from your vocabulary since you are assuming that behind your opinion there is a
universal truth. You can substitute:
- "This is right" with "I think that this is a good idea".
- "It's wrong" with "To my way of thinking this will not help because… ".
ü Demonstrate the desire to understand and reach an agreement: it is common in

communicative situations in the workplace, especially when your reputation or
economic reasons are at stake, that a certain amount of tension is unleashed and
any misunderstanding can turn into an argument that in fact could be avoided.
Whenever we do not understand what the other person is saying, we should use
phrases like in the following example:
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- "I think that I don't understand this point, it is a new thing for me, and I would
like to understand it properly" instead of "you are not explaining it well, you are
complicating things". We should always demand more of ourselves first instead
of putting the blame on others.
- "It seems that I am not explaining it well, am I?" instead of "you are not paying
attention, you don't know what I have just said".
Practice: Recapitulation and paraphrasing
1. Define communicative situations in different areas (friends, family, work,

activity out of work, etc.) and practice the techniques of recapitulation and
paraphrasing so as to reach a good understanding.
2. Assess the positive and negative aspects. Think about the feedback that you
got from others.
Remember that it is very important to do the exercises for the correct

assimilation of the content. The course is designed in such a way that
following the instructions is crucial for becoming a successful NLP
Practitioner. Doubts need to be resolved before we can progress.
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3.5. SENSORY CUES
Sensory cues are both verbal and non-verbal cues which help to identify the
representational system of each person.
There are two types of sensory cues:
- Verbal.
- Non-verbal.
§ Verbal sensory cues
Verbal sensory cues are those that indicate the way in which people internally represent
information, whether it is visual, auditory or kinaesthetic. As we have said before,
predicates, that is, the words commonly used by people, help to identify
representational systems. We will talk about visual, auditory or kinaesthetic predicates,
but we need to remember that there are also predicates that do not belong to a specific
system and are called non-specific predicates.
Practice: VAK Predicates
Give examples of predicates following the examples:
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VISUAL AUDITIVE KINAESTHETIC NON-SPECIFIC
Bright Noisy Warm Friendly
Blue Loud Calm Understanding
Visible Bustling Rough Educational
Light Roaring Wet Sociable
As we have mentioned before people, depending on their experience, education and

genetic predisposition, tend to have a specific representational system (which may vary
depending on the situation), which means that they also have preferred predicates.
Detecting each person’s predicates is crucial for understanding a personal subjective

experience and decoding this subjective experience makes the communication process
easier and more effective since you can use these codes to communicate with the
person in question.
Example 1:
You want to convince someone to join you in a free cooking course. You know that the
person is kinaesthetic, so the most suitable language would be the following:
- Would you like to join me in a free cooking course? I am sure you will love it! The
teacher is very nice and friendly; also the people are young and fun and I am sure that
you will feel comfortable; we are all friends!
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Example 2:
You want to convince someone to join you in a free cooking course. You know that the
person is visual, so the most appropriate language will be the following:
- Would you like to join me in a free cooking course? You will see how great it is! You
will meet new people and get the unique chance to watch the chef cook and learn from
him. And, you will love to see how he does it! Not to mention all the beautiful colours
of fruit and vegetables that you like so much!
People often feel more comfortable and secure when we adjust the way we speak to
their own language because it gives the feeling that we are all speaking the same
language, without interpretations, mysteries or translations, thus creating a good
rapport.
In conclusion, effective communication is only possible if we create harmonious

understanding, a "bubble" of communication where the same language is spoken. And,
we can do this through developing a consistency between the predicates.
Practice: Which representational system is it?
Indicate which representational system is reflected in each sentence:
1. It is amazing. V A K
2. His high-pitched voice is irritating. V A K
3. I have had a flashback of her face. V A K
4. Expressing an opinion. V A K
5. Laying your cards on the table. V A K
6. Not leaving any stone unturned. V A K
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7. I had a warm welcome. V A K
8. He has a big mouth. V A K
9. To tell the truth… V A K
10. It looks good. V A K
11. Seeing is believing. V A K
12. He is a charlatan. V A K
13. No matter what you say, he will do it. V A K
You will find the answers in the appendix.
Practice: Identify predicates
1. Devote at least 2 hours a day for 3 days a week to identifying people's predicates.
Focus on the people with whom you have communicative situations: at work,
with friends, with your partner, family, a conversation with a stranger, etc.
2. Then, dedicate at least 2 hours a day to creating harmony within those

communicative situations by synchronizing the predicates.
3. Think about the activity: What was the easiest and the most difficult part? Why?
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Practice: translation of representational systems
The following exercise involves transferring the same phrases into different
representational systems. You will see that the ones you find most difficult are the ones
you do not use very often. Take a look at these examples:
1. My end-of-year goals seem to be confusing.
Correspondence: Visual.
Visual: When I look at the end of the year, I cannot see a clear vision of me reaching my
goals.
Auditory: I cannot tune in to my end-of-year goals.
Kinaesthetic: I don't feel confident when it comes to my end-of-year goals.
2. Raul does not listen to me.
Correspondence: Auditory.
Visual: Raul does not look at me, it seems that he doesn't see me.
Auditory: Raul seems deaf when I'm talking to him.
Kinaesthetic: I feel as if Raul wants to show me that I do not exist.
3. My co-worker treats me as if I were a rat.
Correspondence:
Visual:
Auditory:
Kinaesthetic:
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4. It is as if they didn’t take me into consideration.
Correspondence:
Visual:
Auditory:
Kinaesthetic:
5. She seems to be a good person.
Correspondence:
Visual:
Auditory:
Kinaesthetic:
6. I have difficulty seeing this problem from a distance.
Correspondence:
Visual:
Auditory:
Kinaesthetic:
7. The solution to the problem that I have doesn’t look good at all.
Correspondence:
Visual:
Auditory:
Kinaesthetic:
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8. As much as I try, I cannot understand what my manager wanted to tell me.
Correspondence:
Visual:
Auditory:
Kinaesthetic:
9. I keep making the same mistakes.
Correspondence:
Visual:
Auditory:
Kinaesthetic:
You will find the answers in the appendix.
§ Non-verbal sensory keys
- Visual people
They are people who normally use the visual channel and, therefore, their preferred
representational system is visual. They tend to position themselves in an upright way;
when they talk they usually gesticulate a lot by looking up. Visual people usually think
through images. They normally speak faster than the rest, and at a higher pitch. The
images usually happen quickly in their brain, and therefore, they need to talk faster to
keep up with them.
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Breathing will be higher in the chest and shallower. There is an increase in muscle
tension, particularly in the shoulders; the head will be up and the face paler than it is
normally. Visual people are more organized and neat; noise distracts them. In addition,
they prefer visual support to improve their learning process, since they learn and
memorize through images, so they may get bored with very theoretical speeches, such
as lectures. They process by images so if you want to get on the same wavelength as
them you need to use expressions connected to the world of images.
- Auditory people
They are people who normally use the auditory channel, and therefore, their preferred
representational system is the auditory one. Their experiences and their memories are
based on sounds. They process information in terms of sound and they place value on
sounds in communicative situations. Since auditory channels process information
sequentially, these individuals will think and memorize through processes, steps and
sequences. They have great sensitivity to sounds, so they can be easily distracted.
They enjoy giving speeches and they find it easy. They like explaining things and they
attach importance to a wide vocabulary and clarity in the speech. People who think in
sounds will breathe evenly over the whole chest area. They often produce rhythmic
movements throughout the body; their tone of voice is expressive, clear and resonant.
Their head is well balanced on the shoulders and the movement of the eyes usually
occurs from left to right.
It is common to find auditory people whose hand gestures are directed towards the ears.
In addition, they tend to be leaning forward when they listen and when they are talking
to themselves they tilt their heads to the left. Therefore, in order to communicate with
people whose representational system is predominantly auditory, we must focus, above
all, on equalizing the tone of voice and predicates.
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- Kinaesthetic people
They are people who normally use the kinaesthetic channel, and therefore, their
preferred representational system is kinaesthetic. Their deep breathing starts from the
low stomach area and is often accompanied by muscle relaxation. With the head down,
their voice will have a deeper tone and they will speak slowly, and their eyes will move
down. The movements and gestures also reflect how a person is thinking. There are
those who will point to the sense organ that they are using internally: they will point to
their ears when they hear sounds inside their heads, they will point to the eyes when
they are visualizing, or to the abdomen when they are feeling something strongly. These
signs do not express what the person is thinking, but how they are thinking about it.
In order to motivate a kinaesthetic person, it is important to enter into their feelings and
reward them with physical contact such as shaking hands or slap on the shoulder. They
are very emotional people.
OVERVIEW
V A K
Voice volume High Medium Low tone
Speed speaks Fast = Slow, breaks
Breathing Thoracic Adjusted to the Abdominal

dialogue
Look Up Around Down
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Using representational systems is a very useful way to understand the different ways in
which people think. The interpretation of accessing cues is an invaluable skill for anyone
who wants to communicate better. For therapists or educators it is vital: therapists can
get to know how their patients think and teachers can find out how their students think
so they can focus on certain skills more effectively. There are many theories about
psychological types based on their physiology and their ways of thinking; NLP suggests
another option.
A conversation between a person who thinks in a visual way and a person who thinks in
feelings can be very frustrating for both. The visual thinker will begin to tap his feet in
impatience, while the kinaesthetic person will not literally "see" why the other has to go
so fast. Whoever has the capacity to adapt to the other person’s representational
system will be the one who will obtain better results (O'Connor and Seymour, 2007: 77-
78).
Notwithstanding, O'Connor et al. (2007) claim in their book, Introduction to NLP, that
we cannot forget that these generalizations need to be checked against experience and
observation, and say that NLP does not aim to label people or create stereotypes. People
are much richer than concepts. NLP does not want to pigeonhole them into narrow
categories. It simply represents a useful model that serves to understand how people
think.
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Reflection: Sensory cues; calibration and rapport

This exercise consists of two parts:
A) Observation
1. Choose a communicative situation between two or more
people
2. Focus your attention on the non-verbal sensory cues: their
body position, gestures, breathing, gaze. Are they
calibrated and/or synchronized? If not, is there rapport in
the communicative situation? If yes, how do you know
that there is rapport?
B) Action
1. Choose a communication situation with one or more
persons with whom you usually fail to establish rapport.
2. Observe their verbal and non-verbal sensory cues. Which
preferred representational system do they have? Try to
synchronize with them, use their predicates, etc.
3. Have you noticed an improvement? If not, try again with
different people or in a different situation.
Tip: What are the elements that we can match and therefore
reproduce? The physiology of the person, the posture, the gestures,
the facial expression, the blinking, the tilt of the head, etc. are very
important.
§ Techniques used for gaining rapport

- Matching: If a person with whom you want to make a connection tilts their head
to the left and you tilt it to the same side, you are matching them.
- Mirroring: If a person tilts their head to the left and you tilt it to the right, you
are mirroring them.
- Delayed mirroring: we will wait a few seconds to change the position of our
body.
- Simultaneous mirroring: we will mirror the person at the same time.
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- Crossover mirroring: when we mirror the physiology of the person by

changing some other part of our body. An example: a person moves their leg
to the right and we do a crossover mirroring by moving the arm.
- Matching or direct mirroring: synchronizing the same element. For example: a

person moves the arm towards the head and we repeat exactly the same
movement.
- Matching the breathing: it is about matching the breathing rhythm, inhaling and
exhaling at the same time as the other person. To facilitate this complex, but
effective technique, you can predict the breathing pattern by observing the top
of the shoulders and the movement of the chest (diaphragm).
ü Aligning your posture similar to the curvature of the spine.
ü Matching and mirroring should be discrete and it should not interrupt the
communication. You should not imitate every gesture every time.
ü We can match facial expressions, such as blinking or voice.
ü We have to be cautious and use common sense when imitating. For example,
we should avoid imitating nervous tics, accents or stuttering.
Thanks to these techniques we will be able to establish good rapport. Once we have
acquired the knowledge and assimilated the necessary skills, rapport can be gained after
five minutes of a conversation.
Reflection: Control of Rapport

This exercise will help you to learn how to maintain rapport.
1. Choose a person with whom you want to maintain rapport,
establish a communicative situation.
2. When you notice that you have established rapport, try to make
changes in your gestures and movements and see if the other
person follows you (remember to be discreet and patient)
3. This exercise may last 30 minutes or 1 hour.
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§ Need for empathy
Empathy is necessary on countless occasions. Each communicative situation requires

reaching a level of harmony with a maximum level of understanding so as to make the
communication effective.
Empathy is especially important in the following cases:
ü Reading the mental map of another person: that is, if we need to obtain
information about how another person interprets reality. If we want to apply the
NLP techniques, it is necessary to understand the map of the world of the
Explorers to whom we are applying these techniques. For therapies, coaches,
educators and any other professions that deal with people, reaching a deep level
of understanding is necessary for reading people’s maps.
ü Setting personal relationships: either in the personal sphere (friends,

acquaintances, love relationship) or in the workplace (contacts, partners, co-
workers, employees, etc.)
ü Starting negotiations, meetings or training.
ü Constructive criticism: it is essential to know the mental map of the other person
before making a criticism that is constructive, effective and not misinterpreted.
ü Having a conversation or debate: especially if the topic sparks off controversy

and there is a certain tension, it is important to read the mental map beforehand
in order to establish rapport.
§ Empathy indicators
There are countless indicators that tell us if the rapport or empathy has been achieved
in the communicative situation, whatever the objective of the situation is, and whether
or not the interlocutors are aware of it. The most common indicators are the following:
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ü When the feedback signals let you know that the other person understands the
message. These signals can be verbal or non-verbal. Verbal ones: "I see that you
understand me perfectly", "Exactly, that's what I thought", "That's exactly how I
feel", "That's right, that's the objective of my project". Non-verbal signals: eye
contact, increase in temperature, facial expression of active listening (raised
eyebrows, gestures coherent with emotions and the subject of the communicative
situation, etc.).
ü When you have matched and mirrored someone enough to see that if you make
changes in the sensory cues the other person will also imitate you.
ü Internal sensation: you feel inner peace; you can feel it internally in various parts
of the body; normally in the stomach.
ü The objective of the communicative situation is fulfilled: if you are asking a friend
for help and you receive it; if a friend asks you for help and you feel that you are
helping him; if you are giving an order to an employee and the objective is met
and the feedback is positive; if you are in the middle of a negotiation process and
it is progressing; if you are teaching a topic to a group of students and you receive
positive feedback and positive results on the exam.
As can be seen, empathy is a quality of human beings necessary for survival and it has
been developed and perfected throughout history and the evolution of the human
being. As social beings, we need empathy to be able to live in a society which is healthy
and encourages growth. So, empathy is fundamental to achieving success. NLP can help
us to learn how to enhance and refine it.
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4. THE META MODEL, CALIBRATION, DISSOCIATED

AND ASSOCIATED STATE AND ANCHORING
4.1. THE META MODEL
NLP has a map of how language operates known as the Meta Model. The word "meta"
comes from Greek and means beyond or on a different level. The Meta Model uses
language to clarify language, it prevents you from deluding yourself that you understand
what the words mean; it reconnects language with experience (O’Connor and Seymour,
2007, p.141). The Meta Model was one of the first models developed by John Grinder
and Richard Bandler, who observed that the excellent therapists, Fritz Perls and Virginia
Satir, tended to use certain types of questions when they were collecting information.
John and Richard wanted to develop their own vision of language, change and
perception, and they realised that they also had to create vocabulary to describe it
(O'Connor and Seymour, 2007: 141).
The meta-model of language or meta-language originates in transformational grammar,

especially in the works of Noam Chomsky, who developed a formal model in which the
patterns of normal configuration of verbal communication of the model of our
experiences are described. Later, the initial creators of NLP, J. Grinder and R. Bandler,
developed a more useful model when it comes to revealing the most complex human
behaviours (Carrión, 2011: 140).
The nervous system is the one through which human beings produce the
representational system of language, and their model of the world: visual, kinaesthetic,
etc., and in each system the same structural principles are operating. Human language
is a way of representing the world. The transformational grammar refers to a set of
theoretical frameworks related to the study of the syntax of languages, it provides a set
of rules or principles that accurately predict the combinations that appear in
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grammatically correct sentences for a particular language. The basic ideas were
elaborated by the American linguist Noam Chomsky, and detailed in his first work
"Syntactic Structure", 1957. In short, it is an explicit model of the process of representing
and communicating the representation of the world. On the other hand, the
mechanisms within the transformational grammar are universal to all human beings and
to the way they represent their experiences. Likewise, this way of representing and
communicating these existential meanings is governed by rules.
Therefore, through the formal principles that linguists have identified as part of the
representational system called language, the understanding of any human modelling
system can be achieved explicitly. (Bandler and Grinder, 1975).
In other words, language is what makes and expresses the representational system.
Bandler and Grinder (1979) explain in their book, The Structure of Magic I, that our
possible experiences as human beings are enormously rich and complex, and therefore,
if the language has to perform a function of a representational system it needs to have
a set of rich and complex expressions to represent our possible experiences. They also
state that transformational grammarians have recognized that it would be an
overwhelming task to approach the study of this rich and complex set of expressions.
Therefore, they chose to study the rules that govern the formation of these expressions
(syntax) instead of the expressions themselves.
Two people living in the same situation (external

reality), and internalizing it in a different way.
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As we saw earlier, people build a particular model of the external world (world model)
of a situation and/or experience, through three types of mechanisms: distortions,
generalizations and omissions. NLP defines the Meta Model of language with a series of
questions that arise from what a person says (surface structure). By means of these
questions you can get accurate information about the experience of that person
(meaning of the situation, model of the world or deep structure). This is how you can
get to know and understand in detail how the "model of the world" of that situation or
experience is built. The questions that have been written to understand the model of
the world are called Meta Model 1.
Practice: Robbery in a restaurant
A man is about to close the shutter of his shop, when suddenly a person appears and
demands money from him. The man goes to the safe. The contents are emptied and the
man flees. The police are quickly notified.
Respond with true (T), false (F), not applicable (NA)
1. A man appears while the shutters of the shop are being closed _
2. The thief was a young man ___
3. The man did not ask for money ___
4. The owner was closing the shutter ___
5. The man left after getting the money ____
6. The thief threatened the man ____
7. It is not known how much money was in the shop at the time of the event ____
8. The thief asks the owner of the shop for the money ____
9. The police arrived quickly ____

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10. The story involves three people, the owner, the thief and the employee who
called the police _____
11. Someone asks for money, the safe is opened, the contents are emptied, the man
leaves the shop and the police are called _____
Share the exercise with another person and compare the answers. With the little
information that we receive, our brain tends to complete it and interpret it as a whole
to give it meaning. We achieve this thanks to omission, generalization and distortion.
Not only does the Meta Model help us to identify the "world model", but it is also useful
to draft questions and guide the other person to analyse, reflect and enrich their
experience and/or situation, in such a way that they reconstruct their world model
which makes it more effective when it comes to achieving the objectives. This group of
questions designed to question and challenge another person's map is called Meta
Model 2.
To conclude, the Meta Model consists of a set of questions that are separate from the
content of the communication and serve to:
ü Obtain complete information about the Deep Structure, starting from the base of
the Surface Structure, with the aim of understanding the world model of the
interlocutor. Meta Model 1
ü Help the interlocutor analyse or reassess the Deep Structure: review the omissions,
generalizations and distortions of the Deep Structure, that is, analyse the filters. In
this way we manage to reconstruct a more useful model of the world for the person
in question, and in this way they achieve the objectives in a more effective and
efficient way. Meta Model 2
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Surface structure
Deep
structure
Outside world
Situations
Facts
Surface
Language
structure C
O
M
M
U
Generalizations N
I
Omissions C
Distortions A
T
I
O
N
Deep
Mind
structure
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§ Clarification and examples:
Salvador Carrión (2011) in his book about NLP Practitioners sums it up this way:
- Surface structure: words or set of words with sound (for speaking) or symbols and
signs (for writing).
- Deep structure: what each sound and symbol means for each speaker so that they
can build their internal experience.
An example:
Surface structure: "The house was renovated."
What does this sentence imply?
1. The event occurred in the past.
2. It's a complex, not simple, fact.
3. This fact involves several elements :
a. There is an agent = company or a person who acted.
b. There is a subject = the renovated house.
c. An earlier fact = the house needed to be renovated.
d. There are a few tools = masonry material.
Deep structure: It is a house that needed some kind of change and this change was
made by someone who had used certain types of tools and services to generate and
produce a new situation, namely, to transform the appearance of someone’s house.
It can be observed, as Salvador A. Carrión (2011) concludes, that most of the elements
of the deep structure do not appear in the surface structure. Derivation means
obtaining information from the deep structure to create the spoken word.
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Surface
structure
Limiting elements /
Secondary filters DEVIATION
experience - Neurological
- Social
- Individual
Deep structure:
Complete linguistic
representation of sensory
experience
Frame of reference:
Sensory experience
Primary perceived by our
experience representational
systems
*Source: Carrión, S. (2011). Metamodel Chapter from the Course of the Practitioner, p. 148.
§ Objectives of the Meta Model of language according to Salvador A. Carrión

(2011)
- Finding the information which is lost in the process of derivation from the deep
structure to the surface structure.
- Determining and identify the distortions, omissions and/or generalizations that the
person introduces as limitations in their model of the world, on their map.
- Discovering and highlighting the limitations of the map.
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- Reconnecting the person with their primary experience and with the territory in
which they had the experience.
Carrión (2011) points out that the meta-language was a product of "modelling", which
J. Grinder and R. Bandler established after a system of study, analysis and structuring of
the guidelines and methods used in the therapeutic work of the outstanding therapists
of that time: Fritz Perls, Virginia Satir and Milton H. Erickson.
§ Complete map: Meta Model 1
Now we will explain how meta-model challenges are detected in linguistic terms. There
will be examples of how to identify the questions we need to ask to pose a challenge,
and therefore, generate a transderivational search, thanks to which the person in
question expands his/her map, following the structure of O'Connor and Seymour, (2007)
in their book Introduction to NLP.
§ Omissions
- Simple omission
It occurs when the transmitter or communicator omits information in their sentence

referring to a person, thing or relationship. The objective in this case is to recover the
lost information.
Example 1:
- I find it hard to communicate with people.
- Specifically, on what occasions is it hard for you to communicate? What

things exactly do you have trouble communicating about? With whom,
specifically, is it hard for you to communicate?
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Example 2:
- I am unable.
- Unable to do what?
Example 3:
- I'm hopeless.
- To whom are you hopeless? What do you think you are hopeless at?
- Omission of comparison
It is a non-explicit reference in the surface structure. Comparisons are made by omitting

people, objects, elements and/or patterns with which the comparison is made. These
are comparisons without reference. Usually the following words are: better, worse, very,
little, much, at least, good, bad, difficult, easy, more, less, etc. The objective is to find
the omitted part.
Example 1:
- It is better to remain silent.
- Better than what exactly?
Example 2:
- It was better to do so.
- Better for whom? Better than what?
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- Lack of referential index:
Reference to a person, object, or situation is made without specifying it. The referential
index refers to the person or thing that performs the action. The aim is to find out what
the reference index is.
Example 1:
- People look at me as if I were weird.
- Who looks at you this way? When and where do they look at you this way?
Example 2:
- I should do something.
- What do you want to do exactly?
- Non-specific verbs
These are verbs that do not clarify the real meaning of the phrase. They explain an
action, experience or process but they omit a lot of information so that it is not possible
to construct a mental representation of the message and understand it. Words such as
the following are commonly used: damage, do, hurt, care, worry, demonstrate, anger,
etc.
Example 1:
- He disappointed me.
- How did he disappoint you?
Example 2:
- This excites me.
- In what way does it excite you?
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Example 3:
- I feel obliged to do it.
- In what way do you feel obliged?
In any case, it is essential to ask about the omitted information, since we can easily
misinterpret our interlocutor’s message as it may have nothing to do with what he/she
really wants to say.
§ Challenge map: Meta Model 2

§ Generalizations
- Universal quantifier
Universal quantifiers refer to the words that make a universal generalization. That is to
say, they are the words that indicate the extent to which the generalizations refer. These
expressions include a wide range of experiences in the same meaning.
Example 1:
- All men are the same: All men in the world?
- Men are dangerous: Which men specifically?
- Everyone says it: Everyone? All of the people in the world? Is it possible to
know what all of the people in the world say?
- Modal operators
A modal operator is a “mode of operating “, a way of being in the world and relating to
part of it, or all of it. It modifies and therefore precedes the verb. Modal operators can
indicate probability (can, may, might…), necessity (should, must, have to…), power
(want, wish…), etc. They impose limitations and they usually refer to beliefs.
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Example 1:
- I have to finish it.
- What will happen if you don't?
Example 2:
- I have to go to the meeting.
- What will happen if you don't?
Example 3:
- I cannot do it.
- Why can't you do it? What prevents you from doing it?
Thanks to the use of words like "I can" or "I cannot", we can get to know what the other
person believes is possible or impossible within their world and according to their
mental map. With a small change in morphology, (for example, “I cannot do it” can be
changed to “I will not do it”) we can change the meaning and it shows that the person
can choose to do it or not, without limitations.
We use these three questions to challenge one’s map according to the Meta Model.
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We are looking for the barrier, for the

limiting reason that prevents the
What prevents you?
person from doing something and
causes the negative attitude.
This question helps the person to

confront their internal world, to create
What if you could do it?
an internal conflict, ecology is looked
for.
With this question we want to give the

person the opportunity to visualize
If there were no obstacles, themselves getting what they think
would you do it? they cannot. It increases motivation
and self-confidence as well as it helps
to eliminate the barrier.
- Loss of specificity
They are non-concrete statements, which indicate something not specified. We tend to
act driven by value judgments, and we speak through values in which we believe.
However, there are occasions when the value judgment has no sound criteria or the
origin of the person issuing it is unknown. The questions of the Meta Model challenge
these value judgments so as to inquire about the criteria or the origin.
Example 1:
- You should have a different attitude.
- What attitude exactly should I have?
Example 2:
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- You already know very well what you have to do.
- What do I have to do specifically?
Example 3:
- You should act differently.
- In what way exactly should I act?
§ Distortions
- Nominalization
In linguistic terms, nominalization refers to the action of transforming a verb into a noun,
that is, a nominal substitution of a verb that is used when in fact reference is made to
an activity in process. Likewise, nominalization can refer to a process, movement, action
(verb), idea, knowledge, concept, memory, norm, belief, value or principle.
Example: Smoking is dangerous. In this case "smoking" is a verb that acts as a noun; it is
an action that is in process, but in this sentence it acts as a noun.
In addition, nominalization is the transformation of a process from the deep structure

into a static element of the surface structure.
O'Connor and Seymour (2007), in their book Introduction to NLP, explain it with the
following example:
“Teaching and discipline, applied with respect and firmness, are

essentials in the process of education.”
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In this perfectly grammatical sentence we can find nominalizations (italic and bold)
every other word. As O'Connor and Seymour (2007) state: “If a noun cannot be seen,
heard, touched, smelled or tasted, in short, if it cannot be put in a wheelbarrow, it is a
nominalization.”
A verb includes an action or an on-going process. However, when it is nominalized, it is

transformed into a static noun (O'Connor and Seymour, 2007: 1948). That is why
nominalization hides valuable information. In order to challenge a nominalization, it is
necessary to reverse this process, that is, to transform the object into a process.
"A nominalization is clarified by turning it into a verb and asking

for the missing information: "Who is nominalizing what and how
are they doing it?
O’Connor and Seymour
Example 1:
- I need to experience.
- What do you need to experience?
Example 2:
- Knowledge is what motivates us.
- Knowledge of what?
Example 3:
- I need more love.
- How do you want to be loved?
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§ Mind reading
A person who reads minds presumes to know the thoughts, feelings, emotions or
intentions of others. We may use phrases like: "I know how you feel". Although the aim
is to show understanding or compassion, sometimes mind reading may lead to
misunderstandings or simply make the other person feel bad.
Normally, when we utter sentences related to mind reading, we project our own
perceptions, values or ideals. Many times those phrases may have little to do with what
happens to the person we are talking to. In order to challenge mental reading we can
ask what exactly the person knows about our feelings:
Example 1:
- I know your intentions.
- What exactly are my intentions?
Example 2:
- In my company, they think that I am not professional.
- How do you know that your co-workers believe you're not professional?
§ Causal model: cause and effect
There are statements that the sender transmits to express that the others are
responsible for their state.
The Meta Model to challenge this model aims to help people take charge of their lives,
and make them aware of the fact that they are responsible for their own decisions and
that shifting the responsibility for one’s state to the other person will not change
anything. This is done by providing the speaker with answers that encourage
introspection, that is to say, the search for the true causes.
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Example 1:
- Your way of being irritates me.
- How does my way of being irritate you? What makes you feel angry? What
thoughts and emotions arise in relation to my way of being?
§ Complex equivalence
It refers to a statement where two meanings are equated as being synonymous. Relating
two different experiences in order to establish a relationship generates a complex
equivalence. In other words, an experience or external behaviour is used and associated
with a state, and thus it is given a meaning. Asking questions about the structure of the
phrase challenges complex equivalence.
Example 1:
- My boss has not congratulated me on the report I have given him. He does
not like my job.
- How do you know that the fact that your boss has not congratulated you
means he does not like how you work?
Example 2:
- My workmate is going to have coffee during the lunch break with another
workmate. He doesn't like me.
- How do you know that having a coffee with another colleague means that
he doesn’t like you?
Complex equivalence leads to mental reading, and the cause and effect
diagram.
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§ Assumptions
They are statements that base their consistency on a previous supposition. Assumptions
function as the context of a statement and refer to concepts such as beliefs, religion,
politics, etc. They work unconsciously and covertly, and they have to be understood and
accepted in order to establish good communication.
In order to challenge this model, questions about the previous assumptions need to be
asked.
Example 1:
- Why aren’t you faster at your job?
- What makes you think that I am not fast? From what point of view am I not
fast? At what points or at what times am I not fast?
Practice: Learn to use the meta-model of language
In this exercise you need to challenge each of these sentences. From a surface structure
you need to reach the deep structure. Use the model questions you have seen in this
topic.
§ Omissions
Simple omission
ü I feel miserable:
ü He is better:
ü I am hurt:
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Lack of referential index
ü Life has taught me to suffer:
ü They do not understand me:
ü They are not interested in my work:
Omission of comparison
ü He is a better speaker:
ü He is the one who has done it better:
ü I could not have done it worse:
Non-specific verbs
ü I thought so:
ü You do not care about me:
ü He does not show me trust:
§ Generalizations
Universal quantifier
ü They will never measure up to the shareholders:
ü Everyone knows that politicians are corrupt:
ü All bosses are the same:
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§ Modal operator
Possibility
ü I cannot reach my goal:
ü I could not be more sincere:
ü I can learn from one day to another:
Need
ü I have to start the English course again:
ü I should get my driving license:
ü I have to get this job:
Loss of specificity
ü It would be nice if you behaved differently:
ü You know what you have to do:
ü Today is the perfect day:
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§ Distortions
Nominalization
ü I need more training:
ü You are being considerate to me:
ü I have a destructive friendship.
Mind reading
ü I am sure that my boss knows it:
ü He is more qualified:
ü I know that I am not important to him:
Causal model: cause and effect
ü I was wrong because of you:
ü I could have arrived, if it had not been for you:
ü If you believe in me, I will pass my exam:
Complex equivalence
ü He doesn't text me a lot because I am not important to him:
ü My boss has not greeted me today, he didn't like the report:
ü He didn't look at me today which means that he does not like me:
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Assumptions
ü The presentation can be made much better:
ü At the next conference you can learn much more:
ü It happened again:
METAMODEL OVERVIEW
PATTERN OF THE MODEL CHALLENGE DIRECTION
OMISSIONS
LACK OF REFERENTIAL INDEX
Subject or object is not specified. Example: Specify to whom the statement

What people specifically?
made by the subject refers.
“People simply do not understand". (them,
the men, the things).
SIMPLE OMISSION
Retrieve the element that has

The key element of the phrase is omitted What doubts do you have
been omitted in the problem
specifically?
from the surface structure. E.g.: “I am state that is expressed.
doubtful.”
COMPARATIVE OMISSION
Lack of reference to which you compare Identify and specify the

Specifically better than
the surface structure. Ex.: "It is better not missing element in the
what?
comparison.
to talk about it." (better/worse, good/bad,
easy/hard).
NON-SPECIFIC VERB
Define more specifically the

Verbs that do not define the action or the How specifically does he
action or process in the
irritate you?
relationship of the subject. E.g.: "He problem state of the subject.
irritates me."
GENERALIZATIONS
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UNIVERSAL QUANTIFIER
Always? Has it ever Find examples that break the

We overgeneralize. E.g.: "She always gets
happened that she did not generalization of the limiting
mad." (everybody, nobody, always, get angry? state.
everything).
MODAL OPERATORS
What would they think if I,
a man, cried?
Statements that identify our own rules or We try to identify the
consequences of the rules or
limits of behaviour. NEED (should, self-imposed limitations.
shouldn’t, need to, have to, it is mandatory, Identify the causes of the
symptoms that manifest
etc.). E.g.: “Men should not cry”. themselves in the problem
POSSIBILITY (can, may, can't ). E.g.: "you state.
could never learn how to fly". What prevents you?
LOSS OF SPECIFICITY
We seek to identify the criteria

Affirmations that contain a value judgment On what basis is it not ok?
for that judgment, or who is
According to whom?
but do not mention its origin. E.g.: “It is not the author of the statement.
okay to hurt the feelings of others."
DISTORSIONS
NOMINALIZATION
We again take the distorted
What specifically makes
An action is referred to as if it was a fact or action, and transform it into an
you feel depressed about
accomplished fact, into a
thing. E.g.: "The situation with Pedro has the situation with Pedro?
process that is still in progress.
led to my depression".
MIND READING
Statements about the inner experience of We try to identify where that

information comes from, or
another person, without having any How do you know it?
how you have reached this
evidence about it. E.g.: "I know what you assessment.
are thinking about."
CAUSAL MODEL
Statements that relate cause and effect What does his voice do to Find out how the cause-effect
irritate you? How relation is established and how
between a stimulus and a response which specifically does the tone stimulus and response are
has nothing to do with it. E.g.: "The tone of of his voice irritate you? related.
his voice irritates me."
COMPLEX EQUIVALENCE Identify the validity of the

How specifically is the fact
established relationship.
that he plays football a
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We relate two different experiences as if sign that he does not love

you?
they had the same meaning. Example: "He
plays football on Sunday because he does
not love me".
ASSUMPTION
Do you think that I don't
work hard enough? What
Supposition that should exist for a do you mean exactly? What Inquire about the assumptions
are the points that you of the statement.
statement to make sense. E.g.: "Why don’t
think that I have to work
you work harder?" on more?
*Source: Carrión, S. (2011) Meta Model of Practitioner Course in NLP; the new technique for change and
success. Page. 179.
§ Techniques for the use of meta-models
When applying any technique, be it NLP, coaching or psychotherapy, we need to be

aware of the fact that our attempts to change people’s behaviour may be difficult for
them as they realize that some of their previous behaviours were not good for them and
now they need to implement some potentially very challenging changes. Therefore, it is
important to take into account the following assumptions for the successful application
of the Meta Model:
- Establishing good rapport: Two people need to be on the same emotional

wavelength. As we have mentioned earlier, feeling in tune with one another is
essential for effective communication and creating the atmosphere for
understanding. The results are much more enriching when a connection between
people is established.
- Soft voice tone: Using positive language in conversations only has a 7% impact on our
interlocutors, body language 55% and voice tone 38%. Therefore, to use the Meta
Model and truly connect with the other person, it is crucial to incorporate soft tone
of voice and a moderate speed, which expresses confidence, control and security.
- Script: We need to try not to lose sight of the objective and devote as much time as
necessary before moving on to another phase.
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- Recapitulation frame: The information that has been collected should be

recapitulated using the same keywords.
- Listening/observing: It is very important to listen carefully and keep tabs on the work
that the person is doing. In addition, it will be crucial to observe non-verbal language
in order to see the level of learning, comprehension, and assimilation of the contents,
as well as the internalization of the challenges. And on the other hand, it is essential
to monitor and analyse the emotions that the challenges evoke because the person
needs to be aware of them and know why they arise.
- The recommended sequence to question and challenge optimal maps is as follows:
Listening and starting at the broadest level, questioning the distortions, which function
from a higher logical level, then the generalizations and finally the omissions. In this
way we can reach another’s deep structure more effectively.
4.2. CALIBRATION
O'Connor and Seymour define calibration as the action of detecting the different states
in which people are. O'Connor et al. (2007) believe that it is a skill that all people possess
and employ in daily life, and that it is worth developing and refining.
People’s expressions reflect their states. When, for example, someone remembers a
chilling experience, their lips may become thinner, their skin paler and their breathing
more shallow. Whereas, when they remember something nice, their lips seem fuller, the
colour of their skin healthier and the breathing deeper, with a relaxation of the facial
muscles (O’Connor and Seymour, 2007: 91). Sometimes, O'Connor and Seymour clarify,
our calibration is so poor that we only realize that someone has a problem when they
start crying. We tend to rely excessively on the other person's words instead of using
our eyes and ears. The calibration is then the process by which the sensory channels
(V.A.K.) are detected. Changes in physiology can be used as indicators, since they are
directly related to our state.
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Calibration is about paying attention to different messages that the person transmits;
identifying them, classifying them and integrating the parts. To do this we need to
monitor both, verbal (words, phrases, meta model violations, verbal predicates) and
non-verbal language (quality of voice; intensity, volume, speed, pace, breathing, body
posture, skin colour, body temperature or eye movements) (Carrión, 2011).
In other words, calibration is like taking a photograph of the physiological indicators of

a certain mental state. If we change the mental state and take a picture again, the
physiological indicators will have changed as well.
In the calibration, we can detect congruence and incongruence (Carrión, 2001, page
183):
Example: INCONGRUENCE
He says: "I feel comfortable and relaxed."
He shows:
- Sitting on the edge of the chair.
- Moving his feet uneasily.
- Shortness of breath.
- Stretching movements and contraction of the neck, lip and shoulder muscles.
- Exaggerated speed when talking.
- Cracking voice.
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Example: CONGRUENCE
He says: "I feel comfortable and relaxed."
He shows:
- Fully seated in the chair with his back leaning on the backrest.
- Sitting with his legs crossed and comfortably resting.
- Deep, quiet and abdominal breathing.
- Relaxed neck and shoulders with the mouth slightly ajar.
- Slow and calm speaking.
- Soft and rhythmically calm voice.
The development of the ability to detect incongruence is one of the most important
processes of NLP, since it allows us to find internal conflicts and, as a result, intervene.
Sensory acuity is the basic ability to calibrate, and also to detect incongruence.
Throughout this manual you will observe how fast your sensory acuity develops. It takes
patience and a lot of practice. The essential elements on which we can focus in order to
start working on visual acuity are:
- Respiratory system: breathing.
- Temperature: facial skin colour changes.
- Muscle tension: trembling, jerking.
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- Lip movements: contracted/dilated lower lip.
- Changes in the voice: tone of voice, intensity and speed.
It is a very good exercise to pay attention to these elements when interacting and relate
them to the content of the message.
§ Calibration according to sensory channels
- Visual calibration: we observe how changes in the mental state of the person can be
seen in different ways (eye movements, body posture, facial skin colour, etc.)
- Auditory calibration: in the same way, we observe how changes in the mental state
can be heard in different ways (hesitant, breathy and fast voice, or slow, smooth and
regular voice.)
- Kinaesthetic calibration: we can also observe how changes made in the mental state
can be felt in different ways (skin temperature, sweating, muscle tension, trembling,
etc.)
4.3. ASSOCIATED AND DISSOCIATED STATE
When we relive a memory "as if it were happening again", the human being has two
ways of remembering/reliving it: ASSOCIATED and DISSOCIATED.
Reflect: Think about the last time you were shaking someone’s hand. If you
see that person, smiling at you (and you can feel the touch of his skin, the squeeze, the
feeling of liking or disliking); if you revive it as if you had returned to your own body, you
do not see yourself and the most you can see is your own arm and your hand
approaching that of your interlocutor, then you are ASSOCIATED (Carrión, 2011: 70).
Now try to remember your last job interview. If you see yourself sitting in an office and
you can see what clothes you are wearing, what your position is, your gestures, how you
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interact with the interviewer sitting in front of you; if you see everything as if it were a
scene from a movie, then you are DISSOCIATED.
In a dissociated state, one perceives sensations and emotions in a more mitigated and
weaker way than in an associated state. The revival of experiences in an associated
and/or dissociated state can be used to change our or other people’s states or
sensations in innumerable aspects and situations (Carrión, 2011: 70).
Salvador A. Carrión (2011) explains that our internal states, that is, the capacities,
emotions or resources are built through physiology and internal representations. These
internal representations correspond to what I imagine and see internally, and what I see
and hear inside can be relived in an associated or dissociated way. Remembering in one
way or another can cause different physiological reactions, different emotions and
different behaviours. Therefore, being able to relive memories through an associated or
dissociated state can help people modify internal states.
To be able to lead someone to an associated or dissociated state, the use of appropriate

language is very important: "Imagine yourself observing the scene in which you and your
partner are protagonists, observe yourself in detail" (dissociated state). "Think back to
how you felt holding the camera in your hands, what did you see from your perspective?
How did you feel when you held the camera and focused on the landscape? Visualize
your hands and arms holding the camera” (associated state).
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4.4. ANCHORING
Pavlov's dog
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936) was a Russian physiologist known primarily for his
development of the concept of the conditioned reflex. He won the Nobel Prize for
Physiology or Medicine in 1904. According to Pavlov, dogs were demonstrating classical
conditioning. He summed it up like this: There is a neutral stimulus (the bell), which by
itself will not produce a response, like salivation. There's also a non-neutral
or unconditioned stimulus (the food), which will produce an unconditioned
response (salivation). But, if you present the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned
stimulus together, eventually the dog will learn to associate the two. After some time,
the neutral stimulus by itself will produce the same response as the unconditioned
stimulus, like the dogs drooling when they hear the bell. This is called a conditioned
response. An unconditioned response is completely natural and a conditioned response
is something that we learn. This experiment laid the foundations for classical
conditioning.
According to the developers of NLP, "the anchor is, in essence, any representation
(generated internally or externally) that triggers another representation or series of
representations". O'Connor and Seymour put it this way: "a stimulus that is linked to
and triggers a psychological state, is called in NLP: anchor".
O'Connor et al. (2007) explain that our personal lives are rich in different emotional
states, and in order to re-experience them we need a trigger in the present that elicits
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the original experience. These associations may be, for example: a favourite piece of
music, a place, a smell, a tone of voice, an expression, etc., that brings back memories.
So we can say that the anchor is anything that accesses an emotional state.
Anchoring is a process that on the surface is similar to the “conditioning” technique used
by Pavlov. However, there are some differences. Among others, for Pavlov’s dog the
response of the stimulus needs to be reinforced by the immediate result derived from
the association established between "stimulus-response". In NLP, the anchors do not
need the reward of the result in order to act.
According to Tenutto (2005), anchoring is an emotional conditioning, which is deeply

ingrained in our daily lives. It sometimes occurs in positive conditions (a song that
reminds us of a trip with friends) or in negative conditions (a melody that reminds us of
a romance that had a traumatic outcome).
§ Types of anchors based on perceptive channels according to Carrión (2011)
Visual anchoring (associating a state or experience with a visual stimulus: an image

produced by the vision of an object); auditory anchoring (associating a state or
experience with an auditory stimulus: a sound differentiated from the habitual
situations of the individual such as words, noise, etc.); kinaesthetic anchoring
(associating a state or experience with a kinaesthetic stimulus: sensations like smell,
taste, physical contact).
Examples of types of anchors in each of the modes:
ü VISUAL: luminous flashes, specific gestures, determined movements, posture,

printed symbols, images, colours, etc. Everything that has a visual impact on us.
ü AUDITORY: sounds in general, chimes, ringing, blows, claps, clicks, changes in
the verbal tone, certain words, etc. Everything that has a conscious or
unconscious auditory impact on us.
ü OLFACTORY: specific odours, aromas, perfumes, etc.
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ü TASTE: specific and powerful flavours.

ü KINESTHETIC: touch or precise pressure on certain points of the body: caresses,
hugs, squeezes, etc., temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, etc.
§ Ways to create anchors (O’Connor and Seymour, 2007: 94)
- By repetition: if you see repeated images of the colour red being associated with
danger, they will be anchored.
- By emotion: the anchors can be established only once, if the emotion is strong
and the timing is right.
Repetition is necessary only if there is no emotional involvement. The less emotionally

involved an individual is, the more repetitions are needed to learn the association.
§ Factors that determine the optimization of an anchor (Carrión, 2011)
1. Intensity of the state: the greater the intensity of the experience, the greater
intensity will be reached in the desired state when the anchor is activated. The
more involved the person is in an experience, the easier and more effective the
anchoring will be.
2. Timing of the anchor: The internal states (emotions, mood, resources, etc.) go
through phases: beginning, growth, peak, decay and disappearance. The effect
of the anchor triggered at the peak moment of the state is much greater than
when it occurs at a time of less intensity.
3. Exclusivity of the stimulus:
a. Originality: the chosen stimulus that will activate the anchored state (word,
pressing certain part of the body, etc.) needs to be different from the stimuli that
are usually received by a person; otherwise it will lose strength and eventually
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disappear. For example, if we are normally accustomed to clapping hands, we

will not use this stimulus as an anchor. It needs to be unique.
b. Accuracy: the stimulus that we choose in order to perform a certain anchoring

must always be exactly the same so that it has the same effect.
4. Re-anchoring (repetition of the stimulus): the more repetitions there are, the
more conditioned the anchor becomes. This exercise is called re-anchoring.
5. Contextual situation: it is known that the context, either environmental or

emotional, is a key element for memorization tasks (Smith and Vela, 2001, cited
in "Memory and context" by Manzanero, 2008), for example studying for an
exam in the same place where the exam is taken facilitates the recovery of
memory and leads to obtaining better results. For this reason, the anchor can be
activated more easily if it occurs within the same context in which it was created.
§ Creating a resource anchor (O'Connor and Seymour, 2007)
1. Identify a situation in which more resources are needed.
2. Identify what specific resource is wanted. Example: security.
3. You have to make sure that the resource you are using is really suitable. You can
ask yourself: "if I had this resource here, would I really choose it? If the answer
is yes, go ahead, if not, go back to point number 2.
4. Think of a situation in your life where you will enjoy that resource.
5. Choose the anchors you will use in each of the three main representational
systems; something that you can see, hear and feel.
6. Change places, in your imagination move completely to the resourceful state.

Re-experience it and when it reaches the climax, change the state and abandon
it.
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7. Re-experience the resourceful state, and when you reach the climax, connect the
three anchors. Try to maintain this state for as long as you think it is necessary,
and then change the state.
8. Check the association by releasing the three anchors and making sure that they
really go to that state. If you are not satisfied, go back to point number 7.
9. Identify the signal that makes you see that you are in a problematic situation
where you want to use your resources. This indicator will remind you that the
signal should be used.
ANCHORING PROCEDURE
1. 1. Consolidate and internalize the circle RE-EXPERIENCE A

RESOURCE STATE (RS) ☺ in an ASSOCIATED AND INTENSE
way. EXAMPLE: SECURITY
2. CHOOSE THE ANCHOR

V or A or K
EXAMPLE: = K + A = TIGHTEN + “SEGURITY”
3. ANCHOR (RS) J WITH

REEXPERIMENT J +TRIGGER ANCHOR AND KEEP
4. SET STATE, DISTRACTION

EXAMPLE: HOW IS THE WEATHER TODAY?
5. VERIFICATION OF THE ANCHOR TRIGGERING
HAS J APPEARED?
HAS SECURITY APPEAR?
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§ Let's learn to anchor!
Guide: the person who will help to do the anchoring.
Explorer: the person that carries out the anchoring.
1. The Guide and the Explorer need to specify the place where the anchor will be
created, for example: face, hand, leg, shoulder, arm, etc. The Guide will ask the
Explorer to make a signal indicating the maximum intensity of the state to be
anchored. The Explorer will choose a positive experience in which he has felt
intense positive emotions such as joy, fulfilment, satisfaction, success, love,
happiness, etc.
2. The Guide explains to the Explorer that he needs to live this experience in detail,
so that he gives the impression that he is living it again. The Guide can use
phrases like: "Now you can see what you saw on that occasion, you can also hear
the same sounds or voices, and you can also feel the same sensations that you
experienced. When you have reached this state, stay there, relive all the
sensations, visions and sounds or voices, when the state is just rising to its peak,
give me a signal".
3. During this process the Guide, as an observer, must calibrate the

neurophysiological responses; he must be very attentive to the changes that
occur as each phase progresses.
4. Once the Explorer makes the signal, the Guide must "fire off" the anchor
previously agreed to in step number 1. It needs to be maintained for at least 10
seconds.
5. The Guide has to distract the Explorer from his emotional state by talking about
something unrelated. The Guide may ask: "How many windows are in this room?
What colour is the table? How many books are there on the third shelf?”
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6. The Guide then asks the Explorer to close his eyes again, and makes him think
about nothing when he fires off the anchor. The anchor should be in the exact
same place, with the same pressure or force, and through calibration, the Guide
should check if the signs of experimenting positive feelings reappear. If the
expected results do not occur, the process needs to be repeated.
§ Important instructions for the process of anchoring:
- You have to choose an appropriate context: as neutral as possible, relaxed and

quiet.
- Once the process is finished, the Explorer should reflect on what he/she has felt,
how he/she feels now, if he/she would like to repeat it, and other sensations that
are important to share.
PROCESS OF ANCHORING A BEHAVIOUR (B)
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1. DETERMINE A BEHAVIOR YOU WANT TO CARRY OUT

EXAMPLE B = TAKING MY MEDICINE IN THE MORNING.
2. STIPULATE A SPECIFIC CLUE “C” WHERE AND WHEN.
EXAMPLE C = ENTERING THE KITCHEN.
3. SEARCH OF THE VAK
BEHAVIOUR (Vb + Ab + Kb) AND CLUE (Vc + Ac + Kc)
4. DETERMINE THE BEHAVIOUR’S AUXILIARY ANCHOR
EXAMPLE: = TOUCHING THE WRIST
5. ANCHORING VAK OF CLUE AND BEHAVIOUR WITH
"When you look at the clue, you realize how you are carrying out the behavior (firing off
the anchor of the behavior)."
"When you listen to the sound of the clue, you hear the sounds of your behavior being
carried out (firing off the anchor of the behavior).
"When you feel the clue, you feel how you carry out the behavior (firing off the anchor
of the behavior).
-> Vc + Vb; -> Ac + Ab; -> Cc + Cb
Then it needs to be checked if the anchoring was done correctly. What

happens when you think about c?
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§ How to make an anchoring of a dissociated state?
You: the one who facilitates the anchoring.
Subject: the one you are going to guide to do the anchoring.
Instructions to follow:
1. Create a dissociation using the following types of phrases: "Imagine that you are
in the dining room at your home, sitting in a chair, and watching yourself on
television, as if it were a series or a film, in a neutral state. "
2. Calibrate and anchor that state (the subject can perform the anchoring of their
dissociated state by crossing his/her arms or any other movement that is
consistent with the state to be anchored).
3. Next, you interrupt the anchor.
4. Now you must invoke a limiting state or one that has generated a blockage:
"Recall a situation when you felt blocked".
5. Chaining: the moment the subject begins to remember the state of blockage, the
dissociation anchor needs to be triggered. You have to be aware of the sensory
indications of the subject.
6. Then, interrupt the state again.
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ANCHORING A DISSOCIATED STATE
1. L = CURRENT STATE (LIMITER)

EXAMPLEL = RECEIVING AN ORDER.
2. J = DESIRED STATE = DISSOCIATED STATE
EXAMPLE = J = DISSOCIATED OBSERVER.
"Imagine that you're in your dining room, seated in a chair, and seeing
yourself on television, as if it was a series or movie, in a neutral state"
.
3. ANCHORING J AND CHECK THE ANCHORING

ANCHORING = RE-LIVING J + TRIGGER
CHECKING THE ANCHORING BY INTERRUPTING THE STATE
TRIGGER à DOES J APPEAR?

4. ANCHOR CHAINING
THINK ABOUT L +TRIGGER
5. CHECKING THE ANCHORING BY INTERRUPTING THE STATE
THINK ABOUT J AND TRIGGER

DOES J APPEAR?
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§ Principles and functions that govern the anchors (Carrión, 2011; 278-279)
a) Anchoring is a way to ensure easy access and re-access to a particular

representation.
b) An anchor is any internal or external representation that triggers another

representation or series of representations.
c) Any portion of a particular experience can be used as an anchor to access

another portion of that experience.
d) Anchoring could be considered as a version of the "stimulus-response"

phenomenon, although several aspects have to be pointed out.
ü Anchors do not need to be conditioned over a long period in order to

establish them. The use of one-way learning is promoted.
ü No reinforcements or direct rewards are needed.
ü Internal experience is considered as significant (from the point of view of

behaviour) as openly measurable responses. In NLP, therefore, it is believed
that an internal dialogue, an image or a feeling is an equally significant
response as the salivation of one of Pavlov's dogs.
e) Anchors can be established through any sensory modality: facial expressions,

gestures, tone and rhythm of the voice, tactile stimuli, smells and tastes, etc., as well
as internal visions, sounds or feelings.
f) A strategy constitutes a series of representations in which each representation is

anchored to the one that precedes it.
g) Anchors are not permanent, nor are they always equally effective. There are several
factors that determine their duration and effectiveness:
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ü The uniqueness of the stimuli. The kinaesthetic anchor should be created in

areas of the body that normally do not usually receive stimulation, for
example, the lobe of the ear, the wrist, etc. It can be said that the most
consistent anchor is the one that is little used.
ü Our ability to establish the association between anchoring and experience.
ü The context is also of fundamental importance; since the anchor can be

activated more easily within the same conditions in which it was established.
ü The intensity of the state.
ü The frequency of re-stimulation.
ü The synchronization of the stimulus with the peak of the experience.
IDEAL STAGE FOR

ANCHORING
Tendency/ RELEASE
Intensity
INTENSITY OF
THE STATE
TIME
§ Premises for correct anchoring (Carrión, 2011: 280-281)
- Systematic: Anchoring needs to be systematic, the choice of an anchoring

system will be determined by the type of the response that is obtained. The
more expressive the response is, the better the anchor will be. Once it is
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associated with the experience, and the requirements are met, it will be
anchored.
- Redundancy: Using anchors of all the modalities (VAK). This way you will
make sure that when activating the anchor the experience will be recovered.
§ Uses of the anchors (Carrión, 2011: 281-293)
1. Stacking anchors
It consists of the successive anchoring of different states and strategies of the same
nature.
§ An example of stacking anchors:
Guide: the person that accompanies the Explorer in the process of anchoring.
Explorer: the person who will do the anchoring, accompanied by the Guide.
a) The Explorer and Guide meet: the Explorer needs to recall a problematic
situation in his daily life or, in other words, a problem state. It has to be revived
while the Guide calibrates the physiological reactions. Then, he/she needs to
distract the Explorer; refocus his/her attention so that he/she reaches the
neutral state.
b) The Explorer has to find three resources that he/she needs in order to overcome
that situation as well as moments of his/her life in which he/she used those
resources.
c) The Guide then has to direct the Explorer in such a way that he/she connects
with one of the experiences, using for example, the following sentence: "Feel
what you are feeling, look at what you are looking at, and stay there. When you
are experiencing the sensation, give me a signal." During the process, the Guide
has to calibrate, above all it is very important to calibrate when the Explorer
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makes the signal, because at that moment the anchor should be set and kept for
10 seconds. Then the Explorer needs to open his/her eyes and a distracting
resource should be applied. This can be done by asking, for example, "What are
you wearing? How many pens are on the table?"
d) Now he/she is asked to close his/her eyes again, and the anchor is tightened,
with the same conditions as before (the same pressure, force, place, etc.). The
Guide needs to observe the reaction of the Explorer, that is to say, calibrate the
reactions to detect if the positive state appears. If not, step "c" should be
repeated.
e) Then step "c" will be repeated for the other two remaining resources. Anchoring
should be carried out in relation to the first resource. Now it will be done without
checking and using the distracting elements in each anchor that is created.
f) The Explorer re-lives the problematic situation in his/her memory, and as soon
as he/she is fully connected with it, the anchor is triggered and the physiological
changes that are produced are calibrated.
g) Anchoring in one’s imagination: it is good to do the anchoring exercise in one’s

imagination, visualising possible future situations. The Explorer is asked to close
his/her eyes and imagine a similar conflicting experience, when he/she is fully
connected, he/she is taught to do the anchoring himself/herself.
2. Collapsing an anchor
It occurs when two anchors are activated or triggered simultaneously. By getting a

subject (person, organization or group) to generate two neurological activities at the
same time, we are forcing the creation of a new combination of modalities.
It is a tool used to cancel or counteract an anchor. It consists of activating two anchors

simultaneously; a negative and unwanted and another positive and more powerful.
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What happens when doing the above is that we remain in a state of confusion or
collapse that creates or causes the emergence of a new, different state. This breaks the
pattern of behaviour, as it opens the way to a new one.
§ Example of how to collapse an anchor:
Guide: the person that accompanies the Explorer in the process of anchoring.
a) The Explorer needs to find a problem state, namely a problematic situation of

his/her daily grind. At the same time, the Explorer should look for two or three
resources that are necessary to overcome this situation, as well as the moments
and situations in which he/she can put into practice and use these resources
positively. The Guide and the Explorer need to agree on where the anchors will
be located, they need to specify one for the problematic situation and another
for the resources. The places for carrying out the anchoring should be
strategically designed in order to facilitate simultaneous anchoring, for example,
shoulder and elbow.
b) Next the Guide needs to calibrate the physiological reactions while the Explorer
is going to connect with the problematic situation. When the signal is made, the
anchor is triggered. A neutral distraction (interruption) will occur so as to change
the state and then the anchoring needs to be verified.
c) Now the Guide accompanies the Explorer to connect with one of the resource
experiences chosen above. If after doing the anchoring, interruption and
verification there is no positive response, the phase will have to be repeated
again.
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d) At this point, step "c" is repeated with the rest of the chosen resources, all of
them in the same place. The relevant interruption will occur, but there will be no
verification.
e) To culminate, the two anchors will be fired off at the same time while calibrating
the state of confusion that arises. As soon as the evoked state of confusion
diminishes, we must release the anchor of the problem, but keep the one of
resource until we see (through calibration) that the physiological reactions
stabilize and then we release the anchor. At this point the Explorer is told to open
his/her eyes.
f) Anchoring in one’s imagination: finally the Explorer is asked to imagine a future

situation in which the problematic situation can be reproduced. It is calibrated,
and if negative signals continue to appear, a new resource will be applied to the
corresponding anchor and recalibrated again. This procedure will be repeated as
many times as necessary until the desired objective is achieved.
3. Chaining anchors
It happens when two or more anchors are activated one after another.
§ An example of chaining anchors:
Guide: the person that accompanies the Explorer in the anchoring process.
a) The Explorer needs to look for a situation that is problematic for him/her, that is
to say, a problematic state that frequently occurs in his/her daily life. The Guide
must calibrate the physiological reactions and then distract the Explorer so that
he/she breaks the state and focuses on a different place.
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b) The Explorer looks for two or three resources that are necessary to face this
situation as well as moments in which they were used and then decides on the
order in which he/she wants to chain them. It is essential that the anchors are
easily located, that they are available to the Guide, so that two out of three
anchors can be tightened simultaneously, in different combinations.
c) Then, the Guide accompanies the Explorer who connects with one of the
selected resource experiences. The Guide can use phrases like: "Feel what you
are feeling, look at what you are looking at, and stay there. When you experience
the sensation, give me a signal." The Guide must calibrate and when the Explorer
carries out the signal, the Guide anchors. The Explorer opens his/her eyes and
gets distracted by other elements to break the state. Then, the anchoring is
verified. If it is met with a negative response, the process has to be repeated.
d) Step "c" needs to be repeated for the other resources that have been chosen,
then anchoring in different places and verifying each anchor need to take place.
e) Likewise, the Explorer relives the problematic experience and once he/she is
connected to it, the anchor is fired off. It will be calibrated and by the time the
sensation is at its peak the second anchor is activated, while the first one is
released. If the third anchoring occurs, it will be activated again at the peak
moment of the sensation of the second one.
f) To finish, the Explorer is told to open his/her eyes; there is time for comments
and feedback.
g) The process will be carried out repeatedly up to 3 times, until the chaining is
consolidated.
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4.4.1 Application and the use of anchors
§ Personal change
a) Change of personal history: transforming a traumatic experience into a positive one,

and thus experiencing it in a positive way and strengthening it also in the memory in
a positive way.
b) Generating new behaviours: learning how to deal with a situation of blockage

through learning the optimal and most appropriate behaviour when it comes to
yourself or another person.
c) Generating the resource state: installing a state of tranquillity in stressful situations,

for example, when I have to give a lecture.
d) Generating an automatic behaviour: it refers to behaviours that need to be

internalized and appear automatically, almost involuntarily. Some examples would
be: turning off the light each time you leave the room, taking the keys to work before
leaving, etc.
§ Communication
Anchors are a useful tool to evoke states that contribute to improving communication
and, therefore, relationships. You can evoke states of good humour, relaxation,
sympathy, etc.
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Alternatives to overcoming
PROBLEM STATES
Generating new Developing new

resource states behaviours
1. Change of 1. Transfer of
personal history behaviour
2. Circle of 2. Behaviour "as if"
excellence 3. Generating new
behaviours
4. Bridge to the
future
4.4.2 Circle of excellence
It refers to using an imaginary circle on the floor as a spatial anchor aimed at discovering
and modelling excellent behaviour and installing it in someone else. It is an exercise that
through the anchoring technique manages to reach a state of satisfaction and
resourcefulness when facing a critical situation of blockage. It uses mainly visual and
auditory channels.
§ Concepts
- Resources of excellence: all those resources that a person put into practice and
turned out to be successful.
- Situation of excellence: a very positive past situation where success and

satisfaction were achieved.
- Natural anchors: the circle of excellence technique uses natural and positive
anchors that the person forged and built in past situations where they were
successful.
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- Objective: Creating a special anchor in order to access the full range of the best
resources in a practical and fast way, and in any type of situation and/or
moment.
- Applications: this technique is very effective in difficult life situations that a

person needs to deal with.
- Base procedure:
a) Finding a situation of excellence.

b) Creation of a "database" with all the resources used in the situation of
excellence.
c) Visualization of the special circle.

d) Looking for a problematic current situation that causes the blockage.
e) Creating an anchor.
- Examples of naturally anchored states
- Social recognition: at work when performing a task successfully, in the family

when giving a helping hand to a family member, doing charity work, etc.
- Winning a prize: outperforming competition, passing an important exam, etc.
- Achieving personal goals: a job promotion, facing a challenge, being successful

at a job interview, etc.
- High level of self-esteem, self-confidence when performing a task or making a

decision.
- Achieving a state of security and strength.
- Resolving a conflict between people.
- Doing a job and/or task at a high point of inspiration.
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- Resolving an extremely difficult situation with maximum courage, in which there

was a physical or mental danger.
- Self-reinforcement of the anchor: by means of the circle of excellence

technique, the anchors which are built in our memory are used naturally, so a
state is not created, but these resources are recovered and applied in
problematic situations. The circle of excellence can be reinforced by the
situations that occur in the subject's life, that is to say, the "database" generated
can be expanded every time a natural anchoring is done.
Practice: Circle of excellence
Now you'll learn how to perform the circle of excellence technique. Follow the steps:
1. Choose a state of a past experience (situation of excellence) that you have

anchored naturally in your memory.
2. Find a name or an internal sound for that state.
3. Visualise a figure in front of you (a circle is recommended since it reflects more

unity and strength).
4. Add a colour, a hue, luminosity, texture, shape to this circle. It should be

something that has meaning and significance to you. In this way the image is
reinforced.
5. Then look for a kinaesthetic stimulation: it may be clenching your fingers.
6. Connect with the moment in which you experienced the chosen situation.
7. At the peak of the connection with the situation, enter the circle created/shown
above.
a. Pronounce the name.
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b. Set the kinaesthetic stimulation.
8. Experiment the experience inside the circle with the greatest intensity possible.
9. Now, think about a current situation you are anxious about, and that you feel
that the state you have reached can help with.
10. Do “a bridge to the future” exercise, that is to say, think about a future
problematic situation and carry out the circle of excellence technique.
11. Reinforce and internalize the circle in your memory and use it in future
situations.
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1. Choose the State of Excellence (SE).

2. Create the anchor: CIRCLE OF EXCELLENCE
V A K -> color – sound/word – finger gesture.
3. Re-experience SE and anchor
Put yourself into the
4. Create distraction (interruption) and verify the anchor.
Get in the à Does SE appear?
5. Choose a problematic situation and a clue (c)
Example: giving constructive criticism to an employee
Clue: employee.
6. Integration clue-anchor
See the C à get in the
7. Verification: think of the clue.
8. Bridge to the future: "Reflect on a future problematic
situation"
6. Strengthen and internalize the circle.
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4.4.3 Change of personal history
"Human experience only exists in the present moment. The past

exists as memories, and to remember these we have to re-
experience them in some way in the present. The future exists as
expectations or fantasy, also created in the present. Anchoring
enables us to increase our emotional freedom by escaping the
tyranny of past negative experiences and creating a more positive
future".
O'Connor et al. (2007) suggest that changing personal history is a technique to re-
evaluate troublesome memories in the light of current knowledge. Each human being
has an extensive personal history composed of innumerable experiences that exist as
memories in the present. While what actually happened cannot be changed, we can
change the meaning we give to it in the present, and the impact it has on our behaviour.
On the other hand, scientific studies on memory certify that it is not a "perfect file", but
instead it is creative and it keeps renewing memories and adapting them to new
information and changes that are generated in people’s lives. Likewise, the researchers
agree that there are alterations of memory and distortions of memory.
Daniel Schacter is a psychologist, professor and researcher at Harvard University. His

research has focused on human memory and amnesia. One of his best-known books is
The Seven Sins of Memory (2003). Schacter believes that memory errors are not
biological alterations, but survival tools, since it is important to remember how to forget.
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O'Connor and Seymour (2007) claim that changing personal history is very useful when
a series of problem feelings or behaviour reoccur repeatedly; the "why do I keep doing
/thinking this?" kind of feeling.
It is very important to apply/teach this technique to create a good rapport with the
subject (in case it is applied to someone). Dilts et al. (1998) in their book Identification
and Change of Beliefs, speak about the imprint concept that is nothing more than a past
and significant event from which a subject formed a belief or set of beliefs. The authors
explain that one can inquire about problematic imprints that generate negative and
harmful beliefs, and through the anchoring technique, carry out a re-imprinting (reliving
the experience with resources and tools which are anchored). In this way there will be
a change of beliefs and change of experience.
To sum up, personal history change refers to a technique or procedure through which
an anchoring of resources that would have been useful to have in a past problematic or
traumatic experience is done. This will allow the subject to relive that experience with
the necessary resources and, in this way, it will enable making a generalisation necessary
for facing future experiences successfully.
§ Procedure for a personal history change
ü Identify the negative state, elicit it, calibrate it, anchor it and break the state=state
of blockage (SB)
ü Keep the anchor and think of other times when you felt in a similar way.
ü Think about what resources would have been necessary for the experience to have
been satisfying rather than problematic. Enumerate them. States of Resource (SR).
ü Integration of anchors: "With these listed resources, relive this problematic

situation".
ü We interrupt the state with distractors so as to move to verification.
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ü Verification → firing off the anchor (What happens? Does the resource state
appear?). Calibrate.
ü Bridge to the future: thinking about a future problematic experience (situation of

blockage) (SB) → What happens? Do SR appear?
4.4.4. New behaviour generator
Generating new behaviours is a useful technique if there is a new behaviour you would
like to develop or an old one that a person wants to change or improve. It is a very simple
but powerful technique that can be applied in both personal and professional
development (O'Connor and Seymour, 2007: 109-110).
As explained by O'Connor et al. (2007), imagine that you want to improve at your
favourite sport (tennis).
ü Try to observe yourself in a dissociated way behaving the way you would like to
behave, hitting a perfect tennis serve, for example.
ü Next, observe a model that is doing this behaviour (take a seat as if you were the
director).
ü Observe the film through your inner eyes; keep dissociated while listening to the
sounds. You are the star and the director, if there are more people involved,
study their reactions to your behaviour.
ü Then enter the scene (associate) and execute the action. While you are doing it
pay attention to the behaviours (physiological signals) of the people around you.
ü If you do not feel good, go back to the director's chair, and change the movie
before stepping into the scene again.
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ü When you are happy with the imagined performance, identify an internal or
external signal (anchor) that you can use to trigger that optimal behaviour.
ü Check the effectiveness of the signal and repeat from step 4.
§ The importance of visualization
An Australian sports psychologist, Alan Richardson (1967) showed that visualization had
an impact on one’s chances of success. He made an experiment by dividing a group of
basketball players into three groups and testing each player’s ability to make free
throws:
- 1st group would spend 20 minutes a day practicing free throws.
- 2nd group would not practice or visualize.
- 3rd group would spend 20 minutes a day visualizing themselves making free
throws.
The results were as follows: the 1st group improved by 24%, the 2nd group did not show
any improvement, and the 3rd group improved by 23%, so they were almost as good as
the players who actually practiced. Members of the 3rd group could visualize how they
threw the ball and went through the hoop (their position, technique), they could hear
how the ball bounced.
§ How to choose the "models" to model?
To use the new behaviour generator technique it is necessary to choose a model that
can serve as an example. We can resort to different alternatives:
a) New behaviour: choose/create a behaviour that you consider proper, optimal

and ideal.
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b) Modelling of oneself: think about situations that you handled successfully using
efficient resources. Transfer these resources to the situation that you want to
improve.
c) Modelling of others: reflect on how other people face a situation equal or similar
to the one that you want to improve.
d) Bridge to the future: imagine that you have faced the situation with adequate
resources: explain the procedure and the resources that you think you have
used.
Practice: New behaviour generator
In order to apply the technique of generating a new behaviour, follow these steps:
1. Choose the skill/ability you need to improve.
2. Think of a model that you can use as an example.
3. Visualize yourself (dissociated) doing the activity.
4. Ecology analysis: think if this is how you want to do it, if it meets your
expectations, if it gives you a sense of fulfilment, etc.
5. Enter the action (associate) as the protagonist of your visualization, not as a

spectator, but as an actor. VAK → Look, listen and feel.
6. Again, analyse the ecology.
7. Make a bridge to the future to strengthen, generalize and internalize.
Can you do it for all the things you want to improve? Try.
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5. SUBMODALITIES, HYPNOSIS AND EMOTIONAL

INTELLIGENCE
5.1. SUBMODALITIES
As we have said, each individual has their own way of understanding the external
environment and prioritizes some senses over others when relating to the outside
world. In other words, every human being chooses a modality of the representational
system (it depends on what predominates in each person: what we see, what we hear,
what we taste, what we smell, what we touch or our individual bodily sensations). As
we saw, from this perspective internal representations are formed. When they acquire
a meaning, internal states are generated.
Salvador A. Carrión in his book, Practitioner Course in PNL (2011), suggests that each
human being uses their own representational system, called the Dominant Modality.
According to Robert Dilts (1998), submodalities are "the smallest qualities or elements
of each modality. For example, the submodalities of the visual representational system
include brightness, clarity, size, location and focus (...)". "Changing submodalities or the
frequency of representations changes the subjective experience of any event, often
dramatically." Dilts is the author of the phrase "the difference that makes the
difference" (Dilts, cited in Carrión, 2011; 210), suggesting that the submodalities are the
forms in which the corresponding modality are reproduced or presented.
For O'Connor and Seymour (2007) the submodalities, are "the exact doses of ingredients
that are needed to create a result". That is to say, they are "the essential building blocks
of the structure of our subjective experience. In order to understand and control a visual
experience, you need to know more about it."
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Reflect: Submodalities
Close your eyes and recall a nice situation that you experienced not a long time ago.
Observe the image that comes to your mind in detail and pay attention to the following
aspects:
- It is a colour image?
- Are the colours clear or diffused?
- Does the image have depth?
- Do you see it far or near?
- Is it a moving image, or does it simulate a photograph?
- Is there any sound associated with the image?
- Are you able to listen to the sounds that are produced at that moment?
- What sensations are you able to detect in relation to the image?
The answer to each of these questions refers to the SUBMODALITIES.
§ Submodalities (Carrión, 2011: 214-215)
These are the most important submodalities, critical or significant, for each one of the
modalities of our representational system.
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SMELL/
KINESTHETICS
VISUALS AUDITIVES
TASTE
Shine Tone Pressure Sweet/Sour

Size Time Location Sour/Salty
Enlargement Volume Extension Aromatic/
Colour (white/black) Rhythm Temperature Hot
Colour saturation Continuous Movement
Shadow (interrupted) Duration
Colour balance Ringer/tone Intensity
Size of images Associated/dissociate Size
Location d Frequency
Distance Contrast Number
Contrast Harmony/dissonance
Clarity Definition
Focus/blur Number
Duration Resonance in context
Fixed picture/film Outer/inner
Speed of images Supply type
Direction of motion Mono/Stereo
Three dimensions /
Flat perspective /
Front
Associated/dissociated
Tone/background
Context
Frequency/number
Simultaneous /
sequential
Frame / panoramic
Orientation of images
Density
Transparent/opaque
Light direction
Symmetry/asymmetry
Horizontal/vertical
Single/multiple
Flashes
Winding
Digital (written)
Figure/ground
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Practice: Submodalities
The Explorer and the Guide: the Explorer should think about a pleasant situation. The
Guide will be choosing submodalities that the Explorer will experience and he/she will
be asking the Explorer to change submodalities (from one extreme to another), so that
he/she can see if the change of submodalities produces a change in the experience. The
Guide needs to keep calibrating the sensations of the Explorer.
We need to observe:
1. Submodalities that change after giving the instruction to change the

submodality.
2. What changes occur in the sensations? Intensity? Quality?
3. Is it possible to extrapolate the change of submodality to other contexts? Can

you use this submodality to improve some aspects of your life?
Examples:
- If the submodality is visual, the guide should give the instruction to move towards a
more blurred image, observing what happens with the feelings and the internal
experience.
- By distorting the image you will discover that the feelings about an image, person or
unpleasant situation diminish.
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5.1.1. Timelines
"We can never be at any point in time but “now” and we have a
time machine inside our skulls. And in our daydreams or night
dreams we jump between present, past and future without any
difficulty."
The human being measures time through distance and movement (clock). Bórquez
(2002) describes in his article that for NLP the concept of time is also a personality
variable. Since the person acquires and retains their beliefs, values and abilities through
their experiences in the environment and the way in which they remember those
experiences. He also believes that the orientation of our future plans will depend on our
representations of the past. That is why he places importance on discovering temporal
strategy and programming. How does the brain deal with time?
James and Woodsmall (1988) in their book, Timeline Therapy, developed the concept of
"timeline". They differentiated two basic types of timeline: "through time" and "in time".
- In time (ASSOCIATED): modality in which time is organized in spatial terms: the

future forward and the past backward. A person experiences being in the present
moment. Through language we can discover how the brain deals with time. "I do
not see any future", "He lives in the past", "reviewing the facts", "hoping to have
the chance to see him". These phrases indicate, without a doubt, that the
visualization and direction intervene in the organization of time in the brain.
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FUTURE PRESENT PAST
- Through time (DISSOCIATED): modality in which time is organized through a

series of images arranged chronologically, and observed from an external point
of view. It encourages a more analytical, realistic and organized way of thinking
when it comes to setting goals, meeting the deadlines, etc.
Think: Timeline
Think of a simple, repetitive and routine behaviour that you do on a daily basis, for
example, washing your face.
1. Recall now doing this behaviour (washing your face) five years ago.
2. Now think about the same behaviour from a week ago.
3. Now think how you would do it at this very moment.
4. Now think how you would do it in a week.
5. Now think how you will do it in five years. You don't know where you'll be in five
years, so only visualize yourself doing the action.
Then, view and arrange each image in the form of a film roll (vector). Imagine that
someone could mess up the images, how would you know from which years the images
are?
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- Where are they in space? - Are they coloured in the same

way?
- How big are they?
- Do they move or are they
- Are they bright or faded?
broken?
- How are they focused?
- How far are they?
In NLP, the way in which human beings organize time is called the Timeline. As we have
seen, time is usually represented through the visual system, and the internal perception
space is used to organize people’s experiences within it.
FUTURE PAST
The use of "the timeline" or "time is a line" as a metaphorical linguistic resource that
results from paying special attention to visual submodalities, such as colour, distance,
location, size, etc. In fact, most people represent time in the visual representational
system, since they use the internal perception space to organize experiences. However,
as we already know, there are people who use the auditory and kinaesthetic system
since past events may sound or feel differently from the present or future ones.
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5.1.2. Swish pattern
Bórquez (2002) explains that the swish pattern involves a technique in which the brain
is forced to take a certain cognitive direction because of changing key submodalities.
As we have seen previously, in any process of change, the passage from a current state
(CS), which limits or blocks us, to a desired state (DS) is enriching and enlightening. It is
precisely what the swish pattern is about. This technique helps to replace an
unfavourable emotion or behaviour with a more useful one.
§ The key elements (Carrion, 2011)
1. Choosing an image of the current state (CS): it is very important to choose the
optimal option. It must be an image that both the subject and the Practitioner
consider to be triggering unwanted limiting behaviour.
2. Building the desired state image (DS): the image of the desired state that is being
produced should have abilities and resources, not specific behaviours or
consummate images. That is to say, it should not send false information to our brain,
but instead it needs to generate necessary skills to change the state.
3. Identifying the critical submodalities: the Practitioner needs to discover and identify
the critical submodalities that will have the greatest effect on the change
(environment).
4. CS ASSOCIATED image: the image of the present state has to be associated.
5. DS DISSOCIATED image: the image of the desired state needs to always be

dissociated since if it were associated, it would not be motivating for the subject
because he/she could experience the sensation without making the change.
6. Associate SWISH: it might be necessary to associate the subject with the swish, in
order to check if the DS is fully satisfactory for the subject. In this way you can
observe the information and also complete the DS image.
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7. Checking the ecology of the DS: it is important to check if the DS image that we use
has any aggressive or harmful connotation for the subject. Since this image comes
from the subconscious, it may contain unprocessed or harmful information.
Practice: Swish technique
We will explain now step by step how to perform the swish technique by yourself.
1. Identify the current state that you want to change and the desired state you want
to reach. Be honest with yourself and realistic. Check if the DS is ecologically
beneficial for you and the people around you.
2. Construction of the desired state. Create a detailed visual image of the context, in
which you place yourself DISSOCIATED. It will be very important that you add details:
the situation, the objects, the colours, the people, the movements, the smells, etc.
And, in addition, the image should show clearly how you would like to act, how you
would be, how you would move, how you would feel, etc. You should pay attention
to the critical submodalities, since thanks to them you can create a much more
defined and higher quality image.
3. Fixed image: now the construction of the DS needs to convert it into a fixed image,
and then anchor it, so that it can be accessed at any time.
4. Investigate the present state or problem state: identify the environment, the place
and the situation of the problem state, recreate the experience from an ASSOCIATED
perspective by seeing, feeling and hearing what you would see, feel and hear.
5. Take the image defined at the beginning (DS), reduce it in size and place it in a lower
right corner of the state to which you are associated (CS).
6. When you say NOW! and/or you snap your fingers, you enlarge the image that is
reduced and blurred until it occupies all the space of the previous image; it will
occupy the whole field of vision, you will increase the lighting and the brightness. At
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the same time, the small image diminishes; it fades away until it disappears. Then,
immediately open your eyes. This process should last less than five seconds.
7. You must repeat the previous point at least seven times.
8. Bridge to the future: make a bridge to the future, using an image similar to the one
of the problem state, but that you have not used in the process.
5.1.3. Bridge to the future
- What do you think you would see, hear and feel that would allow you to know
that you must be functioning with that new option that you have created?
- It is a common situation in your current life.
- Now you must see, hear, feel and smell that new state or situation, having
activated those resources and that new behaviour.
If instead of being the Explorer, you want to be the Guide and Practitioner of this
technique, you should guide all the time, step by step, fulfilling the temporality and the
order. Remember to create a relaxed atmosphere, calibrate the physiological signals at
all times and verify if the change is strengthening.
§ An example of applying the technical swish as a Guide
ü The Guide needs to accompany the Explorer to create the image of the present
or problem state.
ü Next you should help him create the image/clue.
a. What visual cue appears prior to the problem state? What do you see, what
do you feel, what do you hear?
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b. Create an associated and large image of what you see prior to the behaviour
that the problem state generates.
ü Now create an image of yourself dissociated, without a specific behaviour, but

an image with more resources that expresses the positive state in which you will
find yourself when you do not carry out the problematic behaviour that is
unwanted.
ü Then place the large and associated image on a “large screen” and put the small
and blurred dissociated image at the bottom left.
ü Swish: focus on the small image, the one in which your desired state is reflected.
You should make it big and bright quickly, while the image that reflects the
unwanted state becomes small and blurred until it disappears. Practice this
seven times, quickly.
ü The Guide should help the Explorer to perform the swish by evoking a sudden
sound, such as a snap, a slap or something similar.
ü Checking (bridge to the future): think about the cue image. What's going on?
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D.S
C.S.
..
This technique can be very useful to overcome fears and overstep boundaries. The
desired situation is that the person faces the situation which they thought they would
not be able to face due to lack of resources. It is also a very powerful and quick technique
to cure phobias. If you want to go deeper into this topic we recommend reading chapter
8 of Introduction to PNL by O'Connor and Seymour (2007).
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5.1.4. Perceptual Positions
Salvador Carrión explains in his book, Master's Course in Practitioner (2014), that the
perceptual positions, also called mental positions, are diverse ways of analysing,
experiencing or living any present experience, memory of the past or future project. In
other words, they are like different options that human beings have to situate
themselves in the ideal mental spaces in each moment. It is a resource that is usually
used by adults. However, sometimes it happens that there are people who feel blocked
and lose their ability to be flexible, they are stuck in one of the perceptual positions and
cannot think of other alternatives.
Carrión (2014) describes the three basic points of view for the correct evaluation of an
experience:
- 1st perspective (self): this position refers to an individual perspective as it is

associated with one's subjective experience. In this position, the person sees the
situation through their own eyes paying attention to their own internal
responses, emotions and sensations. We see, hear and feel through our own
sensitivity, and we also value different experiences in a personal and subjective
way.
- 2nd perspective (others): this position refers to the point of view of another
person. It involves putting yourself in their shoes - as if you are looking at
yourself, seeing, hearing and feeling as the other person. Dissociated from
ourselves and associated with the experience of another, we can observe and
value ourselves from the other person’s perspective and get to know how others
perceive us.
This position allows us to:
- Understand interpersonal relationships, and be aware of others' reasons for

acting or thinking differently from us.
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- Put ourselves in the place of the other person and thus be able to improve
communication.
- Adapt our verbal and non-verbal communication to the needs of other

people.
- Open the doors to flexibility (assumption of NLP) and to understanding

(effective communication).
- Increase the power of leadership.
- Understand the needs of others, understand their beliefs and values,

understand their perspective and their criteria, get to know their inner world
and their interpretation of life.
The 2nd position also serves a double function: on the one hand it leads
people to the internal world of others so as to understand them from their
perspective and their experience, and on the other hand it helps to
understand how others perceive and experience us, and how they behave in
front of us.
- 3rd position (THE OBSERVER): it is a position of a dissociated observer who takes

a detached viewpoint. You are looking at yourself and the other person without
getting emotionally involved.
- 4th position (METAPOSITION): in this mental perspective an integration is made
between the three previous positions: the "I", “the other" and “the “observer,
so that the interactions that take place between all of them can be observed.
One could say that it is something like "the observer of the observer who
observes the subjects involved in the interaction" (Carrión, 2014: 167). With this
privileged position you can monitor and evaluate the system as a whole, and also
check how you are making changes of perceptual position.
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METAPOSITION
THE OBSERVER
I THE OTHER
Practice: Improving communication with perceptual positions
Follow the steps to improve a communicative situation with someone with whom you
have communication difficulties.
1. Think of someone with whom you have problems communicating.
2. Decide on a physical space in which you will visualize the relationship, and in
which it will be contextualized.
3. Visualize this person placing yourself in the 1st position ("I") and define the
behaviour of the other person that you think makes communication difficult).
For example: he is aggressive when talking with me, he addresses me with
superiority, etc.
4. Now move to the 3rd position ("the observer"), and observe yourself during an
interaction in which such behaviours are manifested. Name the reaction to these
behaviours: feeling of anger, bad energy, helplessness, sadness, fear, etc.
5. Analyse how your behaviour affects the other person in terms of reinforcing their
behaviour. If the person was involved in discussing the same topic with someone
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else, would that person react the same way she reacts when talking with me?
Would this person react to all people in the same way? If I were not there, how
would they behave? What kind of reactions / behaviours would they have?
6. Reflect on other ways of reacting to the behaviour of that person, for example:
avoiding it, not taking their behaviour to heart, keeping calm, laughing and
taking it with humour, etc. List the reasons why you continue to react in the same
way to the behaviour of the person. Example: I feel tense and unable to release
the tension so I might be taking it out on other people; I easily lose my temper,
etc.
7. Then move on to the 4th position and take a step outside the system. From this
position you are totally separated from those positions (you and the other), so
you can observe your behaviour, for example: I am a pain, I am on the defensive,
I'm too hard on him, etc.
8. With this new perspective go to the third position. From here you can re-evaluate
the relationship with that person. For example: Perhaps he wants to show me
something, maybe he does not know how to express himself in another way, etc.
It makes me feel: compassionate, I see him as an equal partner, I am more relaxed
because I understand that his reaction is nothing personal, maybe if I addressed
him differently, he would change his reaction. Once this exercise is done, go with
all this knowledge to position 1 and observe the changes made by the "I". Look
for adjectives, for example: I am calmer as there is less tension.
9. Once the 1st and 3rd positions have been changed, the 2nd position comes into
the picture, and now you can see how the person’s reactions and perspective
have changed.
10. To reinforce the ability to change position and perspective you can practice
different situations with the same person, or with different people. It is a crucial
tool for improving communication between people because "people understand
each other by talking things over".
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5.2. HYPNOSIS
One of the first books that Grinder and Bandler published as a result of their research
with Milton H. Erickson was based on his hypnosis techniques as a therapist. "Patterns
of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson, M.D." gave rise to a new concept: the
hypnotic language which in turn initiated the creation of new models that have become
the backbone of NLP (Carrión, 2011: 89).
When it comes to hypnosis, we can differentiate between clinical and stage hypnosis.
- Clinical hypnosis: it is an alert state of awareness used by licensed doctors to

treat multiple disorders: allergies, traumas, phobias, psychosomatic diseases, eye
problems, addictions, even drug addiction, etc.
- Stage hypnosis: as the name itself indicates it is a show performed for
entertainment purposes.
John Grinder said that Erickson opened the door not only to a different reality, but to a
whole series of different realities. His work with trance and altered states was amazing,
and Grinder's thinking underwent a profound rebalancing (O'Connor and Seymour,
2007). O'Connor et al. (2007) explain that Erickson used the language in a vague and
imprecise manner, so that patients could give the meaning that best suited them.
Moreover, he induced trance states allowing patients to overcome their problems as
well as discover their own resources. This way of using language was called the Milton
model, and emerged as a contrast and complement to the Meta Model. O'Connor and
Seymour (2007) describe the Milton model as a way to use language to induce and
maintain trance to contact the hidden resources of our personality. Trance is a state in
which the person is highly motivated to learn from their unconscious part in an internal
and direct way (it is not a passive state, nor are you under another’s influence). One of
the basic premises commented on by O'Connor et al. is that there is cooperation
between patient and therapist: the patient's responses allow the therapist to know what
the next step is.
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Erickson's work was based on a few ideas that were shared by many famous therapists.
These are now presuppositions of NLP. Milton respected the unconscious part of his
patients, he assumed that there was a positive intention behind even the most bizarre
behaviour and he also noted that people make the best choices they can on the spot.
So, he focused his work on the study of giving people options and concluded that people
have all the resources to make changes.
The Milton model is a way of using language to:
1. Pace and guide the person’s reality.
2. Distract and use the conscious mind.
3. Access the resources and the unconscious.
5.2.1. Ericksonian hypnosis or natural hypnosis
The objective of the hypnosis technique of Dr. Ericksonis is that through the
communicative process the person goes from a problem mental state (lack of resources,
lack of options) to a mental state that creates coherent, congruent and ecological
solutions so that the person in question can achieve their objectives effectively.
§ Differences between classic and Ericksonian hypnosis
- Ericksonian or natural hypnosis: a technique that uses natural induction methods

through language. It establishes a relationship of equality with the subject.
- Classic hypnosis: special techniques are used with the use of materials, such as
an object that generates pendulum movement.
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5.2.2. Betty Erickson’s autohypnosis
Betty Erickson, wife of Milton Erickson, was a model for much of Grinder and Bandler’s
techniques. She developed a method that is now known internationally as it enables
reaching a trance state for some specific purposes. Thanks to this method people can
achieve personal growth by means of accessing the unconscious parts of the mind.
In NLP, as we have learned throughout the course, we perceive external reality through
different sensory systems: sight, hearing, smell, touch and taste. NLP defines three main
sensory modalities: visual, auditory and kinaesthetic. Betty Erickson's method of self-
hypnosis is about paying attention to the VAK, both internal and external, and in this
way other elements (sensations or thoughts) fade into the background. In other words,
an attempt is made to stop the internal dialogue by concentrating on the VAK; in such a
way as to reach states of relaxation, which is where you can best access the resources
that every human being has.
If you want to expand your knowledge on this topic, you can use the following books:
- Carrión, S. (2011). NLP Practitioner course: new technique for change and success.
- Grinder, J., and Bandler, J. (1993) Trance-formations: practical course of hypnosis with
Neuro-Linguistic Programming. Ed.: Gaia.
Practice: Autohypnosis
1. Choose a place where you can achieve maximum peace of mind, and where there is
no danger of unexpected interruptions. Sit comfortably in a comfortable seat. Relax
and try not to cross your legs.
2. Think about the session you are going to have. Define its objective. For instance:
"During this self-hypnosis session, I would like my unconscious to get the optimal
resources to be able to relax when talking in public."
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Decide how long you want it to be and in what the state you will end the session.
Example: "The self-hypnosis session will last 25 minutes, I will end up feeling safe,
calm and confident, perfectly prepared to give a speech to a group of people".
3. VISUAL: Relax, breathe quietly, and then pay attention to what you have in front of
you, at eye level, give priority to a bright object. Mark the step, and say to yourself
three affirmations about the experience: "I see the shelf that is in front of me, I see
a glass that is to the right of the shelf" etc.
4. AUDITORY: three statements about the experience: "I hear the voices of the upstairs
neighbours; I hear the dog from the next door neighbour".
5. KINAESTHETIC: three statements about the experience: "I feel the contact of my
back against the chair, I feel the air coming through my nose, I feel my feet resting
on the floor, I feel my watch on my wrist".
6. Next, stay in the same position, the same eye gaze direction, and again make two
affirmations for each of the channels. Add new stimuli of your experience for VAK.
7. Repeat the process with the three channels, keep your eyes closed and mark the
step.
It is possible, especially the first few times, that in the middle of the session the eyes
close, and a tunnel begins to be visualized. It is possible to use the internal image at that
moment.
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5.3. INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence
- The ability to learn, understand, and make judgments or have opinions that are
based on reason.
Artificial intelligence.
- The study of how to produce machines that have some of the qualities that the
human mind has, such as the ability to understand language, recognize pictures,
solve problems, and learn.
The study of intelligence has been one of the most characteristic sections of Psychology
throughout the twentieth century (Colom, 1999). Since the early work of Spearman,
Binet and Thurstone, until now, the advances have been constant and controversial at
the same time.
From the different definitions of "intelligence" we can extract the following

psychopedagogical reflections on intelligence (summarized in the article by Valentín
Martínez, 2002):
- Willingness to perform certain tasks or activities successfully.
- Capacity to adapt to the demands of the environment (school, work, family, social).
- Learning capacity.
- Problem solving.
- Complex system of cognitive processes.
- Ability to handle symbols.
- Set of independent skills.
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- Speed, energy and mental performance.
- Ability to effectively manage information.
5.3.1. Emotional intelligence
Galton (1870), was one of the first researchers to conduct a study on individual
differences in mental capacity. It was Peter Salovey and John Mayer who coined a new
term: Emotional Intelligence (EI). A great forerunner of Emotional Intelligence was
Howard Gardner (1983) who published, in Frames of Mind, a reformulation of the
concept of intelligence, in which he states that human beings possess seven types of
intelligence, and that each is relatively independent of the other. These intelligences
are: bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence, verbal-linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical
intelligence, visual-spatial intelligence and auditory-musical intelligence. In addition,
this theory introduced two types of intelligence related to Thorndike's social
intelligence: intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligence. Gardner, in 1995, added
naturist intelligence to the list, and in 1998, existential intelligence (Trujillo et al., 2005).
But, it was not until Emotional Intelligence (1995) and Working with Emotional
Intelligence (1999) by Daniel Goleman, that the term became really famous. Goleman
expressed his strong disapproval of intelligence tests, since he did not believe that
intelligence could be measured by a standardized IQ test, but rather by the qualities of
the mind, which until then had been known as character.
Leaving behind the discrepancies between all the authors who have been studying
Emotional Intelligence over the years, all experts agree that emotional intelligence is the
ability to identify and manage your own emotions and the emotions of others. Likewise,
a person with a high emotional intelligence has the capacity to recognize, express,
regulate, control and use their own and others' emotions to adapt to situations, achieve
goals and be successful (Morgado, 2007: 148-149).
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To conclude, Emotional Intelligence could be defined as a set of skills, abilities and

aptitudes that allow:
a) Knowing and taking advantage of our emotions: recognizing the emotion,

distinguishing it from other behaviour, analysing and understanding it, detecting
the reason why it appears, and, although it is often impossible to change it, at
least learning to manage it.
b) Understanding the emotions of others: in the same way that we detect, analyse
and understand the reason why our own emotion appears, we can extrapolate
it to other people’s emotions. We can pay attention to the signals of others that
express certain emotions and in that way reinforce empathy and rapport.
c) Personal satisfaction: collaborating in self-knowledge and learning about

emotional management helps to connect with other resources and to evolve
towards personal and professional change and success.
d) Efficiency and effectiveness: that is, you can learn, create and reinforce mental
habits that contribute to encouraging one's productivity and achieving goals.
5.3.2. Emotional intelligence and NLP
As we have seen throughout the course, everything we think is the product of our
perceptions, that is to say, our interpretation of the external reality that comes to us
through the sensory organs and then it is filtered until we give it a meaning, so that we
can understand the world in the easiest way possible. Everything that we process
mentally, which is built on the basis of sequences of sight, hearing and feeling
(representational channels), we structure in a subjective way.
Do you remember this diagram?
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1 Outside stimulus impacts us and actions, that we perceive

through our senses (sense organs), occur.
2 This information is filtered (psychophysiological and

cognitive filters: previous information, learning,
experiences, cultural beliefs, etc.) and it reaches the parts
of the brain that are responsible for information processing
and an internal representation of what we have perceived
and observed is created and given a meaning.
3 After the creation of an internal representation and

meaning, a physiological response (heat, cold, palpitations,
tremors, activation or movement), which we perceive
through other internal receptors, occurs.
4 As a result of the above an internal state arises: emotion or

feeling.
.
5 Finally, in accordance with our internal state, we carry out
an adaptive behavioural response (from crying, laughing,
talking, shouting to even more complex actions such as
making decisions).
.
The amygdala is a neuronal complex (set of neurons) located in the temporal lobes,
which belongs to the limbic system (brain system responsible for the processing and
storage of the emotions of animals and humans):
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The emotional system works in the following way (SIMPLIFIED SCHEME):
General autonomous activation:

Stimulus Amygdala palpitations, sweating, cardio-
respiratory acceleration.
Emotion: fear, sadness, joy, etc.
Cerebral cortex processing:

reasoning
Perception/ Interpretation
Answer: IMPULSE
As we can see in this diagram, impulses are the result of subjective experience, which is
no more than the basis of the communication model presented by NLP. The expression
of emotions (impulse) that we can recognise as positive or negative are the causes of
actions and they range from the simplest to the most elaborate ones.
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5.3.3. The five elements of emotional intelligence
According to Daniel Goleman, emotional intelligence is composed of five fundamental

areas associated with a series of competencies. In NLP these areas are related to
different techniques that have been developed. They are the following:
ü Self-awareness
The art of knowing your own emotions: emotional awareness. The ability to
recognize an emotion that you are feeling is a fundamental skill for self-
understanding. Not only does it enhance the optimal management of emotions but
it also increases self-confidence. The self-awareness of emotions is necessary in
order to reach the desired state. Being honest with ourselves is a key to growing as
a person.
ü Self-regulation: emotional self-control
Self-control is a necessary skill for the management of emotions, and a very

important premise of emotional intelligence. Self-regulation refers to striking a
balance in terms of the expression of emotions. It is not about controlling emotions,
it is about managing them so that they are not harmful for oneself or for others.
Self-regulation is the ability to monitor and control our own behaviour, emotions, or
thoughts by altering them in accordance with the demands of the situation. Feeling
sad, angry or nervous is normal up to a point; if it starts to harm the person, it crosses
the threshold of normality. People with a well-developed self-regulation capacity are
better at overcoming the ups and downs of life and enjoy a greater internal and
emotional stability. There are numerous NLP techniques that may facilitate the self-
regulation of emotions, for example:
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- Anchors: through the anchoring technique you can access resource states in
extreme situations when you feel overwhelmed by emotions.
- Dissociation (dissociated state): the fact of being able to observe yourself

from a distance and adopt a neutral position allows you to detach yourself
from emotions so as to lessen the emotional burden that is causing the
conflict.
- Submodalities: being able to modify submodalities helps to change one’s

way of thinking, which in turn reduces the emotional burden generated by
this disturbing thought.
ü Self-motivation
Motivation, commitment, initiative and optimism are essential factors in emotional

intelligence. Motivation is an emotion and, at the same time, a tool when it comes
to attaining goals. It is a natural product of your desire to achieve
something and your belief that you are capable of doing it. People who possess self
-motivation, either from an intrinsic motivation (internal elements: personal
satisfaction, self-recognition, etc.), or extrinsic motivation (social recognition, a pay-
rise, material object, etc.), become much more productive than people who do not.
The following NLP techniques encourage self-motivation and achievement of goals:
- Formulation of objectives
- Bridge to the future or Barbara Streisand technique.
- Working with submodalities.
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ü Empathy
Empathy is the ability to actively understand other people's emotions.

Understanding in an active way refers to the ability to understand the emotions of
another. However, you need to understand the other person’s situation, not as if it
was happening to you, but as if you were the other person. In short, empathy means
"putting yourself in the other person’s shoes." People who have developed this
ability connect with people with whom they communicate and are much better at
getting their message across. In NLP, empathy is necessary in order to establish
rapport with the other person.
ü Social skills
Knowing how to convey a powerful message (leadership), managing conflicts and

working as a team are some of the skills that allow you to achieve interpersonal
effectiveness. Human beings are social beings so the better they develop the social
skills, the greater success, and personal and professional satisfaction they will
achieve.
In a study conducted by The Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence in

Organizations, it is said that the rate of success is 23% due to our intellectual abilities
and 77% to our emotional and social skills.
5.3.4. Emotional Dependency
Without going deeply into the psychopathological meaning of the term, there is a thin
line between a healthy connection and an emotional addiction. People have a tendency
to develop dependencies on people or things. It is a natural and instinctive behaviour
that becomes harmful when our happiness begins to rely entirely on a certain person,
achievement or outcome, that is to say, when we are not able to function properly
without the element on which we depend.
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A person can be dependent on: a relative, his or her partner, friends, a co-worker, etc.
The nature of the dependency, therefore, can be: friendly, affective, professional,
material or emotional.
§ How can it be detected?

Clues:
- Not being able to make decisions and undertake actions by yourself.
- Not trusting yourself.
- Feeling that you are not capable of undertaking anything on your own.
- Extreme fear of being alone.
- Maintaining an unhealthy relationship with someone because of not knowing

how to face life without that person.
Practice: How to put an end to an emotional dependency?
Now, you will do a practical exercise to learn how to put an end to an emotional
dependency. It is important to add that if the situation negatively affects several areas
of your life, or it makes you feel stressed, anxious, depressed and hopeless. In addition
to performing this exercise it would be advisable to turn to a specialist. Be it an NLP
professional, a professional coach, or a psychologist.
1. Choose the person on whom you think you depend psychologically.
2. Reflect on the type of relationship you have with that person.
3. Then close your eyes and imagine that you have that person in front of you.
a. Now look at him/her carefully, touch him/her, imagine what you feel
when you touch him/her, do not forget to breathe deeply.
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b. After breathing, feel the sensation of being connected to the person and
the relationship you have with him/her.
c. If the union, instead of being psychological, was physical, what part of the
bodies would be united? What would that union be like?
4. Continue to breathe deeply and, as much as you can, try to free yourself from
that connection, cut off that chain that unites you and increases the
interpersonal space. Feel that new experience and rejoice in that state.
5. Think about the person in front of you. Try to gain a perspective and enumerate
all the benefits that the relationship with her/him brings you, for example:
protection, control, security, higher self-esteem, etc. Give it a thought and be
honest with yourself.
6. Now create your "I", adding the resources with which you could feel free,
independent, safe and self-sufficient. That "ideal self" does not need another
person because it can stand on its own feet, it knows how to take care of itself,
protect itself, love itself and feel love.
a. How does that "I" behave? What does it see, hear and feel? How does it
act, how does it think?
b. Take a deep breath while delving into your thoughts.
7. Then return to the image in which you were linked with the other person, re-
experience that bond and that union again. Breathe deeply. Cut the union off
and quickly reconnect with the "ideal self". It must be a union that meets the
same characteristics with which you were connected to the person.
8. Stay in this state, enjoy that new and healthy connection, that healthy and strong
"I". That link will always be there, in every situation. Now you can receive
everything that the other person was giving you, but the difference is that you
have it incorporated in your "I". You are independent.
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a. Think about the security and tranquillity that this new "I" provides you
with, breathe deeply and feel accompanied.
9. Then analyse the non-dependence that there is now towards the other person,
that harmful link no longer exists.
10. You can observe that the other person also feels better and has the opportunity
to connect with their "ideal self".
11. Go back to the connection with your "new I". Keep this feeling and reinforce it.
Imagine all the things you can do now by yourself, imagine yourself being strong
and capable of learning new resources, and facing new situations and changes.
12. Feel the freedom and security, breathe deeply, and slowly open your eyes again.
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6. CONFLICT RESOLUTION, METAPHORS,

ADVANCED TOTE MODELS
6.1. CONFLICT RESOLUTION (CONGRUENCE-INCONGRUENCE)
Incongruence occurs when our channels are not saying the same thing, when we are in
conflict at some level. I am saying “I love you” with a harsh tone of voice. Likewise, when
the verbal and non-verbal messages coincide, it is said that there is congruence. My
words are saying “I love you” and I am saying it with a warm tone and smiling eyes.
Communication is congruent if there is a correspondence between oral communication
and body language, that is when our words, tone, gestures, body language, eye gaze,
facial expressions all send the same message.
Considering that incongruence means that an individual has sent two opposing
messages through two different channels, the first thing we should do is to recognise
the incongruence.
An example of incongruence would be expressing verbally happiness and joy, but non-
verbally showing sadness, fatigue or anxiety.
§ Meta-comments: this is a technique used to deal with incongruence. We need

to start from emphasizing that for NLP, both messages, although incongruent, are real
and express something. In addition, this position is very important to maintain rapport
with the person. So, the new proposed behaviour has to agree with the incongruent
messages.
In short, to work on the incongruence we needed to:
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- Acknowledge that the two messages are real and that each message corresponds
to a different objective.
- Remember that each message should be accompanied so as to obtain

cooperation through a negotiation that leads to a new behaviour, thus satisfying
the two objectives of the person.
§ Types of incongruence:
- Simultaneous: the conflicting messages are given at the same time.
- Sequential: the conflicting messages are given one after the other.
We need to bear in mind that people who are experiencing incongruence feel confused
or at odds so we need to create an accompaniment and sensitivity towards the
incongruence and ambiguity, and generate an appropriate flexibility of behaviour.
6.1.1. The accompaniment of incongruence
The accompaniment of incongruence is especially important because it helps to keep

the rapport with the other person who participates in the negotiation.
- Accompaniment of the sequential incongruence: facing sequential

incongruence, the programmer responds with the same type of incongruence.
Example: "I am very happy with this situation!" (Positive verbal communication,
VC +), and then he looks at the floor, with a serious facial expression and a faint
tone of voice (negative non-verbal communication, NVC-). We should respond:
"Good, I'm very happy for you!" (VC +), covering our mouths and looking at the
ground with a slouching posture (NVC-).
- Accompaniment of the simultaneous incongruence: the subject presents both

messages in an incongruent and simultaneous way. Example: "Today I have had
a great day, thank you!" (VC +), and at the same time frowns and looks at the
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ground (NVC-). The programmer should respond in the same way, that is, with a
simultaneous incongruence. Example: "I am very happy to hear that!" (VC +) and
at the same time he/she tightens the eyelids and frowns (NVC-).
- Inverse accompaniment of the simultaneous incongruence: in this case, the

person expresses their thoughts through a simultaneous incongruence, and then
the programmer will respond with another simultaneous incongruence but with
a change of the messages of the channel. Example: the subject states: "The most
important thing to me is to get promoted” (VC +), while saying it, his head is
hanging down and he does not look into the eyes (NVC-). The programmer
responds, "I do not agree with that statement." (VC-), while making an
affirmative movement with the head (NVC +).
ü This technique can help the subject to become unconsciously aware of the
incongruence, and can also clarify a response pattern for the following
interventions.
- BUT: sequential incongruence. Fritz Perls called the "but" the universal draft. In
every sentence in which a "but" is incorporated in the centre, a change in the
meaning occurs, since the phrase after the "but" substitutes the content of the
phrase before the "but". If we substitute a "but" for an "and" or any conjunction
that has the same functions, we will change the meaning of the phrase, and both
sides of the conflict will be recognized and accepted.
6.1.2. Polarity: detection and integration
Conflict is part and parcel of worldly life because opposition exists in everything we do.
It is only natural that human beings sometimes feel "incongruence" in some aspects of
their lives. We are often in two minds about some issues and this polarity results in
conflicts between verbal and non-verbal messages.
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§ Polarity integration:
- Identify incongruences through the detection of contradictions between the

verbal and non-verbal messages.
- Classify these incongruences into polarities using, for example: classifications,

categories, symbols, representational systems, etc.
- Generate a contact point between the polarities creating a meta-position, that

is, a third perceptual position, through which a new vision or point of view of
analysis will be focused on.
Practice: Identify a polarity
We will see now how the Guide helps the Explorer to identify a polarity:
- The Guide should ask the Explorer to reflect on some aspects that the Explorer
is ambivalent about, something that is causing an internal conflict. Example: "I
should be more assertive with my classmates, but I'm not", "I should go to the
gym more often, but I'm not going".
- The Guide should accompany the Explorer by evoking, accessing and

identifying each part of the polarity through techniques such as accessing
the past, exaggeration, etc. Once it is done, each part needs to be anchored
with postures or gestures: it is advisable to use the ones which are habitual
for the Explorer.
Aspects to be considered:
ü The two polarity parts must be accessed, reaching the same extreme level of
depth.
ü You have to evoke each opposing party in positive terms.
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ü It is necessary to highlight the advantages and positive intentions of each of the

parts. The disadvantages of each part need to be turned into advantages.
ü Anchoring: each of the polarity parts will be anchored with gestures and postures
that are natural for the Explorer.
ü Once a positive description of each polarity has been achieved (positive result,
meta-results, meta-objectives), that is, what each party wants to achieve for the
subject, it can be said that the exercise has ended.
ü As can be seen, the main objective of this exercise is to guide the subject towards
the positive objectives of each part of the polarity to help him to withdraw from
the conflicting or problematic behaviours.
6.1.3. Limiting reframing of limiting experiences
"There is nothing either good or bad but thinking makes it so."
William Shakespeare
Mankind has always tried to find meaning. Things happen but until people give them a
meaning, relate them to the rest of their lives and evaluate the consequences, they are
not important. We learn the meaning of events through education and culture
(O'Connor and Seymour, 2007: 186-187).
The meaning of any event depends on the frame in which it is placed, and as a
consequence, when the frame changes, the meaning also changes, along with the
responses and behaviour. The ability to reframe provides great freedom and flexibility.
If a tennis player injures his right wrist it may put an end to his professional career.
However, a person who reframes this accident as an opportunity and not a limitation
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can change this terrifying, frustrating and limiting event into an opportunity to grow and
learn from physicians about anatomy, physiology, traumatology and rehabilitation
(O'Connor and Seymour, 2007: 186-187).
"When a grain of sand enters the interior of an oyster and

assaults it, the oyster segregates nacre to defend itself, and as
a result creates a brilliant and precious jewel."
Resilience (Anna Forés)
§ Types of reframing
- Context reframe: it deals with changing a negative internal response to certain

behaviour, emphasizing the usefulness of this behaviour in other contexts.
Redefining the context of a situation implies changing the conceptual point of
view of an event or emotional experience that affects a certain situation;
changing the frame produces a change in meaning. Example: "I am very calm
when carrying out tasks and sometimes I do not reach the objectives that they
ask me for". To do the reframing we could ask: ”In which situations does being
calm bring you benefits?”.
- Meaning reframe: the meaning of any situation or event depends directly on the
frame from which it is observed. When the frame changes, the meaning will also
change and, as a consequence, the emotions and behaviour associated with it
will change.
- Example: "My boss has always had it in for me. He does not praise me for my
achievements, and does not explain to me the mistakes I make".
- Reframing: "It is possible that your boss trusts you a lot and this is why he
gives you more freedom and he also belives that you do not need specific
instructions at this time".
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Reframe!
Complete the table with different conflicting situations in your life that you would like
to reframe. Look for opportunities that those situations may give you.
CONFLICTING SITUATION REFRAMING
It is an opportunity to learn techniques of

They have promoted me, but the team I
personnel management, empathy,
have to manage is rebellious, they ignore
leadership, assertive communication, and
my instructions, they question my
to prove to myself that I can reach out to
abilities and they do not trust me.
my team members and be a good leader.
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§ O'Connor and Seymour: apply your wit through oral models.
Observe different examples of different points of view:
"I am not doing well at work and I feel depressed"
Generalize: You may feel depressed about everything, and work is not going well.
Apply to yourself: You may feel depressed when you think about that.
Introduce values and criteria: With what important aspect are you struggling at work?
Positive goal: Maybe overcoming this problem at work will help you to learn and
improve yourself.
Change the goal: Maybe you need to change jobs.
Set a more distant goal: Can you learn something useful from the way your job is now?
Redefine: Your depression may mean that you feel bad, because they demand irrational
things.
Analyse (descend): What parts of the work go wrong?
Synthesize (ascend): How are things going in general?
Counterexamples: Has your work gone wrong at some time without you feeling
depressed?
Positive intention: This means that you care about your work.
Temporal framing: It is only temporary; it will pass.
Context reframe
Think of two people, A and B. A complains following the pattern: "I'm tired of always
doing the same thing, I'm too dumb".
1. A is asked to make a clear picture of the complaint.
2. In which contexts does A's complaint work: Is there a context in which that behaviour
is more appropriate?
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3. Reflect on the different options in which a new interpretation could be presented

and choose the most appropriate, optimal and ecological.
4. A is offered the reframing; it is necessary to calibrate the physiological reactions.
5. In the event that there is no emotional change, the complaint needs to be reframed
until it becomes positive.
Meaning reframe
1. The other person is asked to make a clear picture of the content of their complaint
while experiencing the consequent emotions of the complaint.
2. Questioning: Is there a frame in which this behaviour can bring positive

consequences? What is the aspect that does not reach the subject's consciousness?
Is it possible to make a different description of the same event?
3. Reflect on the different options in which you could present the new interpretation
and choose the most appropriate one.
4. Now suggest the reframing, and observe the physiological reactions.
5. In case there is no emotional change, try reframing with another meaning.
For further details refer to Introduction to NLP (O’Connor and Seymour, 2007, pages 186
to 197).
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6.1.4. Resolution of external conflicts
§ Conditional agreement
Example of a conflict resolution: the objective is to reach an agreement between two or

more people on a specific topic.
Two people, A (executor) and B
1. Think of a situation in which you have to present proposals, projects, ideas,

suggestions, etc.
2. A makes the proposal to B.
3. B raises an objection concerning X topic. For example: "it is too expensive".
4. A will recapitulate the objection as well as the positive intention, until reaching
a verbal and non-verbal acceptance of this recapitulation.
Example: "I see that he perceives the project as very expensive in terms of
resources and human capital. He worries that the expenses are high, but he
definitely has other needs and does not want to increase his debts."
5. A proposes a conditional agreement.
Example: "If I tell you that your expenses in the form of debts will not increase so
much, would you be interested in the project?"
6. Alternatives should be sought until subject B fully agrees. He should be

convinced and sure about his decision.
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§ Structure of concordance
Through the use of meta-objectives, a conditional agreement that is acceptable to two

or more people in the communicative situation should be reached. In the following
exercise we will carry out an example of negotiation with the structure of concordance
technique.
1. A and B need to specify the context in which the negotiation will take place.
2. Inquiring about what will be the desired objective of A and recapitulating; the
same will be done with B.
A and B (inquiring about desired objective): What is your wish?
A and B (recapitulating): "Ok, then what you would like to achieve is…"
3. Identifying the meta-objective of A and recapitulating, then keep asking until a

meta-objective on which B also agrees is reached.
4. Calibrating: the calibration exercise in the negotiation is important, as well as

changing the perceptual positions to analyse the situation from different points
of view and emotional distance.
5. Inquiring about what they want, what they want to achieve:
"If A gets X and B gets Y, they can come to an agreement."
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SELLING WITH NLP

1. Presupposition, harmony, empathy, rapport, honesty,
calibrating: TRUST.
2. Discovering basic need by asking: what is it?
3. Show VAK sensory channels (personalized to the
customer) of the product (aimed at satisfying the
customer's basic needs): what will they feel (smell,
taste), what will they hear, what will they see.
4. Objection Management.
5. Conditional agreement.
6. Closing the sale: asking directly if the client is going to
enjoy the benefits of the product.
6.2. METAPHORS
Metaphor is a rhetorical figure that identifies something real (R) with something
imaginary or evoked (I), both existing in a relation of similarity.
Example: "Your hair (R) is gold (I)".
Etymologically, the word comes from the Greek meta (outside or beyond) and pherein
(move).
Robert Dilts (1976) defines a metaphor as "a figure of language in which something is
spoken of as if it were another". Milton Erickson, who was studied in depth by Grinder
and Bandler, was a specialist in metaphor and change. The techniques he used were so
successful that they were extrapolated to the world of business and sales.
The word metaphor is used in NLP in a general way to cover any story or figure of
language that implies a comparison. This includes simple comparisons or similes, but
also allegories, stories and parables (O'Connor and Seymour, 2007: 180).
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O'Connor et al. (2007) explain that metaphors communicate indirectly. Simple

metaphors make simple comparisons, for instance “as white as sheet” and quickly
become clichés. However, they clarify unknown concepts by relating them to something
that is already known. On the other hand, complex metaphors are stories with many
levels of meaning. Explaining a story elegantly can distract the conscious mind and also
trigger an unconscious search for resources and meanings. In addition, it is an excellent
way to communicate with someone in a trance.
As described by O'Connor et al. (2007), the unconscious appreciates relationships.

Dreams use metaphor and imagination; one thing stands for the other as they have
common features. To create an effective metaphor, that is, one that leads to the
resolution of a problem, the relationship between the elements of the story needs to be
the same as the one between the elements of the problem, since in this way the
metaphor will resonate in the unconscious, and from there it will activate the resources.
§ How to create a metaphor?
ü Gather the necessary information: the characters, the protagonist, the problem,
the dynamics and possible solutions.
ü Define the results: follow the instructions on how to formulate objectives.

Identify the present state and the desired state that one wants to reach.
ü Choose the topic of metaphor: you should move away from the real topic, that
is, it should not resemble reality, although you should choose a topic with which the
subject will feel comfortable.
ü Define the elements you should have: each element of real life you want to
illustrate needs to correspond to the element of the metaphor.
ü Define an unexpected twist in the narrative in order to attract the attention of

the subject. If the subject is surprised by something that is not expected, it leaves them
in a trance state in which the subconscious opens up to new, more creative options.
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ü Use abstract language: words such as communication, thought, relationships,

elements, emotions, reflection, speech, etc. On the other hand, it is not necessary to
clarify the time in which the action happens.
ü Use hidden instructions: the speech of the characters, those instructions that you
want the listeners to get. Example: "and so the master told him: now you have the power
to face the battle".
ü Enhance the narrative: it is advisable to use embellished language that can

appeal to all sensory channels as well as interpretive gestures that evoke drama.
ü Meaning: give the subconscious time to recognize what the meaning is. Establish
feedback with the subject.
§ Types of metaphors
- Accompanying metaphors: they are used to change a behaviour or a certain

emotional state. It is about responding in a communicative context using a metaphor
instead of repeating something. Its main objective is to emphasize or to establish
rapport with a person.
- Metaphors of change: they involve a change-oriented response. As their name

suggests, they are aimed at bringing about a change.
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6.3. LOGICAL LEVELS AND NEUROLOGICAL LEVELS
Robert Dilts, inspired by Bateson’s model of logical levels, created the model of
neurological levels. The objective of this model is to help people make changes that can
improve their situation. According to Dilts, human beings organize their thoughts about
the world, meanings and responses to these meanings at different levels of abstraction.
The distinction of these different levels is crucial when going through the processes of
change, learning and communication.
The level of abstraction according to Dilts’ model:
This pyramid shows the hierarchical organization of neurology (from a more superficial
level to a deeper one), as well as the frame of reference in which action needs to be
taken to provide the desired change.
This model demonstrates that changes produced at lower levels can affect the higher
levels, but changes produced at higher levels will always have an impact on the lower
levels.
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§ Description of the logical levels for NLP (Carrion, 2011)
ü Purpose/spirit: What am I here for? What or who else is with me or beyond me?
What am I part of that is greater than myself? It is about our sense of purpose and of
being part of something more extensive than our identity.
ü Identity (the who): Who am I? What relationship do I have with myself and with
others? Where are my limits? At an individual level, a person's identity is their sense of
self that defines who they are and their mission in life.
ü Beliefs and values: People hold certain beliefs and values that influence their
behaviour.
ü Capabilities: They imply knowledge, skills, strategies, states, qualities, emotions

and resources. They are the internal states of the individual that allow generating the
behaviours or not. This is where NLP mostly functions, since its effects can be
experienced more easily. It is the direction we give to our life, the meaning we give to
our behaviours. A behaviour can only be evident if the individual has the capability to
demonstrate it.
ü Behaviour: What do I do? What do I see? These are the specific actions
performed in each context. This includes operational behaviours, including illnesses,
since NLP understands them as behaviours (even if they are unconscious body
behaviours).
ü Environment: Where am I? What is around me? It is the external context, the

place where we are and the people we are with.
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§ Practical examples of logical levels:
- Person who looks after their physical health:
Identity: I am a healthy person.
Belief: If I stay healthy, I can live longer.
Capacity: I know how to take care of myself.
Behaviour: I exercise every morning.
Environment: Naturism has taught me many things.
- Drug addict:
Identity: I am a drug addict, and I've always been a mess.
Belief: I need several doses to be relaxed.
Capacity: I cannot control myself if I don’t have drugs.
Behaviour: I spend the morning lying on the couch, listening to music.
Environment: They don’t leave me in peace at home.
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6.4. ADVANCED TOTE MODELS
The TOTE is a basic behaviour model devised by Pribram, Miller and Galater (1960)
aimed at analysing the units of behaviour. This model differs from the traditional model
of behavioural theory (stimulus-response) in terms of precision, simplicity and elegance.
The TOTE adds feedback and the result. (Carrión, 2011: 244).
T = Test
O = Operation TEST-OPERATION-TEST-EXIT
T = Test
E = Exit
TOTE is basically a sequence of events or activities, which occur in our sensory and
representational system, which has been consolidated into a functional unit of
behaviour and is used unconsciously.
If the conditions of the TEST phase (comparison between current state and desired
state) are known, the action goes to the next step in the chain of behaviour. If this does
not happen, there is a feedback and you refine your behaviour (Operate) until your test
shows that you have achieved your goal. You keep looping around the model until the
test is passed and the action is performed.
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Beginning of TEST EXIT

the Test Sensorial Evidence YES Desired State
CS VAK
DS
CS = DS?
(Congruence)
NO
(Incongruence)
You keep doing Test-
Operation - Test again,
until YES is achieved.
OPERATION
Actions and responses to
problems
FLEXIBILITY
When you adjust the volume of the music system, you're running a TOTE:
Beginning of TEST EXIT

the Test The stereo volume YES Desired State
CE DE
(Congruence)
NO
You keep doing Test-

(Incongruence) Operation - Test again,
until it is achieved.
OPERATION
Move the knob up
and down.
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The TOTE model has the following implications:
ü Representation of the desired goal.
ü Sensory evidence necessary for providing a very specific feedback and thus
analysing progress in the achievement of goals.
ü Executing a variety of operations aimed at achieving the desired objective.
ü Flexibility of behaviours essential for putting into practice various options.
6.4.1. NESTED TOTES
“Nested” TOTE refers to the fact that sub-TOTEs (with their own tests and operations)
can be included inside of a larger “macro” TOTE. In short, other TOTEs can be nested
inside of it. In addition, these TOTES are structured hierarchically with regards to one
another. The most classic example of “nested” TOTE is designed by the creators of this
model: Pribam, Miller and Galanter:
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Beginning of TEST YES EXIT

the Test NAIL
(flush)
(Sticks up) Keep doing Test-Operation

- Test again, until YES is
achieved.
OPERATION: Nailing
TEST TEST
HAMMER HAMMER
Down Up
LIFT STRIKE
6.5. MENTAL STRATEGIES
"Strategy is of vital importance to the human system; it is the basis of life and death,
the path of survival and annihilation; for this reason, it is absolutely crucial to examine
it".
Sun Tzu. The art of war.
According to Carrión (2011), human behaviour is controlled by internal processing

strategies or sequences of our representational system. Therefore, strategy is a mental
process that leads to an answer, and that can be represented as a series of chained VAK
(modalities). According to NLP, strategies put the neurological system (synergy) into
operation.
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Every time we get some information, a neuronal process and physiological changes that
alter our organism are carried out. Focusing the eyes, changing the gaze direction,
modifying the breathing, contracting the facial muscles, etc., are examples of
mechanisms that are used physically to contact with one modality or another (VAK).
They are called access codes.
Strategies are like using a mobile phone. The representational systems are like the digits
of the keyboard. Depending on the way we sequence and organize the activity of the
representational systems, we will get different results. Similarly, the use of different
combinations of numbers will connect us with different mobile phones.
The access codes are behaviours that people develop to stay in tune with the body, and
they affect the neurology in such a way that we can access the strongest
representational system.
§ Unpacking strategies
1. Through questions: to complete the exact observation of the predicates, you can
ask questions such as: What happened before? What happened next? What
happened shortly before you experienced that, what did you feel?
2. Through eye movements: we know that in order to access the representational

systems (VAK) the interlocutor can observe the eye movements. In addition to
that, signals such as gestures, breathing, posture, muscle tone or movement can
be used to detect internal reactions.
3. Through predicates: while listening to the interlocutor, you focus your attention
on the predicates that they use: visual, auditory or kinaesthetic.
For further information concerning this topic refer to Salvador Carrión Practitioner
Course in PNL, pages 251 to 270.
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6.5.1. Successful strategies
"I would rather entertain and hope that people learned something than educate
people and hope they were entertained”
Walt Disney
6.5.1.1. Disney’s creative strategy (Robert Dilts, 1988)
Robert Dilts has created a model of the strategy used by Walt Disney, a remarkably
creative and successful man, whose work continues to please many people around the
world (O’Connor and Seymour, 2007: 273).
Disney used three different processes: the dreamer, the realist, and the critic. Everyone
who worked with him recognized these three positions, but they never knew which one
he was going to take at the meetings. Creativity according to Dilts, involves the
coordination of these three elements. Disney put it this way: “The story man must see
clearly in his own mind how every piece of business will be put over (dreamer). He should
feel every expression, every reaction (realist). He gets far enough from his story to take
a second (critical) look at it. . . to see whether there is any dead phase. . . to see whether
the personalities are going to be interesting and appealing to the audience. He should
also try to see that the things that his characters are doing are of an interesting nature.”
§ Disney’s creative strategy process (Robert Dilts, 1988)

1. From a meta position, mark on the floor three positions in an equilateral triangle and
name them: (1) the dreamer, (2) the realist, (3) the critic.
2. Anchor the appropriate strategy for each of the positions (spatial anchoring of the
position you have marked on the floor):
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Position 1: The dreamer (Ve à dissociated vision)

"Think about a moment in which you could dream creatively without restrictions,
freely."
When you can see that the subject gives physiological signals to access the state,
get them to enter position 1 and relive the experience.
Position 2: The realist (Ki and/or Ke à associated vision)
"Think about a situation in which you were quite realistic, you organized a specific
project to carry out an action and you were successful."
The subject enters position 2 and relives the experience.
Position 3: The critic (Ai à dissociated vision)

"Think about a situation in which you criticized a plan, this was constructive and
positively oriented criticism aimed at the improvement of the plan and locating the
problems."
The subject enters position 3 and relives the experience.
3. Now the subject needs to set the goal they want to achieve and enter position 1 →
the dreamer.
"Observe yourself reaching the goal as if you were a character in a movie." The
subject must do this by watching different sequences as if they were cartoons. He
should think freely about it for a few minutes (access).
Sometimes it occurs that people have difficulties visualizing themselves achieving
the objective. In that case they should:
- Recall a similar success.
- Model someone who they previously saw achieving a similar goal.
- Divide the sequence into smaller parts.
- Find a metaphor or analogy that encourages creativity.
4. Then the subject enters position 2 → the realist, once they are there, the plan they
dreamed of is verified. "You perceive what you need to change or learn to be realistic
and able to carry it out" (order / organize).
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5. In this phase the subject already enters position 3 → the critic, here they can
evaluate what things are missing, what elements are needed.
6. Next the subject enters position 1 again → the dreamer, and there, using their
creativity, they can modify the plan and add the information developed by the realist
and the critic.
7. The subject continues to cycle through the three positions until the plan is congruent
in all of them.
6.5.1.2. Motivation strategy
§ Conditions for the correct formulation
1. Ai → the tone, volume and rhythm of the voice should be pleasant.
2. Use modal operators of possibility (I can, I could, it is possible, I am capable, it is

easy to achieve it).
3. Vk → in the constructed visual channel visualizing the objective once achieved,

associated with a positive response X, which also generates a positive sensation
K +.
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4. Make a well-organized plan.
5. Internal representation of the first step (Vk), accompanied by a motivating

message (Ai) and taking the external action (Ve / Ae / Ae).
§ Positive consequences
1. You like the task: positive consequence.
2. You do not like the task but you like the meta-objective: the meta-objective is
the positive consequence.
3. I do not like the task: I can get some positive reinforcement (after doing the X
homework I will buy a candy.)
§ Complications of motivation strategies
1. Feeling overloaded with the task: a lot of content.
2. Using the “escape” instead of changing and/or looking for positive

consequences.
3. Using modal operators of necessity, and applying an unpleasant tone or volume

of voice.
MOTIVATION STRATEGY
1. PREPARATION
Ai à "it is possible to do it, I can do it".
Vk à of the finished task.
X à positive consequence (reinforcement).
2. ACTION
Vc à the first step carried out.
Ai à "go ahead".
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6.6. BELIEFS
"Man is what he believes"
Anton Chejov
In each and every one of the eras of the history of humanity, beliefs, criteria and values
have been the sources of prejudices, fanaticism, racism and confrontations. The great
problems of communication arise from these differences. In the processes of
behavioural modification, generation of resources, personal development or therapy,
beliefs and values are at the root of the change and are responsible for its maintenance
or not (Carrión, 2011: 373). According to Carrión (2011), beliefs "are generalizations of
what we do or plan to do"; in addition, they constitute affirmations about our internal
representations (representation of reality, representation of the external world).
Normally, people behave according to their internal belief system, and sometimes they
do not act according to what they consciously want. A belief is a linguistic formulation
concerning an experience. Beliefs arise as generalizations about causes, meanings and
limits, and moreover, they can be related to the levels of environment, behaviours,
abilities, identity, spirituality, etc.
The most important criterion for the distinction that can be made about beliefs is the
degree to which they affect us, and the nature of the emotion and behaviour they
generate:
1. Empowering beliefs: They are those that suggest positive experiences. They
provide us with motivation, impulses and incentives, and help us to become
more aware of our own qualities. They improve the concept of self-efficacy
through which it is possible to achieve a balance between reason and passion,
that is to say, between the rational and affective aspects of our personality.
Importantly, empowering beliefs are fuelled by emotional intelligence, which in

turn drives cognitive development and challenges the certainty of automatic
behaviour.
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2. Limiting beliefs: They are those that suggest negative experiences. Limiting
beliefs prevent the objective analysis of reality, so they encourage people to get
carried away by prejudices. In this way, they foster a lack of initiative and a
passive attitude when confronted with various situations that are perceived as
immovable or invariable.
Limiting beliefs are usually accompanied by a specific language; the use of

disqualifying adjectives towards the person: "I cannot, I will not be able, I will
never achieve it", and the use of flawed arguments, for example: "If nobody calls
me it's because I do not deserve it, I'm not worthy of the affection of others".
Limiting beliefs have very negative consequences as they increase the sense of
failure (action that people use as a confirmation of their negative or limiting
belief which is called the "self-fulfilling prophecy" or Pygmalion effect, a lack of
effort to achieve goals).
The operation of a belief could be summarized in this formula:
BELIEF = IDEA + EMOTIONAL CHARGE
EVENTS/FACTS
EXPERIENCE
Generating
internal states
Generalization Generalization
EMPOWERING LIMITING
BELIEF BELIEF
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We should not overlook the importance of beliefs as they play a crucial role in
encouraging or limiting personal change, through their power to inhibit and activate
behaviours and reactions.
A belief will always be accompanied by an emotional charge, and that is what makes it
more complicated to act to generate a change. Beliefs have been shaped since childhood
and form part of the personality of individuals and the individual differences of human
beings.
§ Belief change
As we have described, beliefs are one of the most solid and entrenched internal
cognitive processes in our neurological circuits. Through the subconscious they force us
to generate certain abilities or blockages, independently of our will (Carrión, 2011: 392).
In NLP, a model has been developed to replace limiting beliefs with the empowering
ones. This process is called BELIEF CHANGE.
§ Possibility of change
- The belief that becomes conviction is very difficult to change; we can only try to
ease the burden, and thus, in the future, create a change.
- Scientific knowledge and beliefs can be changed by counterexamples.
- A scale of difficulty for changing a belief:
1. Conviction (Truths of faith)
2. Identity (I am the worst)
3. Value (Nobody will love me)
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4. Capacity (I can do it)
5. Behaviour (I can skate)
6. Environment (That action is illegal)
Taking into account the hierarchy of logical levels helps to clarify the relative importance
of each belief.
§ How to change a belief?
The simplest ways to change a belief is to give the person in question an opportunity to
live in a context in which they have many opportunities to face evidence that contradicts
their belief. Then, when being at this point of cognitive dissonance, it is the perfect
scenario to carry out the change of beliefs.
Possibilities of “softening” the beliefs
1. Finding counterexamples.
2. Questioning the generalization.
3. Linguistic juggling.
4. Change of submodalities.
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CERTAINTY
BELIEF
OPEN TO I CAN
DOUBT BELIEVE
I BELIEVED I WANT TO
(Museum of BELIEVE
belief)
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7. GLOSSARY
This is a glossary of terms used throughout this guide; it is neither extensive nor
comprehensive since should simply be used as a guide. Bibliographic material cited here
should be consulted for further information of each concept.
Accessing Cues: External signs that give us information about what we do inside. The
signs include breathing, gestures, posture, and eye patterns.
'As-If’' Frame: This is “acting as if” something were true. I.E.: Pretending that you are
competent at something that you are not, like tennis. The idea is that the pretense will
increase your capability.
Analogue: (As opposed to Digital) Analogue distinctions have discrete variations, as in

an analogue watch.
Anchoring: The NLP Technique whereby a stimulus is linked to a response. An Anchor

can be intentional or naturally occurring.
Associated: It deals with your relationship to an experience. In a memory, for example,

you are associated when you are looking through your own eyes, and experiencing the
auditory and kinesthetic at the same time.
Auditory: Hearing.
Backtrack: To go back and summarize or review what was previously covered, as in a

meeting.
Behaviour: Any external verifiable activity we engage in.
Beliefs: Generalizations we make about the world and our opinions about it.
Calibration: Usually involves the comparison between two different sets of non- verbal
cues (external verifiable behavior). It allows us to distinguish another's state through
non-verbal cues.
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Chunking: As in thinking – moving up or down a logical level. Chunking up is moving up

to a higher, more abstract level that includes the lower level. Chunking down is moving
to a level, which is more specific. (See Hierarchy of Ideas)
Complex Equivalence: This occurs when two statements are considered to mean the
same thing, E.G.: “She doesn’t look at me, and that means she doesn’t like me.” (See
Meta Model)
Congruence: When the behavior (external verifiable) matches the words the person
says.
Conscious: That of which we are currently aware.
Contrastive Analysis: This is a SubModality process of analyzing two sets of

SubModalities to discover the Drivers, I.E.: What makes them different. For example the
difference between Ice Cream (which the client likes) and Yogurt (which the client does
not like) are based on SubModality distinctions.
Content Reframe: (Also called a Meaning Reframe) Giving another meaning to a

statement by recovering more content, which changes the focus, is a Content Reframe.
You could ask yourself, “What else could this mean?” or “What is something you had
not noticed?”
Context Reframing: Giving another meaning to a statement changing the context. You
could ask yourself, “What is another context in which this behavior would be more
appropriate?”
Criteria: The NLP word for values – what is important to you. (See Time Line Therapy
and the Basis of Personality, 1988.)
Crossover Mirroring: Matching a person's external behavior with a different movement,

E.G.: Moving your finger to match the client’s breathing.
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Deep Structure: The unconscious basis for the surface structure of a statement. Much
of the deep structure is out of awareness.
Deletion: One of the three major processes (including distortion and generalization) on
which the Meta Model is based. Deletion occurs when we leave out a portion of our
experience.
Digital: Digital (As opposed to Analogue) Digital distinctions have distinct variations of
meaning as in a Digital watch, or an “On/Off” switch.
Dissociated: It deals with your relationship to an experience. In a memory, for example,

you are dissociated when you are not looking through your own eyes, and you see your
body in the picture.
Distortion: One of the three major processes (including deletion and generalization) on
which the Meta Model is based. Distortion occurs when something is mistaken for that
which it is not. In India there is a metaphor which explains this: A man sees a piece of
rope in the road and thinks it is a dangerous snake, so he warns the village, but there is
no snake.
Downtime: Downtime occurs whenever we go inside. It can occur when we go internal

for a piece of information or when we get in touch with feelings. (See Up Time.)
Drivers: In SubModalities, drivers are the difference that makes the difference.
Discovered through the process of Contrastive Analysis, Drivers are the critical
SubModalities, and when changed tend to carry the other SubModalities with them.
Environment: In NLP, Environment is the study of consequences. We are interested in

the results of any change that occurs. It is often useful to look at the environment in
making any change as to the consequences for self, family (or business), society and
planet.
Elicitation: Inducing a state in a client, or gathering information by asking questions or

observing the client’s behavior.
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Eye Accessing Cues: Movements of the eyes in certain directions that indicate visual,
auditory or kinesthetic thinking.
Epistemology: The study of knowledge or how we know what we know.
First Position: This is one of the Perceptual Positions. First Position is when you are in
touch with only your own inner Model of the World.
Frame: A frame sets a context, which is a way we can make a distinction about
something, as in As-If Frame, Backtrack Frame, Outcome Frame.
Future Pace: Mentally rehearsing a future result to install a recovery strategy so that the
desired outcome occurs.
Generalization: One of the three major processes (including distortion and deletion) on
which the Meta Model is based. Generalization occurs when one specific experience
represents a whole class of experiences.
Gustatory: Taste.
Incongruence: When the behavior (external verifiable) does not match the words the
person says.
Intent: The outcome of a behavior.
Internal Representations: The content of our thinking which includes Pictures, Sounds,
Feelings, Tastes, Smells, and Self Talk.
Kinesthetic: This sense includes feelings, and sensations.
Law of Requisite Variety: The Law of Requisite Variety states that “In a given physical
system, that part of the system with the greatest flexibility of behavior will control the
system.”
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Leading: After pacing (matching or mirroring) a client’s behavior, leading involves

changing your behavior so that the other person follows your behaviors.
Lead System: This is where we go to access information. The Lead System is discovered
by watching Eye Accessing Cues.
Logical Level: The level of specificity or abstraction. (E.G.: Money is a lower logical level
than Prosperity.)
Logical Type: The category of information. (E.G.: Ducks are a different logical type from
Cars.)
Mapping Across: Following Contrastive Analysis, Mapping Across is the SubModality

process of actually changing the set of SubModalities of a certain Internal
Representation to change its meaning. E.G.: Mapping the SubModalities of Ice Cream
(which the client likes) over to those of Yogurt (which the client does not like) should
cause the client to dislike Ice Cream.
Matching: Deliberately imitating portions of another's behavior for the purpose of

increasing rapport. (E.G.: If we both raise our right hand, then I am matching you.)
Meaning Reframe: (Sometimes called a Content Reframe) Giving another meaning to a

statement by recovering more content, which changes the focus, You could ask yourself,
“What else could this mean?” or “What is something you had not noticed in this context
which will change the meaning of this?”
Meta Model: Meta Model means “Over” Model. A model of language, derived from
Virginia Satir that allows us to recognize deletions, generalizations and distortions in our
language, and gives us questions to clarify imprecise language.
Meta Programs: These are unconscious, content-free programs we run which filter our
experiences. Toward & Away From, and Matching & Mismatching are examples of Meta
Programs. (See Time Line Therapy and the Basis of Personality, 1988; see also, our NLP
Master Practitioner Training Collection.)
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Metaphor: A story (analogy or figure of speech) told with a purpose, which allows us to
bypass the conscious resistance of the client and to have the client make connections at
a deeper level.
Milton Model: The Milton Model has the opposite intent of the Meta Model (Trance),
and is derived from the language patterns of Milton Erickson. The Milton Model is a
series of abstract language patterns, which are ambiguous so as to match our client’s
experience and assist her in accessing unconscious resources.
Mirroring: Matching portions of another person's behavior, as in a mirror. (E.G.: If you

raise your right hand, and I raise my left, then I am mirroring you.)
Mismatching: This generally relates to contradictory behavior or words, and is one of

the Meta Programs.
Modal Operator: Modal Operator of Necessity relates to words, which form the rules in
our lives (should, must, have to, etc.). Modal Operator of Possibility relates to words
that denote that which is considered possible (can, cannot, etc.).
Model: In NLP, a Model is a description of a concept or a behavior, which includes the

Strategies, Filter Patterns and Physiology so as to be able to be adopted easily.
Modeling: Modeling is the process by which all of NLP was created. In Modeling we elicit
the Strategies, Filter Patterns (Beliefs and Values) and Physiology that allow someone to
produce a certain behavior. Then we codify these in a series of steps designed to make
the behavior easy to reproduce.
Model of the World: A person's values, beliefs and attitudes that relate to and create
his or her own world.
Neuro Linguistic Programming: NLP is the study of excellence, which describes how our
thinking produces our behavior, and allows us to model the excellence and to reproduce
that behavior.
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Nominalization: A process word which has been turned into a noun, often by adding
“tion”.
Olfactory: The sense of smell.
Outcome: Desired result.
Overlap: Using a preferred representational system to allow us to gain access to

another, E.G.: “Imagine walking (preferred rep system) along the beach and hearing the
birds. Now, look down at the sand and feel the cool wet sand beneath your feet.”
Pacing: Pacing is matching or mirroring another person’s external behavior so as to gain

rapport.
Parts: Parts are a portion of the unconscious mind, which often have conflicting beliefs
and values.
Parts Integration: An NLP technique, which allows us to integrate parts at the

unconscious level by assisting each one to traverse logical levels (by chunking up) and to
go beyond the boundaries of each to find a higher level of wholeness.
Perceptual Position: Describes our point of view in a specific situation: First Position is
our own point of view. Second Position is usually someone else's point of view. Third
position is the point of view of a dissociated observer.
Phonological Ambiguity: This occurs when there are two words, which sound the same
but have different meanings.
Preferred Rep System: This is the representational system that someone most often
uses to think, and to organize his or her experiences.
Presuppositions: Presuppositions literally means assumptions. In natural language the

presuppositions are what is assumed by the sentence. They are useful in “hearing
between the lines” and also for communicating to someone using assumptions that will
have to be accepted by the listener so that the communication makes sense.
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Presuppositions of NLP: Assumptions or convenient beliefs, which are not necessarily

“true,” but which if accepted and believed will change our thinking and improve our
results as an NLP Practitioner.
Primary Rep System: This is how we represent our internal processing, externally. (It is
discovered by listening to Predicates and looking at Physiology.)
Punctuation Ambiguity: Ambiguity, which is created by changing the punctuation of a

sentence by pausing in the wrong place, or by running-on two sentences.)
Quotes: This is a Linguistic Pattern in which your message is expressed as if by someone

else.
Rapport: The process of Matching or Mirroring someone so that they accept,

uncritically, the suggestions you give them. (Originally in Hypnosis ‘Rapport’ had a
different meaning, which was, a state where the subject in Hypnosis sees, hears only the
Hypnotherapist.) This is not the meaning in NLP where it relates to establishing trust and
rapport between two people.
Reframing: The process of changing the frame or context of a statement to give it

another meaning. In selling this process is called, “Answering Objections.”
Representation: A thought in the mind, which can be comprised of Visual, Auditory,

Kinesthetic, Olfactory (smell), Gustatory (taste), and Auditory Digital (Self Talk).
Representational System: Representational System One of the six things you can do in
your mind: Visual, Auditory, Kinesthetic, Olfactory (smell), Gustatory (taste), and
Auditory Digital (Self Talk).
Resources: Resources are the means to create change within oneself or to accomplish
an outcome. Resources may include certain states, adopting specific physiology, new
strategies, beliefs, values or attitudes, even specific behavior.
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Resourceful State: This refers to any state where a person has positive, helpful emotions
and strategies available to him or her. Obviously the state implies a successful outcome.
Second Position: Relating to a Perceptual Position: Second Position describes our point
of view in a specific situation. Second Position is usually someone else's point of view.
(First Position is our own point of view, Third position is the point of view of a dissociated
observer.)
Sensory Acuity: This relates to observational skills. Having Sensory Acuity means that
we can notice things about our client’s physiology that most people would not notice.
Sensory-Based Description: Is describing someone’s verifiable external behavior in a

way that does not include any evaluations, but in a way that just relates the specific
physiology. E.G.: “She is happy,” is (in NLP terminology) an hallucination. A sensory
based description would be, her lips are curved upward at the end, and her face is
symmetrical.
State: Relates to our internal emotional condition. I.E.: A happy state, a sad state, a
motivated state, etc. In NLP we believe that the state determines our results, and so we
are careful to be in states of excellence.
Strategy: A specific sequence of internal and external representations that leads to a

particular outcome.
SubModalities: These are distinctions (or subsets) that are part of each representational
system that encode and give meaning to our experiences. E.G.: A picture may be in Black
& White or Color, may be a Movie or a Still, may be focused or defocused – these are
visual SubModalities.
Surface Structure: This is a linguistic term meaning the structure of our communication,
which generally leaves out the completeness of the Deep Structure. The process is
Deletion, Generalization and Distortion. (See also Deep Structure.)
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Synesthesia: A two-step strategy, where the two steps are linked together with one
usually out of awareness, as in “I want to see how I feel.”
Syntactic Ambiguity: Where it is impossible to tell from the syntax of a sentence the
meaning of a certain word. Often created by adding “ing” to a verb, as in “Hypnotizing
Hypnotists can be easy.”
Third Position: Relating to a Perceptual Position: Third Position describes our point of
view in a specific situation. Third position is the point of view of a dissociated observer.
(First Position is our own point of view, Second Position is usually someone else's point
of view.)
Time Line: Our Time Line is the way we store our memories of the past, the present and
the future.
Time Line Therapy: A specific process created by Tad James, which allows the client to
release negative emotions, eliminate limiting decisions and to create a positive future
for himself. (See Time Line Therapy and the Basis of Personality, 1988.)
Trance: Any altered state. In Hypnosis it is usually characterized by inward one- pointed
focus.
Unconscious: That of which you are not conscious, or which is out of awareness.
Unconscious Mind: The part of your mind that you are not conscious of ... right now.
Universal Quantifiers: Words that are universal generalizations and have no referential
index. Includes words such as “all”, “every”, and “never” Uptime A state where the
attention is focused on the outside (as opposed to Downtime where attention is focused
inward).
Values: High-level generalizations that describe that which is important to you – in NLP
sometimes called criteria. (See Time Line Therapy and the Basis of Personality, 1988.)
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Vestibular System: Having to do with the sense of balance.
Visual: Having to do with the sense of sight.
Visual Squash: (Now called Parts Integration.) An NLP technique which allows us to
integrate parts at the unconscious level by assisting each one to traverse logical levels
(by chunking up) and to go beyond the boundaries of each to find a higher level of
wholeness.
Well Formedness: Along with the Keys to an Achievable Outcome, the Well
Formedness Conditions allow us to specify outcomes that are more achievable,
because the language conforms to certain rules.
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8. APPENDIX
8.1. GENERAL SUMMARY OF NLP TECHNIQUES
In this section you will find a general summary of the most common NLP techniques that
we have seen throughout this manual.
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GENERAL SUMMARY OF PRACTITIONER TECHNIQUES IN NLP
BASIC CONCEPTS
Fundamental belief The attitude (beliefs and values) with which I do something is more important than the technique I use.
To solve a problem, the "how" I do what I do, is more important than the "what" I do to solve it.
Basic NLP General techniques They can be applied to any situation. Beliefs (presuppositions) of NLP; empathy; metamodel language; and objectives (motivation and
conditions of good formulation).
Advanced NLP Specific techniques Each technique is used to solve a specific issue. Excellence strategies, anchors, submodalities, hypnosis, metaphors and conflict resolution
techniques.
SUMMARY OF PRACTITIONER TECHNIQUES IN NLP
Technique Goal of the technique Description of the technique (summary) Type of change With whom? Example
NAME WHAT is it for HOW is it carried out Changes WHO is it for?
EXCELLENCE STRATEGIES
Good conditions, To define properly and 1. Motivation (what for?) + 2. Good formulation conditions (GFC); Behaviour For me I want to perform the NLP Practitioner:
formulation of an objective facilitate the achievement of a GFC positive one’s own responsibility + concrete (VAK) + State For others 1. To improve my communication at work
goal. adequate size and term + ecological + necessary resources (which (motivation) + 2. I want to do it before the end of
ones I have, which ones I need to get). the year and I already have the money saved (GFC).
Bridge to the future To discover the tasks that I 1. Think that you have already achieved it + 2. Go to that place Behaviour For me (1. and 2.) I imagine that I have already studied this
(Barbra Streisand technique) have to do to achieve a and time of the future + 3. Look back and see what you have State For others table + 3. I look back and see what, where and when I
goal, and to facilitate its done to get it + 4. Start doing it! have done to get it + 4. I start doing it.
achievement.
Motivation Strategy To do (and not to postpone) 1. I can! (Ai) + 2. I see the finished task (Vi) + 3.I feel (Ki) Behaviour For me 1. I can hang clothes + 2. I see them already
a task that I cannot avoid, the benefit that the completed task brings + 4 Go ahead For others stretched and dry + 3. I feel the benefit of dry
and that I do not like. with the first step! (Ai) clothes + 4. Go ahead!
Disney’s Creative Strategy To create, refine, and facilitate 1. Dreamer + 2. Realist + 3. Constructive critic + 4. Continue with Behaviour For me 1. Trip to Montserrat, I'll sleep in a tent at the top + 2.
the achievement of a goal. steps 1-2-3 until reaching a consensus between dreamer, realist, State For others I have to buy the tent +
and critic. 3. What if camping is forbidden? + 4 (go to 1)
Ecology To ensure the environment of 1. Continuous ecology- checks Behaviour For others 1. What problems can the change entail?
an objective. 2. Specific ecology- checks. State 2. What has prevented you from changing
until now?
How to give feedback To encourage learning and 1. In 1st person + 2. Concrete (VAK) + 3. Proposing an alternative to Behaviour For others I like your smile (positive feedback); I would like you
change. an error + 4. Equal or more "praising" than "constructive criticism". State to speak more slowly (feedback to improve).
General Intervention with NLP= To intervene through R (rapport) + I (information about the Current State and the Behaviour For others General intervention model with NLP to solve any
RIVETFA the use of NLP Desired State) + VE (ecological verification) + T (techniques) + FA State problem.
(future anticipation = bridge to the future)
[Type text] [Type text] [Type text]
Technique Goal of the technique Description of the technique (summary) Type of change With whom Example
to do it?
ANCHORS
Anchor of a behaviour To trigger a behaviour Connecting the VAK of the clue with the VAK o f t h e Behaviour For me Connecting the VAK of "close the car door" with the
behavi our For others VAK of "take the mobile phone"
Anchor of a behaviour = To connect with a Build an anchor (circle) to facilitate the connection with a positive State For me anchor = The sun with the music of Titanic;
Excellence circle positive state state when I need it in my life. For others state = love
Change of behaviour To improve a behaviour, or Four variations = 1. Behavioural transfer; Behaviour For me Redoing the VAK audio video (first dissociated
or generation of a new to generate a new 2. Behaviour "as if"; 3. New behaviour generator; 4. Journey to For others and then associated) of how I have asked a
behaviour behaviour. the future. question in class.
Change of a state = To improve an experience from 1. anchoring of a negative state + 2. anchoring of a positive state + State For others Introducing "security" in an interview that went
Integration of anchors = my past; or to change my state 3. integration of anchors. wrong with a client in the past; or introducing
Change of personal history in a situation. "security" in a future interview with a client.
SUBMODALITIES
Destruction of a picture To eliminate an internal picture. Placing the image on a glass and breaking it into a thousand Picture For me Removing the image of a nightmare from a dream.
pieces; or sending the image to infinity. For others
Destruction of a sound To eliminate an internal sound. Scratching a disc, slowing it down or speeding it up. Sound For me Deleting the message "you are stupid"
For others that I heard from my teacher in my childhood.
Change of a sensation To improve a painful physical Painting (imaginary) the painful part of the body using the Sensation For me Mentally painting my aching knee blue
sensation. colour that this part of the body used to have when it was For others (which is my health colour).
healthy.
Simple interventions: To improve my state in a Change "to the consumer’s liking" different State For me Reducing the size of my mother-in-law and looking
Change of a point of view, situation. submodalities, until I find the one that will make a For others at her from a rooftop.
stuttering voice, etc. significant change in my state.
Comparative mapping To improve a problematic state. Applying the submodalities of the resource state to the problem State For others Applying the submodalities of the positive
state. communicative state that a person experiences at
their work to the situation of father - child
communication.
Swish visual (zoom zoom) To change my Connecting the associated cue that triggers my behaviour, with Behaviour For me When I eat, so as not to finish everything that is left
automatic a self-image of "how" I will be when I am free of that State For others on the plate, I connect the image of the plate half
behaviour, in a automatism and can choose freely. full with my self-image released from that
situation. obligation.
Fast cure of phobias To overcome a 1. Dissociate ( cinema) + 2. Black and white film+ 3. Behaviour For me Overcoming my fear of spiders
phobia (an Rewinding a color film at high speed… repeat several times+ 4. State
exaggerated fear). Check+ 5. Prudence
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The 3 perceptual positions. To improve a relationship. Go through the 3 perceptual positions to improve the Behaviour For others Improve the relationship with a child when he asks if
relationship: 1st = I; 2nd = other; 3rd = observer. State he can go out at night.
Technique Goal of the technique Description of the technique (summary) Type of change With whom Example
to do it?
HYPNOSIS AND METAPHORS
Amplifying an experience To enhance an experience. Describing with vague VAK language some pieces of experience. Behaviour For others Enhancing the experience of jogging in the park.
Self-hypnosis of a behaviour or To self-induce a behaviour or 1. Preparation of self-hypnosis (instructions, anchoring, post- Behaviour For me Self-induce concentration when studying.
a state state. hypnotic suggestion) + 2. Self-induction process (accompany, State
leading) + 3.Exciting trance.
Inducing a behaviour or state in To induce a behaviour or state 1. Preparation of the induction (information, post-hypnotic Behaviour For others Inducing a state of security in someone else.
another person in someone else. suggestion) + 2. Process of induction (accompanying, leading) + State
3. Exiting trance.
Accompanying metaphor To empathize. Responding to someone with a metaphor, instead of a recap. Behaviour For others - I'm seeing it all black.
State - Do you feel as if you were in a tunnel without
seeing the exit?
Metaphor for change To facilitate a change. Responding to somebody telling us about their problem with a Behaviour For others - I am lost.
metaphor oriented towards a change. State - As if you were in a maze... let’s think about how
to find the exit.
CONFLICT RESOLUTION
Detecting incongruence To prepare the resolution of a Reflecting the incongruence. Behaviour For others - I'm fine (frown).
conflict. - I can see that (frown).
Context reframe To reduce the conflict. Finding a situation for which the "negative" is "positive" (it is Behaviour For me - I'm unfriendly.
appropriate). State For others -A good thing to do when you want to walk away from
somebody.
Meaning reframe To reduce the conflict. Finding a "positive" meaning of the "negative". Behaviour For me - I scream a lot.
State For others - You do not scream, you want to make yourself
understood.
Detecting exceptions To reduce the conflict. Finding "positive" exceptions to something negative, asking for Behaviour For me - I'm unfriendly.
them. State For others - Always? With all the people?
Polarity integration To solve an internal conflict of Achieving recognition and mutual appreciation among the State For others - "I want to study, but also want to go
two polarities (two parts). two "parties" behaviourally opposed, based on their clubbing, and I cannot do either of them and
respective positive intentions. be cool about it."
Reframing in 6 steps To change a behaviour that Find "unconscious" and "creative" behavioural alternatives that Behaviour For others - “I want to quit smoking."
limits me (conflict with a satisfy the positive intention of the "problem behaviour".
hidden polarity).
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Conditional agreement To resolve a conflict that I have Finding which needs (objective goals) of the other person I State For me identifying the client needs I have to meet to
with another person. have to satisfy, to reach an agreement with them. For others sell a car.
Agreement structure To help resolve a conflict Getting an agreement between 2 people, based on finding State For others What mutual needs must be met so that a couple
between two people as a out what mutual needs have to be met to reach an can agree on where to go on holidays.
mediator agreement.
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8.2. CASE STUDY
In this section you will find a research article of international prestige that relates, in a
practical and applied way, NLP with human capital development. You will also find
another research article where NLP is related to strategy for the management of
organizations. Both will help us get further into the world of NLP if possible.
The Potential of Neuro-Linguistic Programming in Human Capital

Development
Eric Kong, kongeric@usq.edu.au
School of Management & Marketing, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba,

Queensland, Australia
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8.3. ANSWERS
The answers to the activities presented in the unit 3.
Which representational system is it? (page 103)
1. It is amazing. V A K
2. His high-pitched voice is irritating. V A K
3. I have had a flashback of her face. V A K
4. Expressing an opinion. V A K
5. Laying the cards on the table. V A K
6. Not leaving any stone unturned. V A K
7. He had a warm welcome. V A K
8. He has a big mouth. V A K
9. To tell the truth… V A K
10. It looks good. V A K
11. Seeing is believing. V A K
12. He is a charlatan. V A K
13. No matter what you say, he will do it. V A K
Translation of representational systems (page 104)
3. My co-worker treats me as if I were a rat
Correspondence: Kinaesthetic
V: I can see that my co-worker treats me bad.

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A: My co-worker talks to me with a patronising tone.
K: My co-worker makes me feel bad.
4. It's as if they did not take me into account
Correspondence: Visual
V: It is as if I were invisible.
A: They do not listen to me.
K: I feel that I don't matter to them.
5. She seems to be a good person
V: You can see that she is a good person.
A: She expresses herself as a good person.
K: I feel that she is a good person.
6. I can hardly look at this problem from a distance
V: When I look at this problem I cannot distance myself.
A: This issue resonates inside of my head and I cannot distance myself from it.
K: I feel that I got too involved in this problem.
7. The vision of the solution to the problem that I have in my mind does not look good
at all.
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V: The resolution that I see to this problem is not very bright.
A: The solution to the problem I have put on the table does not sound good.
K: I am not sure about the solution to the problem.
8. Even ho gh I ied I co ldn understand what my manager wanted to tell me.
Correspondence: Auditory
V: I saw that what the manager wanted to tell me was not clear to me.
A: I don’t know if I can’t hear well but I couldn’t understand what my manager told me.
K: I feel that I didn’t understand my manager.
9. I keep making the same mistakes.
Correspondence: Kinaesthetic
V: I don't see any progress as I keep making the same mistakes
A: It seems that I do not listen; I keep making the same mistakes.
K: I feel that I always make the same mistakes.
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9. BIBLIOGRAPHY
9.1. BOOKS
- Argyris, Ch. (2008). Comunicación Eficaz. España: Deusto.
- Arredondo, L. (2002). Sea un Comunicador Excelente. Madrid: McGraw-Hill.
- Bandler, R. and Grinder, J. (1975). The Structure of Magic I. Ed.: Sciencie and Behavior
Books.
- Bandler, R. and Grinder, J. (1980). The Structure of Magic II. Ed.: Cuatro Vientos.
- Grinder, J., y Bandler, J. (1979) De sapos a príncipes. Ed.: Cuatro Vientos.
- Grinder, J., y Bandler, J. (1993) trance - train you: practical course of hypnosis with
neuro-linguistic programming . Ed.: Gaia.
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actual. Ed.: Desclée de Brouwer.
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Ediciones Martínez Roca.
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aplicaciones. Fondo de Cultura Económica: México.
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éxito. Ediciones Obelisco.
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conseguir salud, inteligencia y bienestar emocional. Editorial Edaf.
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Neurolingüística. Ediciones Obelisco.
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- Carroll, Lewis. Alicia en el País de las Maravillas. Alicia a través del espejo. La caza del
Snark. Ilustraciones de John Tenniel. Edición y traducción de Luis Maristany. Colección
Ave Fénix. Plaza y Janés, Barcelona, 1999.
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España: Gestión 2000, S.A.
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un mundo al que las personas deseen pertenecer. Ed. Urano.
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- Forés, A., Grané, J. (2011). La Resilencia: crecer desde la adversidad. Ed.: Plataforma
Editorial.
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Miguel de Hernani. Barcelona: Editorial Edhasa.
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Maracaibo.
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(PNL). Innovar: Revista de ciencias administrativas y sociales. Nº 22, Julio-diciembre.
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Testimonio (pág. 59-82). Madrid: Ed. Pirámide.
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(California).
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- Mohl, A. (2008). El aprendiz de Brujo II: Manual de libro de ejercicios de Programación

Neurolingüística. Editorial Sirio.
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los sentimientos y la razón. Editorial: Ariel.
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- O’Connor, J. and Seymour, J. (2007). Introducción a la PNL. Ed.: Urano, Barcelona.
- Robbins, A. (2010). Poder sin límites. Ed.: Debolsillo.
- Rolf, I. (1990). Rolfing and Physical Reality. Ed.: Inner Traditions International.
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Neurociencia Conductual, Cognitiva y Clínica. Ed.: Ariel.
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excelencia. Alfadil ediciones.
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Performance. Ed.: Wiley.
- Stephen, C. (2005). Los siete hábitos de la Gente altamente efectiva. La revolución

ética de la vida cotidiana. Argentina: Paidós.
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Colombiana S.A.
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9.2. ARTICLES
- Aguilar, M. (2004). Chomsky: la gramática generativa. Revista Digital: Investigación y

Educación. Revista nº 7, Vol. 3.
http://www.csub.edu/~tfernandez_ulloa/spanishlinguistics/chomsky%20y%20la%20
gramatica%20generativa.pdf
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Universidad de Las Américas, Chile.
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recapitulación ante el cambio de milenio. Psicothema, 1999. Vol. 11, nº 3, pp. 453-
476.
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Contribución de factores psicosociales a la cronicidad del dolor lumbar. Revista médica
de Chile, 130(12), 1411-1418. Recuperado en 21 de septiembre de 2014, de
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&lng=es&tlng=es. 10.4067/S0034-98872002001200012.
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Psicología y Ciencias Cognitivas? Duazari, Vol. 8, nº2.
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emocional. INNOVATE, Journal of administrative and social sciences.
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y ubicuos. Bases para un nuevo modelo teórico a partir de una visión crítica del
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9.3. WEBS
http://innovacioneducativa.upm.es/jimcue_10/Libro_Actas.pdf#page=37
www7.uc.cl/sw_educ/neurociencias/HTML/110.html
https://unlaberintodeemociones.wordpress.com/category/pnl/
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3. REPRESENTATIONAL SYSTEMS, EYE ACCESSING CUES, RAPPORT AND SENSORY

6 CONFLICTS' RESOLUTION, METAPHORS, ADVANCED POPS MODELS

1.1 MEMORY, EMOTION AND LEARNING

We can distinguish between emotions that contribute to the improvement of the

a) Emotions that impede the learning process:

- Universal truths: “It is like this”, “I know that”.

b) Emotions that facilitate learning:

- Motivation/passion for learning: “I love learning new things”, "I'm passionate

- Realistic self-perception: “I have a lot to learn yet.”

- Self-esteem: “I know I can learn how to do this.”

Practice: Memory, learning and emotion

a) Who or what motivated you to start the learning process?

b) What was your emotional state?

c) How would you describe the obtained result?

b. What conclusions have I drawn for future learning processes?

1.2. WHAT IS NEURO-LINGUISTIC PROGRAMMING?

Let us think for a moment about this apple. To begin with, we

- presents a practical and powerful approach to achieving change on a personal level

- is conceived as a powerful tool of communication and synchronization, since

- is an attitude. The "I am going to achieve it" kind of attitude.

- goes beyond a simple set of tools. It originates in linguistics, Gestalt therapy,

1.3. ORIGIN, EVOLUTION AND DEVELOPMENT

NLP began to be used by teachers to improve the teaching-learning processes and by

1.4. ETYMOLOGY: MEANING OF "NLP"

§ Programming: the word programming refers to the effective organization and

1.5. ORIGINS OF NLP:

The Wild Days: NPL from 1972 to 1981 by Terrence L. McClendon.

"The Wild Days" is a personal account of the historical development of Neuro-Linguistic

Sensory Acuity Georgy

1.6. PERCEPTION AND LEARNING

1.6.1 Biological Psychology: perception and action

1. Sensory cell of carotid corpuscle sensitive to chemical stimuli.

1.6.2 Subjective Experience

THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS OF SUBJETIVE EXPERIENCE

1 Outside stimulus impacts us and actions occur, which we perceive through

This information is filtered (psychophysiological and cognitive filters:

After the creation of internal representation and meaning, a physiological

4 As a result of the above an internal state arises: emotion or feeling.

Finally, in accordance with our internal state, we carry out an adaptive

SCHEMA OF THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS OF SUBJECTIVE EXPERIENCE

1.6.3. Structure of sensory evidence

NLP defines, in a simplified way, the human experience as follows:

§ Perception and external behaviours (external world): everything that a

MAP OF THE WORLD OF NLP

1.6.4. Perception: the three channels of NLP

1.6.5. Maps and filters

1.6.6. Omissions, generalisations and distortions

§ Generalisation: It refers to creating general concepts from specific instances by

"The whole is greater than the sum of its parts."

Gestalt Psychology is a school of psychology founded in the 20th century in Germany. It

Distortions and generalizations

1. In these two drawings (A and B), which stick is longer?

The truth is that in both drawings, both the

2. What do you see in each picture?

A man with glasses or a naked An old woman or a young

3. Which central circle is bigger?

Both measure exactly the same.

4. What do we see in this figure?

"(...) It is a process of relatively permanent change in behaviour which results

"Learning involves acquisition and modification of knowledge, strategies, skills,

"Learning is a relatively permanent change of the human disposition or capacity

The notion of conscious and unconscious is fundamental to understanding the model of