1.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory by Abraham Maslow, which puts forward that people
are motivated by five basic categories of needs: physiological, safety, love, esteem, and self-
actualization.

The five categories of needs according to Maslow:

 Physiological

These refer to basic physical needs like drinking when thirsty or eating when hungry. According
to Maslow, some of these needs involve our efforts to meet the body’s need for homeostasis;
that is, maintaining consistent levels in different bodily systems (for example, maintaining a
body temperature of 98.6°)

Maslow considered physiological needs to be the most essential of our needs. If someone is
lacking in more than one need, they’re likely to try to meet these physiological needs first. For
example, if someone is extremely hungry, it’s hard to focus on anything else besides food.
Another example of a physiological need would be the need for adequate sleep.

 Safety

Once people’s physiological requirements are met, the next need that arises is a safe
environment. Our safety needs are apparent even early in childhood, as children have a need
for safe and predictable environments and typically react with fear or anxiety when these are
not met. Maslow pointed out that in adults living in developed nations, safety needs are more
apparent in emergency situations (e.g. war and disasters), but this need can also explain why
we tend to prefer the familiar or why we do things like purchase insurance and contribute to a
savings account.

 Love and Belonging

According to Maslow, the next need in the hierarchy involves feeling loved and accepted. This
need includes both romantic relationships as well as ties to friends and family members. It also
includes our need to feel that we belong to a social group. Importantly, this need encompasses
both feeling loved and feeling love towards others.

Since Maslow’s time, researchers have continued to explore how love and belonging needs
impact well-being. For example, having social connections is related to better physical health
and, conversely, feeling isolated (i.e. having unmet belonging needs) has negative
consequences for health and well-being.

 Esteem
Our esteem needs involve the desire to feel good about ourselves. According to Maslow,
esteem needs include two components. The first involves feeling self-confidence and feeling
good about oneself. The second component involves feeling valued by others; that is, feeling
that our achievements and contributions have been recognized by other people. When people’s
esteem needs are met, they feel confident and see their contributions and achievements as
valuable and important. However, when their esteem needs are not met, they may experience
what psychologist Alfred Adler called “feelings of inferiority.”

 Self-Actualization

Self-actualization refers to feeling fulfilled, or feeling that we are living up to our potential. One
unique feature of self-actualization is that it looks different for everyone. For one person, self-
actualization might involve helping others; for another person, it might involve achievements in
an artistic or creative field. Essentially, self-actualization means feeling that we are doing what
we believe we are meant to do. According to Maslow, achieving self-actualization is relatively
rare, and his examples of famous self-actualized individuals include Abraham Lincoln, Albert
Einstein, and Mother Teresa.

2. Transactional Analysis

Transactional analysis, developed by psychiatrist Eric Berne, is a form of modern psychology

that examines a person's relationships and interactions. Berne took inspiration from Sigmund
Freud's theories of personality, combining them with his own observations of human
interaction in order to develop transactional analysis. In therapy, transactional analysis can be
used to address one's interactions and communications with the purpose of establishing and
reinforcing the idea that each individual is valuable and has the capacity for positive change and
personal growth.

DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS

Dr. Eric Berne developed transactional analysis in the last 1950s, using “transaction” to
describe the fundamental unit of social intercourse, with “transactional analysis” being the
study of social interactions between individuals. His influences included contemporaries
such as René Spitz, Erik Erikson , Paul Federn, Edoardo Weiss, as well as Freud and Wilder
Penfield, a Canadian neurosurgeon.
Inspired by Freud’s theory of personality—primarily his belief that the human psyche is
multifaceted and that different components interact to produce a variety of emotions,
attitudes and complex behaviors—and Penfield’s groundbreaking experiments involving
the stimulation of specific brain regions with electrical currents, Berne developed an
approach that he described as both neo- and extra-Freudian.
Discerning the need to build upon the philosophical concepts Freud introduced with
observable data, Berne developed his own observable ego states of Parent, Adult, and
Child, following Freud’s proposal of the existence of the Id (emotional and irrational
component), Ego (rational component), and Superego (moral component) as different and
unobservable factions of personality .
Berne also took special note of the complexities of human communication. He highlighted
the fact that facial expressions, gestures, body language, and tone may be regarded as
more important by the receiver than any spoken words. In his book Games People Play , he
noted that people may sometimes communicate messages underpinned with ulterior
motives.

Examining the Ego States of Transactional Analysis

Like Freud, Berne posited that each individual possesses three ego states. His ego states—
the Parent, the Adult, and the Child—do not directly correspond to Freud’s Id, Ego, and
Superego, however. Instead, these states represent an individual’s internal model of
parents, adults, and children. An individual may assume any of these roles in transactions
with another person or in internal conversation. These roles are not directly associated
with their typical English definitions but can be described as follows:

 Parent consists of recordings of external events observed and experienced by a

child from birth through approximately the first five years of life. These recordings
are not filtered or analyzed by the child; they are simply accepted without question.
Many of these external events are likely to involve the individual’s parents or other
adults in parent-link roles, which led Berne to call this ego state “the Parent.”
Examples of external events recorded in this state:
Do not play with matches.
Remember to say “please” and “thank you.”
Do not speak to strangers.

 Child represents all brain recordings of internal events (feelings or emotions) that
are directly linked to the external events observed by the child during the first five
years of life. Examples of events recorded in this state may include:
I feel happy when Mom hugs me.
Dad’s late night movie was very scary.
I feel sad when Mom is sad.

 Adult, the final ego state, is the period in which a child develops the capacity to
perceive and understand situations that are different from what is observed
(Parent) or felt (Child). The Adult serves as a data processing center that utilizes
information from all three ego states in order to arrive at a decision. One important
role of the Adult is to validate data which is stored in the Parent:
I see that Suzie’s house was burnt down. Mom was right—I should not play with
matches.

COMMUNICATION USING TRANSACTIONAL ANALYTIC THEORY

Any indication (speech, gestures or other nonverbal cues) that acknowledges the presence
of another person is called a transactional stimulus. All transactions are initiated via the
use of a transactional stimulus. When two individuals encounter each other and
the receiver reacts in a manner related to the transactional stimulus, that individual has
performed a transactional response. The key to successful person-to-person
communication generally lies in identifying which ego state (in the speaker) initiated the
transactional stimulus and which ego state (in the receiver) provided the transactional
response.
Due to the typically rational and reasonable nature of the Adult, Berne believes that the
easiest and simplest transactions occur between Adult ego states, but transactions may
occur between any of the three ego states. In a complementary transaction, the
transaction response from the receiver is directed to the sending ego state in the speaker.
For example, if the Adult in the speaker sends a transactional stimulus to the Child in the
receiver, then the transaction will be complementary if the Child in the receiver then sends
the transactional response to the Adult in the speaker. According to Berne, communication
will continue if the transactions remain complementary.
A crossed transaction occurs when an ego state that did not receive the transactional
stimulus sends the transactional response. Crossed transactions may lead to breakdowns in
communication, which may sometimes be followed by conflict. For example, the Adult
state in an individual may send a transactional stimulus to the Adult in another individual,
asking “Have you seen my coat?” But the Child in the second individual may instead send
the transactional response to the Parent in the first individual by replying, “You always
blame me for everything!”
Not only is communication considered to be an important aspect of everyday life, it is also
thought to be an integral part of being human. Even newborns exhibit the need to be
recognized and acknowledged. Research conducted by Spitz showed that infants who
received less cuddling, handling, and touching were more likely to experience physical and
emotional challenges. Berne described this innate need for social recognition as
recognition-hunger, defining the fundamental unit of social action or recognition as a
stroke.
From Berne’s perspective, the adversely affected children in Spitz’s studies exhibited
physical and emotional deficits due to a lack of strokes. Berne applied this theory to adults,
theorizing that men and women also experience recognition-hunger and a need for
strokes. However, while infants may desire strokes that are primarily physical, an adult
may be contented with other forms of recognition, such as nods, winks, or smiles.
While strokes may be positive or negative, Berne theorized that it is better to receive a
negative stroke than no stroke at all. When one person asks another out on a date, for
example, and receives a flat refusal, that person may find the refusal to be less damaging
than a complete lack of acknowledgment.
TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS IN THERAPY
The goal of transactional analysis is help the individual in therapy gain and maintain
autonomy by strengthening the Adult state. Typically, the individual and the therapist will
establish a contract that outlines the desired outcome they wish to achieve in therapy. This
may contribute to the person in therapy taking personal responsibility for events that take
place during treatment. The individual will generally then become more able to rely on
their Adult ego states to identify and examine various thoughts, behaviors, and emotions
which might hinder the ability to thrive.
The atmosphere that supports transactional analysis is one of comfort, security, and
respect. When a positive relationship is forged between the therapist and the person
seeking treatment, this often provides a model for subsequent relationships developed
outside of the therapy arena. Analysts who practice this form of therapy generally use a
broad range of tools gathered from many disciplines including psychodynamic , cognitive
behavioral, and relational therapies .
.
3. L u d w i g v o n B e r t a l a n f f y - G e n e r a l S y s t e m T h e o r y - 1 9 5 0

General system theory, is a general science of wholeness... The meaning of the

somewhat mystical expression, “The whole is more that the sum of its parts” is simply
that constitutive characteristics are not explainable from the characteristics of the
isolated parts. The characteristics of the complex, therefore, appear as new or
emergent... - Ludwig von Bertalanffy

Systems theory was proposed in the 1940's by the biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy
and furthered by Ross Ashby (1964). Von Bertalanffy was reacting against both
reductionism and attempting to revive the unity of science. He is considered to be the
founder and principal author of general systems theory.

If one were to analyze current notions and fashionable catchwords, he would find
“systems” high on the list.

von Bertalanffy (1968) wrote that a system is a complex of interacting elements and
that they are open to, and interact with their environments. In addition, they can
acquire qualitatively new properties through emergence, thus they are in a continual
evolution. When referring to systems, it also generally means that they are self-
regulating (they self-correct through feedback).

The concept of system, though it seems to be intrinsic to human thinking, has been extensively
employed and developed over the last few decades, due in a large measure to contributions
made by Karl Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1901-1972), a Viennese professor of biology. He worked
to identify structural, behavioral and developmental features common to particular classes of
living organisms. One approach was to look over the empirical universe and pick out certain
general phenomena which are found in many different disciplines, and to seek to build up
general theoretical models relevant to these phenomena, e.g., growth, homeostasis, evolution.
Another approach was to arrange the empirical fields in a hierarchy of complexity of
organization of their basic 'individuality' or units of behavior, and to try to develop a level of
abstraction appropriate to each. Examples are generalizations on the levels of cells, simple
organs, open self-maintaining organisms, small groups of organisms, society and the universe.
The latter approach implies a hierarchical "systems of systems" view of the world.

Bertalanffy's ideas were developed into a General Systems Theory. He defined a general system
as any theoretical system of interest to more than one discipline. This new vision of reality is
based on awareness of the essential interrelatedness and inter-dependence of all phenomena -
physical, biological, psychological, social and cultural. It transcends orthodox disciplinary and
conceptual boundaries.

The systems view looks at the world in terms of relationships and integration. Systems are
integrated wholes whose properties cannot be reduced to those of smaller units. Instead of
concentrating on basic building blocks or substances, the systems approach emphasizes the
principles of organization. Every organism, from the smallest bacterium through the range of
plant, animals and human beings - plus the family, society and the planet as whole - is an
integrated whole and thus a living system.

Another important aspect of systems is their intrinsically dynamic nature. Their forms are not
rigid structures but are flexible yet stable manifestations of underlying processes. Systems
thinking is process thinking; form becomes associated with process, interrelation with
interaction, and opposites are unified through oscillation.

Human survival, in Bertalanffy's view, was the paramount purpose for cultivating the
uncommon sense of General Systems Theory. Our civilization is experiencing enormous
difficulties due to lack of ethical, ethological and ecological criteria in the manifestation of
human affairs, which are currently only concerned with the management of larger profits for a
small minority of privileged humans. Bertalanffy believed that the need for a general systems
consciousness was a matter of life and death, not just for ourselves but also for all future
generations on our planet. He advocated a new global morality, an ethos which does not center
on individual values alone, but on the adaptation of Mankind, as a global system, to its new
environment... "We are dealing with emergent realities; no longer with isolated groups of men,
but with a systemically interdependent global community."

4. Kurt Lewin's Change Model

Kurt Lewin developed a change model involving three
steps: unfreezing, changing and refreezing. The model represents a very simple and practical
model for understanding the change process. For Lewin, the process of change entails creating
the perception that a change is needed, then moving toward the new, desired level of behavior
and finally, solidifying that new behavior as the norm. The model is still widely used and serves
as the basis for many modern change models.

 Unfreezing
Before you can cook a meal that has been frozen, you need to defrost or thaw it out. The same
can be said of change. Before a change can be implemented, it must go through the initial step
of unfreezing. Because many people will naturally resist change, the goal during the unfreezing
stage is to create an awareness of how the status quo, or current level of acceptability, is
hindering the organization in some way. Old behaviors, ways of thinking, processes, people and
organizational structures must all be carefully examined to show employees how necessary a
change is for the organization to create or maintain a competitive advantage in the
marketplace. Communication is especially important during the unfreezing stage so that
employees can become informed about the imminent change, the logic behind it and how it
will benefit each employee. The idea is that the more we know about a change and the more
we feel it is necessary and urgent, the more motivated we are to accept the change.

 Changing
Now that the people are 'unfrozen' they can begin to move. Lewin recognized that change is a
process where the organization must transition or move into this new state of being.
This changing step, also referred to as 'transitioning' or 'moving,' is marked by the
implementation of the change. This is when the change becomes real. It's also, consequently,
the time that most people struggle with the new reality. It is a time marked with uncertainty
and fear, making it the hardest step to overcome. During the changing step people begin to
learn the new behaviors, processes and ways of thinking. The more prepared they are for this
step, the easier it is to complete. For this reason, education, communication, support and time
are critical for employees as they become familiar with the change. Again, change is a process
that must be carefully planned and executed. Throughout this process, employees should be
reminded of the reasons for the change and how it will benefit them once fully implemented.
 Refreezing
When the changes are taking shape and people have embraced the new ways of working, the
organization is ready to refreeze. The outward signs of the refreeze are a stable organization
chart, consistent job descriptions, and so on. The refreeze stage also needs to help people and
the organization internalize or institutionalize the changes. This means making sure that the
changes are used all the time, and that they are incorporated into everyday business. With a
new sense of stability, employees feel confident and comfortable with the new ways of
working.

5. Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

The stages that make up his theory are as follows:1

 Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

 Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
 Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
 Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
 Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion
 Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
 Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
 Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair
Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, however, Erikson's theory described the impact
of social experience across the whole lifespan. Erikson was interested in how social interaction
and relationships played a role in the development and growth of human beings.

Conflict During Each Stage

Each stage in Erikson's theory builds on the preceding stages and paves the way for following
periods of development. In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that
serves as a turning point in development.2

In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological quality or
failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high but
so is the potential for failure.

If people successfully deal with the conflict, they emerge from the stage with psychological
strengths that will serve them well for the rest of their lives. 3 If they fail to deal effectively with
these conflicts, they may not develop the essential skills needed for a strong sense of self.

Mastery Leads to Ego Strength

Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviors and actions. Each stage
in Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life.

If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is sometimes referred
to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a
sense of inadequacy in that aspect of development.

Psychosocial Stages: A Summary Chart

Age Conflict Important Events Outcome

Infancy (birth to 18 months) Trust vs. Mistrust Feeding Hope
Early Childhood (2 to 3 years) Autonomy vs. Shame andToilet Training Will
Doubt
Preschool (3 to 5 years) Initiative vs. Guilt Exploration Purpose
School Age (6 to 11 years) Industry vs. Inferiority School Confidence
Adolescence (12 to 18 years) Identity vs. Role Confusion Social Relationships Fidelity
Young Adulthood (19 to 40Intimacy vs. Isolation Relationships Love
years)
Middle Adulthood (40 to 65Generativity vs. Stagnation Work andCare
years) Parenthood
Maturity (65 to death) Ego Integrity vs. Despair Reflection on Life Wisdom
A brief summary of the eight stages

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and 1 year
of age and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is utterly dependent,
developing trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child's caregivers.

At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult caregivers for
everything they need to survive including food, love, warmth, safety, and nurturing. If a
caregiver fails to provide adequate care and love, the child will come to feel that they cannot
trust or depend upon the adults in their life.

Outcomes

If a child successfully develops trust, the child will feel safe and secure in the world. 2 Caregivers
who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in
the children under their care. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the
world is inconsistent and unpredictable.

During the first stage of psychosocial development, children develop a sense of trust when
caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust.

No child is going to develop a sense of 100% trust or 100% doubt. Erikson believed that
successful development was all about striking a balance between the two opposing sides. When
this happens, children acquire hope, which Erikson described as an openness to experience
tempered by some wariness that danger may be present.

Subsequent work by researchers including John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth demonstrated the
importance of trust in forming healthy attachments during childhood and adulthood.

Trust vs. Mistrust: Learning to Trust the World Around Us

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early
childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.

The Role of Independence

At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little independence. They are
starting to perform basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about what they
prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and gain control, parents and caregivers can help
children develop a sense of autonomy.2

Potty Training
The essential theme of this stage is that children need to develop a sense of personal control
over physical skills and a sense of independence. Potty training plays an important role in
helping children develop this sense of autonomy.

Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However,
Erikson's reasoning was quite different than that of Freud's. Erikson believed that learning to
control one's bodily functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence. Other
important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing
selection.

Outcomes

Children who struggle and who are shamed for their accidents may be left without a sense of
personal control. Success during this stage of psychosocial development leads to feelings of
autonomy; failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.

Finding Balance

Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do
not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson believed that achieving a
balance between autonomy and shame and doubt would lead to will, which is the belief that
children can act with intention, within reason and limits.

How Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Influences Development

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool years. At this
point in psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power and control over the
world through directing play and other social interactions.

Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to
acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.

Outcomes

The major theme of the third stage of psychosocial development is that children need to begin
asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of
purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense
of guilt.

When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is achieved,
the ego quality known as purpose emerges.
This Is How Children Develop a Sense of Initiative
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from approximately
ages 5 to 11. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their
accomplishments and abilities.

Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of
competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.

Outcomes

Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of
competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from
parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful.

Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development leads to the strength
known as competence, in which children develop a belief in their abilities to handle the tasks
set before them.
How Children Develop a Sense of Industry vs Inferiority

Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion

The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often turbulent teenage years. This stage
plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to
influence behavior and development for the rest of a person's life. Teens need to develop a
sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while
failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self.

During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self. 2 Those
who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will
emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and feelings of independence and control.
Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused about
themselves and the future.

What Is Identity?

When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and values
that help shape and guide a person's behavior. Completing this stage successfully leads
to fidelity, which Erikson described as an ability to live by society's standards and expectations.

While Erikson believed that each stage of psychosocial development was important, he placed a
particular emphasis on the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of
self that we develop through social interaction and becomes a central focus during the identity
versus confusion stage of psychosocial development.
According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly changes due to new experiences and
information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. As we have new experiences, we
also take on challenges that can help or hinder the development of identity.

Why Identity Is Important

Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self that endures
through our lives. Our sense of personal identity is shaped by our experiences and interactions
with others, and it is this identity that helps guide our actions, beliefs, and behaviors as we age.

How People Develop a Sense of Identity

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to
strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. This stage covers the
period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships.2

Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other
people. Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are enduring and
secure.

Building On Earlier Stages

Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a
strong sense of personal identity was important for developing intimate relationships. Studies
have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed
relationships and are more likely to struggler with emotional isolation, loneliness, and
depression.

Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by the ability
to form lasting, meaningful relationships with other people.
Intimacy vs. Isolation: Forming Intimate Relationships With Others

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation

Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or
creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness
and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.

During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family. Those who
are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active
in their home and community.2 Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and
uninvolved in the world.
Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of your
accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of unity
with your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage.
The Differences and Characteristics of Generativity and Stagnation

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life. 2 At
this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives and determine if they
are happy with the life that they lived or if they regret the things they did or didn't do.

Erikson's theory differed from many others because it addressed development throughout the
entire lifespan, including old age. Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of
fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret,
bitterness, and despair.

At this stage, people reflect back on the events of their lives and take stock. Those who look
back on a life they feel was well-lived will feel satisfied and ready to face the end of their lives
with a sense of peace. Those who look back and only feel regret will instead feel fearful that
their lives will end without accomplishing the things they feel they should have.

Outcomes

Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted and may
experience many regrets. The person will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.

Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully
completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction.
These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death.
An Overview of Integrity vs. Despair

Strengths and Weaknesses of Erikson's Theory

Erikson's theory also has its limitations and attracts valid criticisms. What kinds of experiences
are necessary to successfully complete each stage? How does a person move from one stage to
the next?

Criticism

One major weakness of psychosocial theory is that the exact mechanisms for resolving conflicts
and moving from one stage to the next are not well described or developed. The theory fails to
detail exactly what type of experiences are necessary at each stage in order to successfully
resolve the conflicts and move to the next stage.
 6. Kohlberg's stages of moral development

Kohlberg's stages of moral development are planes of moral adequacy conceived by Lawrence
Kohlberg to explain the development of moral reasoning. Created while studying psychology at
the University of Chicago, the theory was inspired by the work of Jean Piaget and a fascination
with children's reactions to moral dilemmas. He wrote his doctoral dissertation at the university
in 1958, outlining what are now known as his stages of moral development.

This theory holds that moral reasoning, which is the basis for ethical behaviour, has six
identifiable developmental stages. He followed the development of moral judgment beyond
the ages originally studied by Piaget, who claimed that logic and morality develop
through constructive stages. Kohlberg expanded considerably on this groundwork, determining
that the process of moral development was principally concerned with justice and that its
development continued throughout the lifespan, even spawning dialogue of philosophical
implications of his research.

Kohlberg used stories about moral dilemmas in his studies, and was interested in how people
would justify their actions if they were put in a similar moral crux. He would then categorize
and classify evoked responses into one of six distinct stages. These six stages where broken into
three levels: pre-conventional, conventional and post-conventional. His theory is based on
constructive developmental stages; each stage and level is more adequate at responding to
moral dilemmas than the last.

Stages

Kohlberg's six stages were grouped into three levels: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-
conventional. Following Piaget's constructivist requirements for a stage model (see his theory
of cognitive development), it is extremely rare to regress backward in stages. Even still, no one
functions at their highest stage at all times. It is also not possible to 'jump' stages; each stage
provides a new yet necessary perspective, and is more comprehensive, differentiated, and
integrated than its predecessors.

Level 1 (Pre-Conventional)

1. Obedience and punishment orientation

2. Self-interest orientation

( What's in it for me?)

Level 2 (Conventional)
3. Interpersonal accord and conformity
( The good boy/good girl attitude)
4. Authority and social-order maintaining orientation

( Law and order morality)

Level 3 (Post-Conventional)
5. Social contract orientation
6. Universal ethical principles

( Principled conscience)

Pre-Conventional
The pre-conventional level of moral reasoning is especially common
in children, although adults can also exhibit this level of reasoning.
Reasoners in the pre-conventional level judge the morality of an action
by its direct consequences. The pre-conventional level consists of the
first and second stages of moral development, and are purely
concerned with the self in an egocentric manner.

In stage one, individuals focus on the direct consequences that their

actions will have for themselves. For example, an action is perceived as
morally wrong if the person who commits it gets punished. The worse
the punishment for the act is, the more 'bad' the act is perceived to be.
In addition, there is no recognition that others' points of view are any
different from one's own view. This stage may be viewed as a kind
of authoritarianism.

Stage two exposes the what's in it for me position, right behaviour

being defined by what is in one's own best interest. Stage two
reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs of others, but only to a
point where it might further one's own interests, such as you scratch
my back, and I'll scratch yours. In stage two concern for others is not
based on loyalty or intrinsic respect. Lacking a perspective of society in
the pre-conventional level, this should not be confused with social
contract (stage five), as all actions are performed to serve one's own
needs or interests. For the stage two theorist, the perspective of the
world is often seen as morally relative.

Conventional
The conventional level of moral reasoning is typical of adolescents and
adults. Persons who reason in a conventional way judge the morality of
actions by comparing these actions to societal views and expectations.
The conventional level consists of the third and fourth stages of moral
development.

In Stage three, the self enters society by filling social roles. Individuals
are receptive of approval or disapproval from other people as it
reflects society's accordance with the perceived role. They try to be
a good boy or good girl to live up to these expectations, having learned
that there is inherent value in doing so. Stage three reasoning may
judge the morality of an action by evaluating its consequences in terms
of a person's relationships, which now begin to include things like
respect, gratitude and the ' golden rule'. Desire to
maintain rules and authority exists only to further support these
stereotypical social roles. The intentions of actions play a more
significant role in reasoning at this stage; 'they mean well...'.

In Stage four, it is important to obey laws, dictums and social

conventions because of their importance in maintaining a
functioning society. Moral reasoning in stage four is thus beyond the
need for individual approval exhibited in stage three; society must
learn to transcend individual needs. A central ideal or ideals often
prescribe what is right and wrong, such as in the case
of fundamentalism. If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone
would - thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules.
When someone does violate a law, it is morally wrong; culpability is
thus a significant factor in this stage as it separates the bad domains
from the good ones.

Post-Conventional
The post-conventional level, also known as the principled level,
consists of stages five and six of moral development. Realization that
individuals are separate entities from society now becomes salient.
One's own perspective should be viewed before the society's. It is due
to this 'nature of self before others' that the post-conventional level,
especially stage six, is sometimes mistaken for pre-conventional
behaviors.

In Stage five, individuals are viewed as holding different opinions

and values, and it is paramount that they be respected and
honored impartially. Issues that are not regarded as relative
like life and choice should never be withheld or inhibited. In fact, no
single choice is correct or absolute – 'who are you to judge if they are
or not'? Along a similar vein, laws are regarded as social contracts
rather than rigid dictums. Those that do not promote general social
welfare should be changed when necessary to meet the greatest good
for the greatest number of people. This is attained through majority
decision, and inevitably compromise. In this way democratic
government is ostensibly based on stage five reasoning.

In Stage six, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning

using universal ethical principles. Laws are valid only insofar as they are
grounded in justice, and that a commitment to justice carries with it an
obligation to disobey unjust laws. Rights are unnecessary as social
contracts are not essential for deontic moral action. Decisions are
met categorically in an absolute way rather than hypothetically in a
conditional way (see Immanuel Kant's ' categorical imperative'). This
can be done by imagining what one would do being in anyone's shoes,
who imagined what anyone would do thinking the same (see John
Rawls's ' veil of ignorance'). The resulting consensus is the action
taken. In this way action is never a means but always an end in itself;
one acts because it is right, and not because it is instrumental,
expected, legal or previously agreed upon. While Kohlberg insisted that
stage six exists, he had difficulty finding participants who consistently
used it. It appears that people rarely if ever reach stage six of
Kohlberg's model.

According to Kohlberg, a person who progresses to a higher stage of

moral reasoning cannot skip stages. For example, one cannot jump
from being concerned mostly with peer judgments (stage three) to
being a proponent of social contracts (stage five). However, when one
encounters a moral dilemma and finds their current level of moral
reasoning unsatisfactory, they will look to the next level. Discovery of
the limitations of the current stage of thinking drives moral
development as each progressive stage is more adequate than the last.
This process is constructive; it arises through the conscious
construction of the actor, and is neither in any meaningful sense a
component of the actor's innate dispositions, nor a result of past
inductions.

Formal elements

Progress along the stages of development occurs because of the

actor's increased competence in both psychologically and socially
balancing conflicting value-claims. The name of " justice operation" is
given to the process which resolves the dispute between conflicting
claims and strikes an equilibrium between them. Kohlberg identifies
two of these operations in " equality" and " reciprocity", which
respectively involve an impartial regard for persons (i.e., irrespective of
who the individual persons are), and a regard for the role of
personal merit. For Kohlberg, the most adequate result of both
operations is " reversibility", where a moral or dutiful act within a
particular situation is evaluated in terms of whether or not the act
would be satisfactory even if particular persons were to switch roles
within the situation (also known colloquially as " moral musical
chairs").

Knowledge and learning contribute to moral development. Specifically

important are the actor's view of persons and their social perspective
level, each of which becomes more complex and mature with each
advancing stage. The view of persons can be understood as the actor's
grasp of the psychology of other persons; it may be pictured as a
spectrum, with stage one having no view of other persons at all, and
stage six being entirely sociocentric. Similarly, the social perspective
level involves the understanding of the social universe, differing from
the view of persons in that it involves a grasp of norms.

Heinz dilemma
A dilemma that Kohlberg used in his original research was the
druggist's dilemma: Heinz Steals the Drug In Europe.

A woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one
drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form
of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered.
The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten
times what the drug cost him to produce. He paid $200 for the radium
and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman's
husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but
he could only get together about $ 1,000 which is half of what it cost.
He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it
cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: "No, I discovered
the drug and I'm going to make money from it." So Heinz got desperate
and broke into the man's store to steal the drug-for his wife.

Should Heinz have broken into the laboratory to steal the drug for his
wife? Why or why not?

From a theoretical point of view, it is not important what the

participant thinks that Heinz should do. Kohlberg's theory holds that
the justification the participant offers is what is significant, the form of
their response. Below are some of many examples of possible
arguments that belong to the six stages:
Stage one (obedience): Heinz should not steal the medicine because he
will consequently be put in prison which means you are really terrible.
Or: Heinz should steal the medicine because it only worth $200 and
not how much the druggist wanted for it; Heinz had even offered to
pay for it and was not stealing anything else besides.

Stage two (self-interest): Heinz should steal the medicine because he

will be much happier if he saves his wife, even if he will have to serve a
prison sentence. Or: Heinz should not steal the medicine because
prison is a awful place, and he would probably languish over a jail cell
more than his wife's death.

Stage three (conformity): Heinz should steal the medicine because his
wife expects it; he wants to be a good husband. Or: Heinz should not
steal the drug because stealing is bad and he is not a criminal; he tried
to do everything he could without breaking the law, you cannot blame
him.

Stage four (law-and-order): Heinz should not steal the medicine

because the law prohibits stealing making it illegal. Or: Heinz should
steal the drug for his wife but also take the prescribed punishment for
the crime as well as paying the druggist what he is owed. Criminals
cannot just run around without regard to the law; actions have
consequences.

Stage five (human rights): Heinz should steal the medicine because
everyone has a right to choose life, regardless of the law. Or: Heinz
should not steal the medicine because the scientist has a right to fair
compensation. Even if his wife is sick it does not make his actions right.

Stage six (universal human ethics): Heinz should steal the medicine,
because saving a human life is a more fundamental value than the
property rights of another person. Or: Heinz should not steal the
medicine, because others may need the medicine just as badly, and
their lives are equally significant.