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contents
Preface xxi
Acknowledgments xxvii
About the Authors xxviii
Section One: Laying the Foundation

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Graphical Communication in Engineering 1-2
1.01 Introduction_______________________________________ 1-3
1.02 A Short History____________________________________ 1-3
1.02.01 Ancient History
1.02.02 The Medieval Period
1.02.03 The Renaissance
1.02.04 The Industrial Revolution
1.02.05 More Recent History
1.03 Engineering Graphics Technology_______________________ 1-16
1.03.01 Early Years
1.03.02 Instrument Drawing
1.03.03 The Computer Revolution
1.03.04 Graphics as a Design Tool
1.03.05 Graphics as an Analysis Tool
1.03.06 Graphics as a Presentation Tool
1.04 The Modern Role of Engineering Graphics________________ 1-26
1.05 Chapter Summary__________________________________ 1-28
1.06 Glossary of Key Terms_______________________________ 1-28
1.07 Questions for Review________________________________ 1-29
1.08 Problems________________________________________ 1-29
Chapter 2 Sketching 2-1

2.01 Introduction _______________________________________ 2-2
2.02 Sketching in the Engineering Design Process ________________ 2-2
2.03 Sketching Lines _____________________________________ 2-3
2.04 Sketching Curved Entities _____________________________ 2-4
2.05 Construction Lines __________________________________ 2-6
2.06 Coordinate Systems __ ________________________________ 2-8
2.07 Isometric Sketches of Simple Objects ____________________ 2-12
2.07.01 Circles in Isometric Sketches
2.07.02 Circular Holes in Isometric Sketches
2.08 Oblique Pictorials__________________________________ 2-19
vii
viii contents
2.08.01 Circular Holes in Oblique Pictorial Sketches

2.09 Shading and Other Special Effects______________________ 2-21
2.10 Sketching Complex Objects___________________________ 2-23
2.11 Chapter Summary__________________________________ 2-25
2.14 Problems________________________________________ 2-26
Chapter 3 Visualization 3-1

3.01 Introduction _______________________________________ 3-2
3.02 Background _ _ ______________________________________ 3-2
3.03 Development of Spatial Skills _ _ _________________________ 3-3
3.04 Types of Spatial Skills________________________________ 3-5
3.05 Assessing Spatial Skills_______________________________ 3-5
3.06 The Importance of Spatial Skills _________________________ 3-8
3.07 Isometric Corner Views of Simple Objects _________________ 3-8
3.08 Object Rotations about a Single Axis ____________________ 3-11
3.08.01 Notation
3.08.02 Rotation of Objects by More Than 90 Degrees
about a Single Axis
3.08.03 Equivalencies for Rotations about a Single Axis
3.09 Rotation about Two or More Axes______________________ 3-21
3.09.01 Equivalencies for Object Rotations about Two or More Axes
3.10 Reflections and Symmetry____________________________ 3-24
3.10.01 Symmetry
3.11 Cross Sections of Solids______________________________ 3-28
3.12 Combining Solids__________________________________ 3-32
3.13 Chapter Summary__________________________________ 3-34
3.16 Problems________________________________________ 3-35
Chapter 4 Creativity and the Design Process 4-1

4.01 Introduction _______________________________________ 4-2
4.02 What Is Design? ____________________________________ 4-2
4.02.01 Computers in Design
4.02.02 Classification of Engineering Designers
4.03 Creativity in Design__________________________________ 4-5
4.03.01 Visual Thinking
4.03.02 Brainstorming
4.03.03 Brainwriting (6-3-5 Method)
4.03.04 Morphological Charts
contents ix
4.03.05 Concept Mapping

4.04 The Engineering Design Process_________________________ 4-8
4.04.01 Stage 1: Problem Identification
4.04.02 Stage 2: Concept Generation
4.04.03 Stage 3: Concept Selection and Refinement
4.04.04 Stage 4: Design Evaluation and Analysis
4.04.05 Stage 5: Physical Prototyping
4.04.06 Stage 6: Design Documentation
4.04.07 Stage 7: Production
4.05 The Concurrent Engineering Design Process_______________ 4-15
4.06 Chapter Summary__________________________________ 4-15
Case Study________________________________________________ 4-16
4.09 Design Projects____________________________________ 4-19
Section Two: Modern Design Practice and Tools

Chapter 5 Solid Modeling 5-2
5.01 Introduction _______________________________________ 5-3
5.02 Tools for Developing Your Idea __ ________________________ 5-4
5.02.01 Two-Dimensional CAD
5.02.02 Wireframe Modeling
5.02.03 Surface Modeling
5.02.04 Solid Modeling
5.03 A Parametric Solid Model____________________________ 5-10
5.03.01 Valid Profiles
5.03.02 Creation of the Solid
5.04 Making It Precise___________________________________ 5-14
5.04.01 Orientation of the Sketch
5.04.02 Geometric Constraints
5.04.03 Dimensional Constraints
5.04.04 Uniqueness of Constraints
5.04.05 Associative and Algebraic Constraints
5.05 Strategies for Combining Profile Constraints_______________ 5-21
5.06 More Complexity Using Constructive Solids_______________ 5-25
5.07 Breaking It Down into Features________________________ 5-29
5.07.01 The Base Feature
5.07.02 Chamfers, Rounds, and Fillets
5.07.03 Holes
5.07.04 Shells
5.07.05 Ribs and Webs
5.07.06 Other Feature Types
x contents
5.07.07 Cosmetic Features

5.07.08 An Understanding of Features and Functions
5.08 More Ways to Create Sophisticated Geometry______________ 5-38
5.08.01 Defining Datum Points
5.08.02 Defining Datum Axes
5.08.03 Defining Datum Planes
5.08.04 Chaining Datums
5.08.05 Using Arrays (Rectangular and Circular)
5.08.06 Using Mirrored Features
5.08.07 Using Blends
5.08.08 Sweeps
5.09 The Model Tree____________________________________ 5-47
5.10 Families of Parts___________________________________ 5-50
5.11 Extraction of 2-D Drawings___________________________ 5-53
5.12 Chapter Summary__________________________________ 5-54
5.15 Problems________________________________________ 5-57
Chapter 6 Assembly Modeling 6-1

6.01 Introduction _______________________________________ 6-2
6.02 Assembly Terminology _ _ ______________________________ 6-2
6.02.01 Associativity
6.03 Assembly Hierarchy_________________________________ 6-7
6.04 Assembly Constraints________________________________ 6-8
6.04.01 Concentric Constraints
6.04.02 Mating Surfaces Constraints
6.04.03 Coincident Constraints
6.04.04 Distance Constraints
6.04.05 Adding Constraints to Your Assembly
6.05 Exploded Configurations_____________________________ 6-14
6.06 Interferences and Clearances___________________________ 6-15
6.07 Bill of Materials____________________________________ 6-17
6.08 Assembly Strategy__________________________________ 6-18
6.08.01 Bottom-Up Assembly Modeling
6.08.02 Top-Down Assembly Modeling
6.09 Strategy for Bottom-up Assembly Modeling_______________ 6-19
6.10 Chapter Summary__________________________________ 6-25
6.13 Problems________________________________________ 6-26
contents xi
Chapter 7 Design Analysis 7-1

7.01 Introduction _______________________________________ 7-2
7.02 Reverse Engineering __ ________________________________ 7-2
7.03 Metrology Tools for Reverse Engineering __________________ 7-3
7.03.01 Handheld Calipers
7.03.02 Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)
7.03.03 3-D Laser Scanner
7.04 The Reverse Engineering Process________________________ 7-5
7.04.01 Defining the Reverse Engineering Project
7.04.02 Dissecting a System
7.04.03 Obtaining Part Sizes
7.04.04 Developing a 3-D CAD Model
7.04.05 Considering Potential Redesign
7.05 Geometric Properties Analysis_________________________ 7-12
7.05.01 Measurement Analysis
7.05.02 Mass Properties Analysis
7.06 Finite Element Analysis______________________________ 7-19
7.06.01 Classes of FEA Problems
7.06.02 Finite Element Meshes
7.06.03 Finite Element Boundary Conditions
7.06.04 Finite Element Output
7.07 Chapter Summary__________________________________ 7-23
7.10 Problems________________________________________ 7-25
Section Three: Setting Up an Engineering Drawing

Chapter 8 Orthogonal Projection and Multiview Representation 8-2
8.01 Introduction _______________________________________ 8-3
8.02 A More Precise Way to Communicate Your Ideas____________ 8-3
8.02.01 Problems with Pictorials
8.02.02 Viewing Planes
8.02.03 Orthogonal Projection
8.02.04 A Distorted Reality
8.02.05 Choice of Viewing Planes
8.02.06 Size and Alignment
8.03 The Glass Box_____________________________________ 8-12
8.03.01 Standard Views
8.03.02 The Preferred Configuration
8.04 The Necessary Details_______________________________ 8-14
8.04.01 Hidden Lines and Centerlines
8.04.02 The Necessary Views
xii contents
8.04.03 Hidden Lines versus More Views

8.05 First-Angle Projection versus Third-Angle Projection_________ 8-20
8.06 Breaking the Rules—and Why It Is Good to Break
Them Sometimes__________________________________ 8-23
8.06.01 Threaded Parts
8.06.02 Features with Small Radii
8.06.03 Small Cutouts on Curved Surfaces
8.06.04 Small Intersections with Curved Surfaces
8.06.05 Symmetrical Features
8.06.06 Representation of Welds
8.07 When Six Views Are Not Enough______________________ 8-28
8.07.01 Features at Odd Angles
8.07.02 Internal Features
8.08 Considerations for 3-D Modeling_______________________ 8-30
8.09 Chapter Summary__________________________________ 8-31
8.12 Problems________________________________________ 8-32
Chapter 9 Pictorial Drawings 9-1

9.01 Introduction _______________________________________ 9-2
9.02 Types of Pictorial Drawings ____________________________ 9-2
9.03 Axonometric Drawings _______________________________ 9-4
9.03.01 Isometric Drawings
9.03.02 Inclined Surfaces
9.03.03 Oblique Surfaces
9.03.04 Cylindrical Surfaces
9.03.05 Ellipses on Inclined Surfaces
9.04 Oblique Drawings__________________________________ 9-16
9.04.01 Types of Oblique Drawings
9.04.02 Construction of Oblique Drawings
9.04.03 Construction of an Object with Circular Features
9.05 Perspective Drawings________________________________ 9-19
9.05.01 Types of Perspective Drawings
9.05.02 Two-Point Perspective Drawings
9.05.03 Construction of a Two-Point Perspective Drawing
9.05.04 Complex Object in Two-Point Perspective
9.06 Considerations for 3-D Modeling_______________________ 9-26
9.07 Chapter Summary__________________________________ 9-26
9.10 Problems________________________________________ 9-28
contents xiii
Chapter 10 Section Views 10-1

10.01 Introduction ______________________________________ 10-2
10.02 A Look Inside _____________________________________ 10-2
10.03 Full Sections______________________________________ 10-5
10.04 What Happens to the Hidden Lines? ___________________ 10-11
10.05 The Finer Points of Section Lines ______________________ 10-11
10.06 Offset Sections ___________________________________ 10-13
10.07 Half Sections ____________________________________ 10-14
10.08 Removed Sections _________________________________ 10-15
10.09 Revolved Sections _________________________________ 10-17
10.10 Broken-Out Sections _______________________________ 10-18
10.11 Sections of Assemblies _ _ ____________________________ 10-20
10.12 A Few Shortcuts to Simplify Your Life __________________ 10-22
10.12.01 Small Cutouts on Curved Surfaces
10.12.02 Threaded Parts
10.12.03 Thin Features
10.12.04 Vanes, Fins, Spokes, and the Like
10.12.05 Symmetry
10.13 Considerations for 3-D Modeling______________________ 10-27
10.14 Chapter Summary_________________________________ 10-28
10.15 Glossary of Key Terms______________________________ 10-29
10.16 Questions for Review_______________________________ 10-29
10.17 Problems_______________________________________ 10-30
Chapter 11 Auxiliary Views 11-1

11.01 Introduction ______________________________________ 11-2
11.02 Auxiliary Views for Solid Objects _______________________ 11-2
11.03 Auxiliary Views of Irregular or Curved Surfaces _ _ ___________ 11-9
11.04 Creating Auxiliary Views ____________________________ 11-10
11.05 ___
Solid Modeling Considerations in Creating Auxiliary Views 11-15
11.06 Chapter Summary_________________________________ 11-17
11.09 Problems_______________________________________ 11-18
Section Four: Drawing Annotation and Design Implementation

Chapter 12 Dimensioning 12-2
12.01 Introduction ______________________________________ 12-3
12.02 Is the Dimension I See on a Drawing Exact? _______________ 12-5
12.03 What Are the Rules for Dimensioning? _ _ _________________ 12-6
12.03.01 Millimeters, Inches, or Angstroms?
12.03.02 Types of Dimensioning
12.03.03 Fundamental Rules for Dimensioning
xiv contents
12.04 Definitions_______________________________________ 12-8

12.05 Redundancy Is Dumb_______________________________ 12-9
12.06 Geometrically Correct, but Still Wrong!_________________ 12-12
12.06.01 Different Ways of Specifying the Same Geometry
12.06.02 Identifying and Specifying the Critical Dimensions for Part Function
12.06.03 Baseline versus Chain Dimensioning
12.06.04 What Types of Dimensions Can Be Measured and Checked?
12.07 Guidelines to Guide Your Lines_______________________ 12-16
12.07.01 Solid Lines Only
12.07.02 Placement and Spacing
12.07.03 Font
12.08 Shortcuts_______________________________________ 12-19
12.08.01 Diameters and Radii
12.08.02 Chamfers
12.08.03 Standard Machined Holes: Countersinks and Counterbores
12.08.04 Slots
12.09 Notes__________________________________________ 12-22
12.09.01 General Notes
12.09.02 Local Notes
12.11 Dimensions for the Plate Example_____________________ 12-23
12.12 Fundamental Rules for Dimensioning___________________ 12-24
12.13 Chapter Summary_________________________________ 12-25
12.16 Problems_______________________________________ 12-27
Chapter 13 Tolerancing 13-1

13.01 Introduction ______________________________________ 13-2
13.01.01 Relationships between Different Parts
13.01.02 Problems with Inexperience in New Engineers
13.02 Formats for Tolerances_______________________________ 13-4
13.03 Tolerance Buildup Problems___________________________ 13-5
13.03.01 Tolerance Buildup with Chain, Baseline, and Direct Dimensioning
13.03.02 Statistical Tolerance Control
13.04 Use of Tables for Fits________________________________ 13-6
13.04.01 Types of Fits
13.04.02 Fit Terminology
13.04.03 English Fits
13.04.04 Metric Fits
13.04.05 Fits Tables
13.05 Conventional Tolerancing versus Geometric Tolerancing_____ 13-15
contents xv
13.05.01 Features With and Without Size

13.05.02 Conventional Tolerancing and Form
13.05.03 Location of Holes and Pins with Conventional Tolerancing
13.06 Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD&T)________ 13-21
13.06.01 The Datum Reference Frame
13.06.02 Geometry Characteristic Symbols and Feature Control Frames
13.06.03 Order of Precedence for Datums
13.06.04 Position Tolerances versus Conventional Tolerances
13.06.05 Form Tolerances
13.06.06 Profile Tolerances
13.06.07 Orientation Tolerances
13.06.08 Location Tolerances
13.06.09 Runout Tolerances
13.07 Chapter Summary_________________________________ 13-46
13.10 Problems_______________________________________ 13-47
Chapter 14 Working Drawings 14-1

14.01 Introduction ______________________________________ 14-2
14.02 Making It Formal __________________________________ 14-3
14.03 Sheet Sizes _______________________________________ 14-6
14.04 The Formal Drawing Header in Manufacturing Drawings _____ 14-9
14.05 The Drawing Area for Manufactured Parts _______________ 14-15
14.05.01 Geometry Presentation
14.05.02 Object Views
14.05.03 Notes
14.06 Parts, Subassemblies, and Assemblies___________________ 14-18
14.06.01 Exploded Assembly Drawings
14.06.02 Outline Assembly Drawings
14.06.03 Sectioned Assembly Drawings
14.06.04 The Bill of Materials
14.06.05 Manufacturing Detail Drawings
14.06.06 More Examples of Manufacturing Drawings
14.07 Construction Drawings_____________________________ 14-40
14.07.01 Why Construction Drawings Are Different from Manufacturing
Drawings
14.07.02 How Construction Drawings Are Different from Manufacturing
Drawings
14.08 Construction Plans________________________________ 14-45
14.08.01 Cover Sheet
14.08.02 Site Plan
xvi contents
14.08.03 Elevation Views

14.08.04 Foundation and Floor Plans
14.08.05 Sections
14.08.06 Detail Construction Drawings
14.08.07 Plan and Profile Drawings
14.09 Engineering Scales_________________________________ 14-55
14.09.01 Engineer’s Scale
14.09.02 Metric Scale
14.09.03 Architect’s Scale
14.11 Chapter Summary_________________________________ 14-60
14.14 Problems_______________________________________ 14-63
The following chapters will be available in our MindTap product
Chapter 15 Working in a Team Environment

15.01 Introduction
15.02 Why Work in a Group?
15.03 What Does It Mean to Be a Team Player?
15.04 Differences between Teaming in the Classroom and Teaming
in the Real World
15.05 Team Roles
15.06 Characteristics of an Effective Team
15.06.01 Decisions Made by Consensus
15.06.02 Everyone Participates
15.06.03 Professional Meetings
15.07 Project Organization—Defining Tasks and Deliverables
15.08 Time Management—Project Scheduling
15.08.01 Gantt Charts
15.08.02 Critical Path Method
15.09 Communication
15.09.01 Agreeing How to Communicate
15.09.02 Communicating Outside Meetings
15.09.03 Communicating with the Outside World
15.10 Tools for Dealing with Personnel Issues
15.10.01 Team Contract
15.10.02 Publication of the Rules
15.10.03 Signature Sheet and Task Credit Matrix
15.11 Chapter Summary
15.12 Glossary of Key Terms
contents xvii
Chapter 16 Fabrication Processes

16.01 Introduction
16.02 Making Sure It Can Be Made
16.03 Processes for Low-Volume Production
16.03.01 Standard Commercial Shapes
16.03.02 Sawing
16.03.03 Turning
16.03.04 Drilling
16.03.05 Milling
16.03.06 Electric Discharge Machining
16.03.07 Broaching
16.03.08 Rapid Prototyping
16.03.09 Welding and Brazing
16.03.10 Grinding
16.04 Processes for Higher-Volume Production
16.04.01 Sand Casting
16.04.02 Extrusion
16.04.03 Drawing
16.04.04 Rolling
16.04.05 Die Casting and Molding
16.04.06 Forging
16.04.07 Stamping
16.04.08 Sintering
16.05 Burr Removal
16.06 Combined Processes
16.06.01 Example 1: The Retainer
16.06.02 Example 2: The Coupling
16.06.03 Example 3: The Motor Plate
16.07 Considerations for 3-D Modeling
Chapter 17 Advanced Visualization Techniques

17.01 Introduction
17.02 Basic Concepts and Terminology in Visualization
17.03 The Possibilities for a Feature Representation
17.04 Other Viewpoints
17.05 Advanced Visualization Techniques
17.05.01 Visualization with Basic Concepts
17.05.02 Strategy for a Holistic Approach to Constructing Pictorials from
Multiview Drawings
xviii contents
17.05.03 Strategy for Constructing Pictorials by Inverse Tracking of Edges

and Vertices
17.05.04 Strategy for Constructing Pictorials by Inverse Tracking of Surfaces
17.05.05 Strategy for Improving Spatial Skills through Imagining Successive
Cuts to Objects
Chapter 18 Fasteners
18.01 Introduction
18.02 Screw Threads
18.02.01 Thread Terminology
18.02.02 Single and Multiple Threads
18.02.03 Right- and Left-Hand Threads
18.02.04 Thread Standards
18.02.05 Thread Forms
18.03 Thread Cutting
18.04 Modeling Screw Threads
18.04.01 Thread Representations for Drawings
18.04.02 Thread Representation in Solid Models
18.05 Thread Notes
18.05.01 Metric Threads
18.05.02 Unified National Threads
18.05.03 Other Thread Forms
18.05.04 Thread Notes on a Drawing
18.06 Threaded Fasteners
18.06.01 Bolts and Nuts
18.06.02 Machine Screws and Cap Screws
18.06.03 Studs
18.06.04 Design Considerations for Threaded Fasteners
18.06.05 Set Screws
18.06.06 Self-Tapping Screws
18.07 Rivets
18.07.01 Kinds of Rivets
18.08 Washers
18.09 Pins
18.10 Retaining Rings
18.11 Keys
18.12 Snap-Fit Fasteners
contents xix
Chapter 19 Technical and Engineering Animation

19.01 Introduction
19.02 Animation Process and Technique
19.02.01 The Planning Stage
19.02.02 The Modeling Stage
19.02.03 The Scene Development Stage: Cameras, Lighting, and Rendering
19.02.04 The Animation Stage: Motion and Action
19.02.05 The Output Stage: Editing and Production
Chapter 20 Presentation of Engineering Data

20.01 Introduction
20.02 Anatomy of the Information Graphic
20.03 Formats for Quantitative Data
20.03.01 Bar Charts
20.03.02 Line Charts
20.03.03 Pie Charts
20.03.04 Scatter Plots
20.03.05 Tables
20.04 Diagrams
20.04.01 Business Diagrams
20.04.02 Technical Diagrams
20.04.03 Visual Storytelling Diagrams
appendix A _______________________________________________ A-1

glossary _______________________________________________ G-1
index ________________________________________________ I-1
preface
L eonardo da Vinci. You have

probably learned that he was
a famous Italian artist during the
propelled technology
forward at a much
faster pace than had
Renaissance. You may even subscribe to occurred in the previ-
some of the conspiracy theories about ous thousand years.
him that have surfaced recently regard-
ing secret codes and societies. What This marriage between
you may not know about him is that he art and engineering
was one of the very first engineers. (In has diminished some-
fact, many people consider him to be the what since the early
first engineer.) Some even say he was beginnings of the pro-
really an engineer who sometimes sold fession; however, cre-
a painting in order to put food on the ativity in engineering
table. Artists played a prominent role at is still of paramount
the birth of modern-day engineering, importance. Would Source: NASA/JPL/Cornell University
and some of the first artist-engineers the Apollo spaceship
included Francesco di Giorgio, Georg have landed on the graphical forms of communication
Agricola, and Mariano Taccola. These moon without the creative thinking of convey design ideas more effectively
were the individuals who could visu- hundreds of engineers who designed than do written words. Maybe a
alize new devices that advanced the and tested the various systems neces- picture really is worth a thousand
human condition. Their creativity and sary for space travel? Would we be able words. As you might expect, the face
willingness to try seemingly “crazy” ideas to instantaneously retrieve information of engineering graphics has evolved
and communicate with one another dramatically since the time of da Vinci.
via the World Wide Web without the Traditional engineering graphics
vision of the engineers and scientists focused on two-dimensional graphical
who turned a crazy idea into reality? mathematics, drawing, and design;
Would the modern-day devices that knowledge of graphics was considered
enrich and simplify our lives such as a key skill for engineers. Early engi-
washing machines, televisions, tele- neering programs included graphics
phones, and automobiles exist without as an integral topic of instruction, and
the analytical skills of the engineers hand-drawn engineering graphics from
and technologists who developed and 50 years ago are works of art in their
made successive improvements to these own right.
devices? The answer to all of these
questions is “no.” The ability to think of However, in the recent past, the ability
systems that never were and to design to create a 2-D engineering drawing by
devices to meet the changing needs of hand has become de-emphasized due
the human population is the purview to improvements and advances in com-
of the engineering profession. puter hardware and software. More
recently, as computer-based tools have
Graphical communication has always advanced even further, the demand
played a central role in engineering, for skills in 3-D geometric modeling,
perhaps due to engineering’s genesis assembly modeling, animation, and
© /Science Source. within the arts or perhaps because data management has defined a new
xxi
xxii preface
engineering graphics curriculum. feature-based solid modeling included are really good at addition, but are
Moreover, three-dimensional geometric as a separate add-on to the existing miserable at subtraction.”
models have become the foundation material. In these texts, modern-day
for advanced numerical analysis meth- computer-based techniques are more When we sat down to plan this text,
ods, including kinematic analysis, of an afterthought: “Oh, by the way, we wanted to produce the engineering
kinetic analysis, and finite element you can also use the computer to graphics benchmark of the future—an
methods for stress, fluid, magnetic, and help you accomplish some of these engineering graphics approach that
thermal systems. common tasks.” In fact, some of the teaches design and design commu-
more popular texts were written nication rather than a vocational
The engineering graphics curriculum nearly a century ago when computer text focused on drafting techniques
has also evolved over time to include a workstations and CAD software were and standards. We wanted to inte-
focus on developing 3-D spatial visu- figments of some forward-looking grate modern-day design techniques
alization ability since this particular engineer’s imagination. Texts from throughout the text, not treat these
skill has been documented as impor- that era focused on drawing technique topics as an afterthought.
tant to the success of engineers in the and not on graphic communication
classroom and in the field. Spatial within the larger context of engineer- A strength of this textbook is its focus
visualization is also strongly linked ing design and creativity. not only on “what” to do, but also on
to the creative process. Would da “why” you do it (or do not do it) that
Vinci have imagined his various flying Modern engineering graphics way—concepts as well as details. This
machines without well-honed visual- curricula—and texts—must follow text is intended to be a learning aid as
ization skills? what is happening in the field. Mod- well as a reference book. Step-by-step
ern product development techniques software-specific tutorials, which are
We have come full circle in engineering allow engineers to use computer too focused on techniques, are very
education through the inclusion of hardware and software to examine the poor training for students who need
topics such as creativity, teamwork, proper fit and function of a device. to understand the modeling strategies
and design in the modern-day graphics Engineers can “virtually” develop and rather than just which buttons to
curriculum. The strong link between test a device before producing an push for a particular task. In fact, we
creativity, design, and graphics can- actual physical model, which greatly believe that mere training should be
not be overstated. Gone is the need increases the speed and efficiency abandoned in favor of an education in
for engineers and technicians who of the design process. The virtual, the fundamentals. Students need to
robotically reproduce drawings with computer-based model then facili- learn CAD strategy as well as tech-
little thought involved. With mod- tates the creation of the engineering nique. Students need to develop their
ern-day computational tools, we can drawings used in manufacturing and creative skills and not have these skills
devise creative solutions to problems production—an activity that required stifled through a focus on the minu-
without concern about whether a line many hours of hand drafting just a tiae. In order to prepare for a lifelong
should be lightly penciled in or drawn few short decades ago. career in this fast-changing techno-
thickly and displayed prominently on logical world, students will need to
the page. In the real world, modern CAD understand fundamental concepts.
practices have also allowed us more For example, in the current methods-
It is for this new, back-to-the-future time to focus on other important based approach to graphics training,
graphics curriculum that Visual- aspects of the engineering design students learn about geometric dimen-
ization, Modeling, and Graphics for cycle, including creative thinking, sioning and tolerancing. Many texts
Engineering Design, Second Edition has product ideation, and advanced anal- describe what the symbols mean, but
been designed. This text is a mixture ysis techniques. Some might argue do not explain how, why, and when
of traditional as well as modern-day that these aspects are, in fact, the they should be used. Yet, these ques-
topics, a mixture of analytical and most important aspects of the design tions of how, why, and when are the
creative thinking, a mixture of exact- process. The engineering graphics questions with which most young engi-
ing drawing technique and freeform curricula at many colleges and uni- neers struggle and the questions that
sketching. Enjoy. versities have evolved to reflect this are directly addressed in this text. They
shift in the design process. However, are also the important questions—if
most engineering graphics textbooks a student knows the answer to these
Development of the Text have simply added CAD sections to questions, she or he will understand
Many of the current graphics text- cover the new topics. Thick textbooks the fundamental concepts in geometric
books were written several years have gotten even thicker. As a wise dimensioning and tolerancing. This
ago with modern-day topics such as person has said, “Engineering faculty fundamental understanding will serve
preface xxiii
far into the future where techniques, Section One—Laying the methods that take advantage of the
and possibly the symbols themselves, Foundation efficiency and advantages offered by
are likely to change. workstations and feature-based mod-
The materials presented here focus eling software. These new technologies
on the needs of today’s first-year have revolutionized the design process
engineering students who might have and have enabled around-the-clock
Organization of the Text well-developed math and computer engineering. By this model, engineers
The textbook is organized into 14 skills and less-developed hands-on in Europe hand off (via the Internet) a
main chapters; a number of supple- mechanical skills. Incoming engineer- design project when they leave work to
mentary chapters are available in our ing students likely no longer work on American engineers. The Americans,
MindTap product to create custom their cars or bikes in the garage or in turn, hand off the design as they
versions for specific course needs. In may not have taken shop and draft- leave the office at the end of the day to
organizing the chapters of this text, we ing classes in high school. Hands-on Asian engineers. The Asian engineers
were careful to group topics in a way tinkering is probably an activity of complete the cycle by passing the
that reflects the modern engineering the past replaced by hands-on web design back to the Europeans at the
design process. We purposely did not page design and text messaging. end of their day. The sun never sets
mimic the decades-old graphics classi- (Engineering students of today in all on an engineering design. Over your
cal texts, which were written in an era probability have much greater dex- lifelong engineering career, the details
when the design process was based on terity in their thumbs from “texting” of the design process may change again
drawings and not computer models, than do the authors of this text!) in ways that are unimagined today,
an era when physical and not virtual Although many engineering students but the fundamentals, as described
models were analyzed for structural enter college having spent time in a in this section, will migrate from sys-
integrity. For this reason, the order of virtual computer environment, the tem to system with each advance in
topics in this text will not match that lack of hands-on experiences that technology.
of the traditional graphics texts where involve more than just the thumbs
Lettering was often the first topic of and that also involve real-life physical
instruction. objects, often results in poorly devel-
Section Three—Setting Up
oped three-dimensional visualization
In this text, we start with founda- skills. In this section, these skills are an Engineering Drawing
tional topics such as sketching and explored and developed. This sec- This section contains material found in
visualization since these are useful in tion also includes a project-oriented most conventional textbooks on engi-
the initial or “brainstorming” step in approach with inclusion of topics neering graphics; however, the content
the design process and since these are in design and creativity to prepare is presented in novel ways and with a
fundamental topics on which many students for a lifetime of professional fresh approach to problem solving.
other topics hinge. Also included is engineering practice. The topics and techniques in this
a chapter on creativity and design. section are in wide use in engineering
From there, we move to 3-D model- graphics classrooms today and are
ing because, in the real world, design likely to continue to be invaluable into
Section Two—Modern
typically begins with the production the foreseeable future. These traditional
of a computer model. In the next Design Practice and Tools graphics topics continue to be impor-
stage of the modern design process, The modern topics found in this sec- tant for several reasons. First, many
a computer model is analyzed either tion reflect the current state of design legacy designs out there were produced
virtually or sometimes physically, and in industry. Solid modeling has revo- prior to the feature-based solid mod-
these topics are covered next. Once lutionized engineering graphics. The eling revolution. You may be asked to
your model is complete and thor- widespread availability of computers examine these designs, so it is impor-
oughly analyzed, engineers move into has made three-dimensional modeling tant that you thoroughly understand
the design documentation stage where the preferred tool for engineering design drawings. Second, not every company
drawings are created and annotated. in nearly all disciplines. Solid modeling has the capability to go directly from
The text is organized into four major allows engineers to easily create math- a computer model to a manufactured
sections as described subsequently. ematical models, parts, and assemblies, part, and drawings are still important
Supplemental chapters cover topics in visualize and manipulate these models in these environments. Finally, while
traditional graphics instruction as well in real time, calculate physical proper- the computer can usually automatically
as some modern-day, “not quite ready ties, and inspect how they mate with generate a drawing for you, certain con-
for primetime” topics such as HTML other parts. The modern-day design ventions and dimensioning practices do
and web utilization. process is characterized by computer not translate well. You will need to be
xxiv preface
able to verify the integrity of drawings included to assist you with communi- 4. Explanation and Justification of
that the computer generates for you cating your thoughts, ideas, analyses, Methods
and make changes where needed. For and conclusions through animation, Engineering graphics has evolved and
all of these reasons, no matter how graphs, and charts. You may think that continues to evolve at an increasingly
sophisticated the computer design, this type of communication is a “no fast pace due to advances in computer
hardware and software, or the manu- brainer” with modern tools such as a hardware and software. Although
facturing system, engineers must still spreadsheet. However, many times the new methods associated with new
be able to visualize a three-dimensional automatically generated graph from a technologies exist, these modern
object from a set of two-dimensional spreadsheet does not follow standard methods must remain compatible
drawings and vice versa. engineering practice for graphic com- with conventional graphics prac-
munication and must be edited in order tices. This consistency is required to
to meet these standards. For example, eliminate possible confusion in the
Section Four—Drawing spreadsheets typically leave axis labels interpretation of drawings, maintain
Annotation and Design and titles off a graph resulting in a sufficient flexibility to create designs
Implementation pretty, but meaningless, picture. A pic- unencumbered by the tools available
ture may be worth a thousand words, to document them, and reduce the
The ultimate goal of the engineering but sometimes it takes a few words to time and effort required to create the
design process is to develop devices describe what a picture is illustrating. drawings.
where everything fits together and For communication with nontechnical
functions properly. The sizes of the (or sometimes even technical) audiences, 5. Summary
features that define an object are cru- tremendous amounts of information This section distills the most
cial to the overall functionality of the can be conveyed through the use of important information contained in
system. The chapters in this section animation. If a picture is worth a thou- the chapter.
describe how sizes and geometries of sand words, then an animation is surely
entities are specified. Since no part 6. Glossary of Key Terms
worth a million. Formal definitions of the most
can be made to an “exact” size even
with the best in computer technol- important terms or phrases for the
ogies, the allowable errors for part chapter are provided. Each term or
sizes are also described in this sec- Chapter Structure phrase is highlighted the first time
tion. The final drawings produced in With a few exceptions, each chapter it is used in the chapter.
preparation for fabrication must meet is organized along similar lines. The
7. Questions for Review
exacting criteria to ensure that they material is presented with the follow-
These questions test the student’s
are properly cataloged and interpreted ing outline:
understanding of the chapter’s main
for clear communication among all concepts.
parties. If your drawing includes non- 1. Objectives
standard annotations, the machinist Chapter-opening objectives alert 8. Problems
or contractor who uses those draw- students to the chapter’s fundamen- A variety of problems and exercises
ings to produce an engineered system tal concepts. help to develop skill and proficiency
may unknowingly misinterpret the 2. Introduction of the material covered in the
drawing, resulting in higher project This section provides an overview chapter.
costs or even failure. The chapters in of the material that will be pre-
this section detail standard practice in sented in the chapter, and discusses
drawing annotation to help you avoid why it is important. Key Features of the
making blunders. The ability to make Presentation
proper, 100 percent correct drawing 3. The Problem
We believe that this text will have a
annotations will likely take you sev- Each chapter directly addresses
broad appeal to engineering graphics
eral years to develop. Be patient and a certain need or problem in graphi-
students across a wide spectrum of
keep learning. cal communication. That problem
institutions. The following are key fea-
is presented here as if the student
tures of the text:
had to face such a problem in the
Advanced Topics in
Engineering Graphics
field. The presence of a real prob- •• A focus on learning and fundamen-
lem that needs to be solved gives a tal skill development, not only on
Additional chapters on topics in student added incentive to learn the definitions, tools, and techniques.
graphic communication are available material in the chapter to solve that This approach prepares students
in our MindTap product. A chapter is problem. to apply the material to unfamiliar
preface xxv
problems and situations rather of the development of this product removed from the print edition.
than simply to regurgitate previ- will be documented. This product It can be found in the MindTap
ously memorized material. In the was selected as an example for these course. Caution (pp. 2-27 through
fast-changing world we live in, an reasons: 2-29) has been removed from the
understanding of the fundamen- print edition. It can be found in the
1. It was a very successful design that
tals is a key to further learning and MindTap course.
accomplished all of the goals set
the ability to keep pace with new
forth by its engineers.
technologies. Chapter 3
•• Formal development of visualization 2. It was also a product that is ••New section added discussing the
relatively unencumbered by the importance of spatial skills.
skills as a key element at an early
stage of the curriculum. Development
complexity of mechanisms or ••Strategies for Developing 3-D
electronics, which are not the focus Visualization Skills (Section 3.12)
of these skills is important for of this book. has been removed from the print
students who have not had the op- edition. It can be found in the
portunity to be exposed to a large 3. The design is mature, having made
MindTap course.
number of engineering models and
physical devices. Further, the link
it to the consumer market; this
means it offers an opportunity to ••Caution (pp. 3-48 through 3-50)
has been removed from the print
between visualization and creativity study some of the nontechnical
edition. It can be found in the
is strong—tools for success over a issues that play an important role in
MindTap course.
lifelong career. engineering design.
•• Use of a problem-based approach. Chapter 4

This approach presents the student Final Remarks ••Formerly Chapter 5.
with real problems at the beginning This textbook contains a “core” of ••Patents (Section 5.06) has been
of each chapter, shows the graphics removed from the print edition.
material covered in a traditional engi-
solutions, and then generalizes the It can be found in the MindTap
neering graphics course and also a
solutions. course.
number of other chapters on modern
•• A casual tone and student-friendly graphics techniques. The collected
material represents over 50 combined Chapter 5
approach. It is a proven fact that
years of personal experience in the ••Formerly Chapter 6.
students learn the material better if
they are not fast asleep! learning, application, and teaching of ••Strategies for Making a Model
engineering graphics. The result is a (Section 6.11) has been removed
•• Several common example threads text that should appeal to both tradi- from the print edition. It can be
found in the MindTap course.
tional and contemporary graphics cur-
and a common project that are
presented in most chapters. The text ricula. We, the authors, would like to ••Caution (pp. 6-71 through 6-78)
shows how the material contained thank you for considering this text. has been removed from the print
in each chapter was actually edition. It can be found in the
Dennis K. Lieu MindTap course.
applied in the context of product
development.
Professor of Mechanical Engineering
University of California, Berkeley
••Problems 5.1 and 5.4 are new.
One of the case studies to be pre- Sheryl Sorby Chapter 6

sented, for example, is the Hoyt Aero- Professor of Engineering Education ••Formerly Chapter 7.
tecTM Olympic style recurve target The Ohio State University ••The vise assembly example has
bow. The unique geometry of this been removed from the book and is
bow was brought to prominence after located in the MindTap course.
it was part of the equipment package New to This Edition ••Caution (pp. 7-30 through 7-31)
used to win the Gold Medal in tar- Chapter 1 has been removed from the print
get archery at the summer Olympic ••The People and Their Skills (Sec- edition. It can be found in the
MindTap course.
Games in Sydney, Australia. The tion 1.03) has been removed from
design history of the development of the print edition. It can be found in ••Problems 6.2 and 6.5 thru 6.14
this product is traced starting from the MindTap course. are new.
its ideation as an improvement to all
other target bows on the market at Chapter 2 Chapter 7
that time. As a student moves through ••Strategies for Simple Pictorial ••Formerly Chapter 8.
the chapters of this book, the progress Sketches (Section 2.11) has been ••The Finite Element Analysis
xxvi preface
Process (Section 8.07) has been re- edition. It can be found in the •• Former Chapter 11: Advanced
moved from the print edition. It can MindTap course. Visualization Techniques has been
be found in the MindTap course. •• Sketching Techniques for Auxiliary removed from the print edition.
•• All problems are new. Views (Section 14.06) has been re- It can be found in the MindTap
moved from the print edition. It can course.
Chapter 8 be found in the MindTap course. •• Former Chapter 17: Fasteners
••Formerly Chapter 10. •• All new problems. has been removed from the print
••Strategies for Creating Multiviews edition. It can be found in the
from Pictorials (Section 10.06) Chapter 12 MindTap course.
has been removed from the print ••Formerly Chapter 15.
MindTap course.
••Problems 12.2 and 12.3 are new. Contributors
••Caution (pp. 10-51 through 10-62)

Chapter 13
Holly K. Ault, Worcester Polytechnic
Institute (Chapters 5 and 18)
••Formerly Chapter 16.
MindTap course. ••Caution (pp. 16-44 through 16-48)
Ron Barr, The University of Texas
at Austin (Chapters 4 and 7)
••Problems 8.3 and 8.5 through 8.7
edition. It can be found in the Judy Birchman, Purdue University
are new.
MindTap course. (Chapter 20)
Chapter 9 ••Examples of Specifying Fits and
Ted Branoff, North Carolina State
••Formerly Chapter 12.
Geometric Tolerances (Section
University (Chapters 13 and 18)
••Step-by-step content has been re-
16.07) has been removed from the
print edition. It can be found in the Frank Croft, The Ohio State
moved from the print edition. It can
MindTap course. University (Chapter 9)
be found in the MindTap course.
Chapter 14 La Verne Abe Harris, Purdue

Chapter 10
••Formerly Chapter 13. ••Formerly Chapter 18. University (Chapter 20)
••Procedures for the Creation of ••Caution (pp. 18-57 through 18-70) Kathy Holliday-Darr, Penn State
Section Views (Section 13.08) has been removed from the print University, Erie (Chapter 11)
has been removed from the print edition. It can be found in the
MindTap course. Tom Krueger, The University of
MindTap course. ••All new problems. Texas at Austin (Chapters 4 and 7)
••Caution (pp. 13-44 through 13-51) Jim Morgan, Texas A&M University
has been removed from the print Online Content (Chapter 15)
edition. It can be found in the ••Former Chapter 4: Working in a
Bill Ross, Purdue University
MindTap course. Team Environment has been re-
••Problems 10.5 through 10.9 are new. moved from the print edition. It can (Chapter 19)
be found in the MindTap course.
Chapter 11 ••Former Chapter 9: Fabrication
Mary Sadowski, Purdue University
••Formerly Chapter 14. Processes has been removed from

(Chapter 20)
••Caution (pp. 14-13 through 14-14) the print edition. It can be found in Kevin Standiford, Consultant
has been removed from the print the MindTap course. (Supplemental Chapters 2 and 3)
acknowledgments
T he authors would like to thank

the following people for their
contributions to the textbook and their
addition, the authors are grateful to the
following reviewers for their candid
comments and criticisms throughout
Kellen Maicher
Purdue University
support during its development: the development of the text: Jim Morgan
Texas A&M University
George Tekmitchov and Darrin Coo- Tom Bledsaw, ITT
per of Hoyt USA for their assistance Ted Branoff, North Carolina State William A. Ross
and cooperation with the Aerotec case University Purdue University
study material; George Kiiskila of U.P.
Engineers and Architects for construc- Patrick Connolly Mary Sadowski
tion drawings; Fritz Meyers for use of Purdue University Purdue University
his blueprint drawing; Mark Sturges
of Autodesk for graphics materials; Richard F. Devon James Shahan
Rosanne Kramer of Solidworks for Penn State University Iowa State University
graphics materials; Marie Planchard
of Solidworks for graphics materials; Kathy Holliday-Darr Michael Stewart
James DeVoe of Cengage Learning for Penn State University, Erie Georgia Tech
his support, confidence, persistence,
good humor, and patience in seeing Tamara W. Knott
this project through to the end. In Virginia Tech
xxvii
about the authors
Dennis K. Lieu Teaching in 1990, the Berkeley Distin- Chair of Engineering Fundamentals
guished Teaching Award (which is the at Michigan Tech. She has also served
Professor Dennis K. Lieu was born highest honor for teaching excellence as a Program Director in the Divi-
in 1957 in San Francisco, where he on the UC Berkeley campus) in 1992, sion of Undergraduate Education at
attended the public schools, including and the Distinguished Service Award the National Science Foundation.
Lowell High School. He pursued his from the Engineering Design Graphics She served as a Fulbright Scholar to
higher education at the University Division of ASEE in 2015. He is a the Dublin Institute of Technology
of California at Berkeley, where he member of Pi Tau Sigma, Tau Beta Pi, to conduct research in Engineering
received his BSME in 1977, MSME and Phi Beta Kappa. His professional Education. Her research interests
in 1978, and D.Eng. in mechanical affiliations include ASEE and ASME. include various topics in engineering
engineering in 1982. His major field of Professor Lieu’s hobbies include Taek- education, with emphasis on graph-
study was dynamics and control. His wondo (in which he holds a 4th degree ics and visualization. She was the
graduate work, under the direction black belt) and Olympic style archery. recipient of the Betty Vetter research
of Professor C. D. Mote, Jr., involved award through the Women in Engi-
the study of skier/ski mechanics and Sheryl Sorby neering Program Advocates Network
ski binding function. After graduate (WEPAN) for her work in improving
studies, Dr. Lieu worked as an advi- Professor Sheryl Sorby is not willing the success of women engineering
sory engineer with IBM in San Jose to divulge the year in which she was students through the development of
CA, where he directed the specifi- born but will state that she is younger a spatial skills course. She received the
cation, design, and development of than Dennis Lieu. She pursued her Sharon Keillor award for outstand-
mechanisms and components in the higher education at Michigan Tech- ing women in engineering education
head-disk-assemblies of disk files. In nological University receiving a BS in 2011. She has also received the
1988, Dr. Lieu joined the Mechanical in Civil Engineering in 1982, an MS Engineering Design Graphics Distin-
Engineering faculty at UC Berkeley. in Engineering Mechanics in 1985, guished Service Award, the Distin-
His research laboratory is engaged in and a Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineer- guished Teaching Award, and the Dow
research on the mechanics of high- ing-Engineering Mechanics in 1991. Outstanding New Faculty Award, all
speed electromechanical devices and She was a graduate exchange student from ASEE.
magnetically generated noise and to the Eidgenoessiche Technische
vibration. His laboratory also studies Hochshule in Zurich, Switzerland, Dr. Sorby currently serves as an Asso-
the design of devices to prevent blunt studying advanced courses in solid ciate Editor for ASEE’s online journal,
trauma injuries in sports, medical, mechanics and civil engineering. She Advances in Engineering Education.
and law enforcement applications. is currently a Professor of Engineering She is a member of the Michigan Tech
Professor Lieu teaches courses in Education at The Ohio State Uni- Council of Alumnae. She has been a
Engineering Graphics and Design versity and a Professor Emerita of leader in developing first-year engi-
of Electromechanical Devices. He Mechanical Engineering-Engineering neering and the Enterprise program
was the recipient of a National Sci- Mechanics at Michigan Technological at Michigan Tech and is the author
ence Foundation Presidential Young University. Dr. Sorby is the former of numerous publications and several
Investigator Award in 1989, the Pi Associate Dean for Academic Pro- textbooks. Dr. Sorby’s hobbies include
Tau Sigma Award for Excellence in grams and the former Department golf and knitting.
xxviii
Section One
L ay i n g t h e F o u n d at i o n
Chapter 1 An Introduction to Graphical Communication in Engineering 1-2
Chapter 2 Sketching 2-1
Chapter 3 Visualization 3-1
Chapter 4 Creativity and the Design Process 4-1
T he materials presented in this section focus

on the needs of today’s beginning engi
neering students, who typically have well-
students need to enhance their visualization skills.
Prior to the advent of CAD, the graphics classroom
featured large tables topped with mechanical
developed math and computer skills but less- drafting machines and drawers full of mechan
developed, hands-on mechanical skills compared ical drawing instruments. Engineering students
to students of earlier generations. Incoming engi and engineers now have additional time to focus
neering students may no longer be people who on aspects of the engineering design cycle that
work on their cars or bikes in the garage and who are more worthy of their talents as engineers.
took shop and drafting classes in high school. These aspects include creative thinking, prod
Although many engineering students enter col uct ideation, and advanced analysis techniques
lege having spent time in a virtual computer envi to ensure a manufacturable and robust prod
ronment, the lack of hands-on experience often uct. Formalization of the design process allows
results in a lack of three-dimensional visualization designers to focus their energies on certain areas
skills. So in addition to the classical material on in the process and gain more meaningful results.
standard engineering graphics practices, these
1-1
Chapter
1
An Introduction to
G r a p h i c a l C o m m u n i c at i o n
in Engineering
Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to

• Explain and illustrate how engineering graphics is one of the
special tools available to an engineer
• Define how engineering visualization, modeling, and graphics

are used by engineers in their work
• Provide a short history of how engineering graphics, as a

perspective on how it is used today, was used in the past
chapter 1 An Introduction to Graphical Communication in Engineering 1-3
1.01 I n t r o d u c t i o n
Because engineering graphics is one of the first skills formally taught to most engi
neering students, you are probably a new student enrolled in an engineering program.
Welcome!
You may be wondering why you are studying this subject and what it will do for
you as an engineering student and, soon, as a professional engineer. This chapter will
explain what engineering is, how it has progressed over the years, and how graphics is
a tool for engineers.
What exactly is engineering? What does an engineer do? The term engineer comes
from the Latin ingenerare, which means “to create.” You may be better able to appreciate
what an engineer does if you consider that ingenious also is a derivative of ingenerare.
The following serves well enough as a formal definition of engineering:
The profession in which knowledge of mathematical and natural sciences, gained by
study, experience, and practice is applied with judgment to develop and utilize economically
the materials and forces of nature for the benefit of humanity.
A modern and informal definition of engineering is “the art of making things work.”
An engineered part or an engineering system does not occur naturally. It is something
that has required knowledge, planning, and effort to create.
So where and how does graphics fit in? Engineering graphics has played three roles
through its history:
1. Communication
2. Record keeping
3. Analysis
First, engineering graphics has served as a means of communication. It has been
used to convey concepts and ideas quickly and accurately from one person to another
without the use of words. As more people became involved in the development of prod
ucts, accurate and efficient communication became increasingly necessary. Second,
engineering graphics has served as a means of recording the history of an idea and
its development over time. As designs became more complex, it became necessary to
record the ideas or features that worked well in a design so they could be repeated in
future applications. And third, engineering graphics has served as a tool for analysis to
determine critical shapes and sizes, as well as other variables needed in an engineered
system.
These three roles are still vital today, more so than in the past, because of the tech
nical complexity required in making modern products. Computers, three-dimensional
modeling, and graphics software have made it increasingly effective to use engineering
graphics as an aid in design, visualization, and optimization.
1.02 A Short History

The way things are done today evolved from the way things were done in the past. You
can understand the way engineering graphics is used today by examining how it was
used in the past. Graphical communications has supported engineering throughout
history. The nature of engineering graphics has changed with the development of new
graphics tools and techniques.
Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
1-4 section one Laying the Foundation
Figure 1.01. Undated cave

painting showing hunting and
the use of tools.
© starmaro/Shutterstock.com
1.02.01 Ancient History

The earliest documented forms of graphical communication are cave paintings, such as
the one shown in Figure 1.01, which showed human beings depicting organized social
behavior, such as living and hunting in groups. The use of tools and other fabricated
items for living comfort and convenience were also communicated in cave paintings.
However, these paintings typically depicted a lifestyle, rather than any instructions for
the fabrication of tools, products, or structures. How the items were made is still left
to conjecture.
The earliest large structures of significance were the Egyptian pyramids and
Native American pyramids. Some surviving examples are shown in Figure 1.02. The
Egyptian pyramids were constructed as tombs for the Pharaohs. The Native American
pyramids were built for religious ceremonies or scientific use, such as observatories.
Making these large structures, with precision in the fitting of their parts using the
tools that were available at the time, required much time, effort, and planning. Even
with modern tools and construction techniques, these structures would be difficult to
© CDuschinger/Shutterstock.com © ADi G/Shutterstock.com
Figure 1.02. Mayan pyramid, Yucatan, Mexico (left), and Pharaoh Knufu and Pharaoh Khafre Pyramids, Giza, Egypt (right).
chapter 1 An Introduction to Graphical Communication in Engineering 1-5
Figure 1.03. Ancient Egyptian

hieroglyphics describing a life
story.
© Bettmann/CORBIS
re-create today. The method of construction for the pyramids is largely unknown—
records of the construction have never been found—although there have been several
theories over the years.
Egyptian hieroglyphics, which were a form of written record, included the
documentation of a few occupational skills, such as papermaking and farming,
although, for the most part, they documented lifestyle. An example of a surviving
record is shown in Figure 1.03. As a result of those records, papermaking and
farming skills could be maintained and improved over time. Even people who were
not formally trained in those skills could develop them by consulting the written
records.
Two engineering construction methods helped the Roman Empire expand to
include much of the civilized European world. These methods were used to create the
Roman arch and the Roman road.
The Roman arch, shown in Figure 1.04, was composed of stone that was precut
to prescribed dimensions and assembled into an archway. The installation of the
keystone at the top of the arch transferred the weight of the arch and the load it
carried into the remaining stones that were locked together with friction. This
structure took advantage of the compressive strength of stone, leading to the creation
of large structures that used much less material. The Roman arch architecture was
used to create many large buildings and bridges. Roman-era aqueducts, which still
exist today in Spain and other countries in Europe, are evidence of the robustness of
this design.
The method used to construct Roman roads prescribed successive layers
of sand, gravel, and stone (instead of a single layer of the native earth), forming
paths wide enough for commercial and military use. In addition to the layered
construction methods, these roads were also crowned to shed rain and had gutters
to carry away water. This construction method increased the probability that the
roads would not become overgrown with vegetation and would remain passable even
in adverse weather. As a result, Roman armies had reliable access to all corners of
the empire.
1-6 section one Laying the Foundation
Photos by William G. Godden. Reprinted with permission from EERC Library, Univ. of California, Berkeley. Photos by William G. Godden. Reprinted with permission from EERC Library, Univ. of California, Berkeley.
Figure 1.04. Pont-du-Gard Roman aqueduct (left) built in 19 BC to carry water across the Gardon Valley to Nimes. Spans of the first- and
second-level arches are 53–80 feet. The Ponte Fabricio Bridge in Rome (right) built in 64 BC spans the bank of the River Tiber and Tiber Island.
The Roman Empire is long gone, but the techniques used for the construction
of the Roman arch and the Roman road are still in use today. The reason for the
pervasiveness of those designs was probably due to Marcus Vitruvius, who, during
the Roman Empire, took the trouble to carefully document how the structures
were made.
The Archimedes screw, used to raise water, is an example of a mechanical
invention developed during the time of the Greek Empire. Variations of the device
were used for many centuries because diagrams depicting its use were (and still
are) widely available. One of those diagrams is shown in Figure 1.05. These early
documents were precursors to modern engineering drawings. Because the documents
graphically communicated how to build special devices and structures, neither
language nor language translation was necessary.
Figure 1.05. An engraving

showing the operation of an
Archimedes screw to lift water.
© Morphart Creation/Shutterstock.com
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struck the little boy. She looked at him and he at her silently; her sad
eyes lingered on his face for a moment, and he felt that he liked her.
She took a chair very softly and sat down without saying a word.
In a little while the Sergeant laid down his paper and looked at her.
Her large eyes were raised toward him with timid expectation, but
she did not speak.
“Not well just now?”
“No, sir.”
“You take the bottle regularly?”
“Yes, sir.”
“You’ll be better in the morning belike.”
“I’m sure I shall, sir.”
He lighted a candle that stood on a side-table, and his dog Bion
got up to attend him. It was a large pug-dog, gambouge-coloured,
with a black nose. The boy often afterwards wished to play with Bion,
and make his acquaintance. But he did not know how the attempt
would be taken either by the dog or his master, and so he did not
venture.
No caresses passed between the dog and the Sergeant. Each did
his duty by the other, and they understood one another, I suppose,
but no further signs of love appeared.
The Sergeant went out and shut the door, and the girl smiled very
sweetly on the little guest, and put out her hand to welcome him.
“I’m very glad you are come here. I was very lonely. My father is
gone to the work-room; he’s making an organ there, and he won’t
come back till a quarter to nine. That’s an hour and three-quarters.
Do you hear—listen.”
She raised her finger and looked toward the partition as she
spoke, and he heard a booming of an organ through the wall.
“Tony blows the organ for him.”
Tony was a little boy from the workhouse, who cleaned knives,
forks, shoes, and made himself generally useful, being the second
servant, the only male one in their modest establishment.
“I wish I was better, I’m so out of breath talking. We’ll be very
happy now. That’s tuning the pipes—that one’s wolving. I used to
blow the bellows for him, but the doctor says I must not, and indeed I
couldn’t now. You must eat something and drink more tea, and we’ll
be great friends, shan’t we?”
So they talked a great deal, she being obliged to stop often for
breath, and he could see that she was very weak, and also that she
stood in indescribable awe of her father. But she said, “He’s a very
good man, and he works very hard to earn his money, but he does
not talk, and that makes people afraid of him. He won’t be back here
until he comes here to read the Bible and prayers at a quarter to
nine.”
So she talked on, but all the time in an undertone, and listening
every now and then for the boom of the pipes, and the little boy
opened his heart to her and wept bitterly, and she cried too, silently,
as he went on, and they became very near friends. She looked as if
she understood his griefs. Perhaps her own resembled them.
The old woman came in and took away the tea things, and shortly
after the Sergeant entered and read the chapter and the prayers.
CHAPTER LXIII.
A SILENT FAREWELL.
At Noulton Farm each day was like its brother. Inflexible hours,
inflexible duties, all proceeded with a regimental punctuality. At
meals not a word was spoken, and while the master of the house
was in it, all conversation was carried on, even in remote rooms, in
an undertone.
Our little friend used to see the workhouse boy at prayers, morning
and evening, and occasionally to pass his pale disquieted face on
the stairs or lobbies when his duties brought him there. They eyed
one another wistfully, but dared not speak. Mr. Archdale had so
ordained it.
That workhouse boy—perhaps he was inefficient, perhaps too
much was expected from him—but he had the misfortune perpetually
to incur—I can hardly say his master’s displeasure, for the word
implies something emotional, whereas nothing could be at all times
more tranquil and cold than that master—but his correction.
These awful proceedings occurred almost daily, and were
conducted with the absolute uniformity which characterised the
system of Noulton Farm. At eleven o’clock the cold voice of the
Sergeant-Major called “Tony!” and Tony appeared, writhing and
whimpering by anticipation.
“My cane,” said the master, stepping into the room which he called
the workshop, where the organ, half finished, stood, stop-diapason,
dulciana, and the rest in deal rows, with white chips, chisels, lead,
saws, and glue-pots, in industrious disorder, round. Then Tony’s
pale, miserable face was seen in the “parlour,” and Miss Mary would
look down on the floor in pale silence, and our little friend’s heart
would flutter over his lesson-book as he saw the lank boy steal over
to the chimney-piece, and take down the cane, and lingeringly
disappear.
Then was heard the door of the workshop close, and then very
faint the cold clear voice of the master. Then faint and slow the
measured cut of the cane, and the whine of the boy rising to a long
hideous yell, and, “Oh, sir, dear—oh, sir, dear; oh, Mr. Archdale, oh,
master, dear, oh, master, dear!” And this sometimes so protracted
that Mary used to get up and walk round the room in a kind of agony
whispering—“Oh, poor boy. Oh, poor Tony. Oh mercy—oh goodness.
Oh! my good Lord, when will it be over!” And, sitting apart, the little
boy’s eyes as they followed her would fill with tears of horror.
The little fellow said lessons to Mr. Archdale. There was nothing
unreasonable in their length, and his friend Mary helped him. It was
well for him, however, that he was a bright little fellow, with a good
memory, for the Sergeant was not a teacher to discriminate between
idleness and dulness.
No one ever heard Mr. Archdale use a violent expression, or utter
a curse. He was a silent, cold, orderly person, and I think the most
cruel man I ever saw in my life.
He had a small active horse, and a gig, in which he drove upon his
outdoor business. He had fixed days and hours for everything,
except where he meditated a surprise.
One day the Sergeant-Major entered the room where the boy was
reading at his lessons, and, tapping him on the shoulder, put the
county newspaper into his hand; and, pointing to a paragraph,
desired him to read it, and left the room.
It was a report of the proceedings against Tom Orange, and gave
a rather disreputable character of that amusing person. There was a
great pain at the boy’s affectionate heart as he read the hard words
dealt to his old friend, and worse still, the sentence. He was crying
silently when the Sergeant returned. That stern man took the paper,
and said in his cold, terrible tones—
“You’ve read that?”
“Yes, sir.”
“And understand it?”
“Yes, sir.”
“If I find you speaking to Thomas Orange, I’ll tie you up in the
workshop, and give you five dozen.” And with this promise he
serenely left him.
Children are unsuspicious of death, and our little friend, who every
night used to cry in his bed silently, with a bursting heart, thinking of
his mammy and old happy times, till he fell asleep in the dark, never
dreamed that his poor friend Mary was dying—she, perhaps, herself
did not think so any more than he, but every one else said it.
They two grew to be great friends. Each had a secret, and she
trusted hers to the little friend whom God had sent her.
It was the old story—the troubled course of true love. Willie
Fairlace was the hero. The Sergeant-Major had found it all out, and
locked up his daughter, and treated her, it was darkly rumoured, with
cruel severity.
He was proud of his daughter’s beauty, and had ambitious plans, I
dare say; and he got up Willie’s farm, and Willie was ruined, and had
enlisted and was gone.
The Sergeant-Major knew the post-office people in the village, and
the lovers dared not correspond directly. But Willie’s cousin, Mrs.
Page, heard from him regularly, and there were long messages to
Mary. His letters were little else. And now at last had come a friend
to bear her messages to trusty Mrs. Page, and to carry his back
again to Noulton Farm.
After her father had gone out, or in the evening when he was at
the organ in the “workshop,” and sometimes as, wrapped in her
cloak, on a genial evening, she sat on the rustic seat under the great
ash tree, and the solemn and plaintive tones of the distant organ
floated in old church music from the open window through the trees
and down the fragrant field toward the sunset sky, filling the air with
grand and melancholy harmony, she would listen to that whispered
message of the boy’s, looking far away, and weeping, and holding
the little fellow’s hand, and asking him to say it over again, and
telling him she felt better, and thanking him, and smiling and crying
bitterly.
One evening the Sergeant was at his organ-pipes as usual. The
boy as he stood in the garden at his task, watering the parched
beds, heard a familiar laugh at the hedge, and the well-known refrain
—
“Tag-rag-merry-derry-perrywig and hatband-hic-hoc-horum-
genetivo!”
It was Tom Orange himself!
In spite of his danger the boy was delighted. He ran to the hedge,
and he and Tom, in a moment more, were actually talking.
It became soon a very serious conversation. The distant booming
of the organ-pipes assured him that the light grey eye and sharp ear
of the Sergeant were occupied still elsewhere.
Tom Orange was broaching a dreadful conspiracy.
It was no less than that the boy should meet him at the foot of the
field where the two oziers grow, at eleven o’clock, on the night
following, and run away with him, and see mammy again, and come
to a nice place where he should be as happy as the day is long, and
mammy live with him always, and Tom look in as often as his own
more important business would permit.
“I will, Tom,” said the boy, wildly and very pale.
“And oh! Tom, I was so sorry about the trial, and what lies they
told,” said the boy, after they had talked a little longer; “and saying
that you had been with gipsies, and were a poacher; and oh! Tom, is
mammy quite well?”
“Yes.”
“And all my ships were lost on the moor; and how is little Toozie
the cat?”
“Very well; blooming—blushing.”
“And, Tom, you are quite well?”
“Never better, as I lately told Squire Harry Fairfield; and mind ye,
I’ll be even yet with the old boy in there,” and he indicated the house
with a jerk of his thumb.
“I don’t hear the organ, Tom. Good-bye.”
And Tom was off in a moment, and the boy had resumed his
watering-pot. And that evening he sat down with, for the first time, a
tremendous secret at his heart.
There was one grief even in the hope of his liberation. When he
looked at poor Mary, and thought how lonely she would be. Oh! if
poor Mary could come with him! But some time or other he and Tom
would come and take her away, and she would live with him and
mammy, and be one of that happy family.
She did not know what thoughts were in the boy’s mind as his sad
earnest eyes were fixed on her, and she smiled with a little languid
nod.
But he need not have grieved his gentle heart on this account.
There was not to be a seeming desertion of his friend; nor anything
she could mistake for a treacherous slight.
That morning, at two o’clock, Mary died.
About ten minutes before, an alarm from the old servant, who slept
in the room, called up her father.
Her faithful little friend was on his knees sobbing beside the bed,
with her wasted hand in his, as the Sergeant-Major, hastily dressed,
walked in, and stood by the curtain looking down into those large,
deep eyes. She was conscious, though she could not speak. She
saw, as she looked up her last look, a few sullen drops gather in
those proud eyes, and roll down his cheeks. Perhaps the sad,
wondering look with which she returned these signs of tenderness,
smote him, and haunted him afterwards. There was a little motion in
her right hand as if she would have liked him to take it—in sign of
reconciliation—and with those faint tokens of the love that might
have been, the change of death came, and the troubled little heart
was still, and the image of Willie Fairlace was lost in the great
darkness.
Then the little boy cried aloud wildly—
“Oh! Mary, pretty Mary. Oh! Mary, are you dead? Oh! isn’t it a pity;
isn’t it a pity! Oh! is she dead?”
The Sergeant dried his eyes hastily. He hoped, I dare say, that no
one had seen his momentary weakness. He drew a long breath.
With a stern face he closed the pretty eyes that Willie Fairlace, far
away now, will never forget; and closed the little mouth that never will
complain, or sigh, or confess its sad tale more.
“You had better get to your room, boy. Get to your bed,” said the
Sergeant, not ungently laying his hand on the boy’s shoulder. “You’ll
take cold. Give him a candle.”
CHAPTER LXIV.
THE MARCH BY NIGHT.
The next day the Sergeant was away in his gig to Wyvern, a long
journey, to report to the Squire, and obtain leave of absence from his
duties for a day or two. He was to spend that night at Hatherton,
there to make arrangements about the funeral.
It was a relief to all at Noulton Farm, I need hardly say, when the
master of the house was away.
A very sad day it was for the boy; a day whose gloom was every
now and then crossed by the thrill and fear of a great excitement.
As evening darkened he went out again to the garden in the hope
of seeing Tom Orange. He would have liked that cheer at the eve of
his great venture. But Tom was not there. Neither counsel nor
encouragement to be heard; nothing but the song of the small birds
among the leaves, and the late flowers, soon to close, peeping from
among the garden plants, and the long quiet shadows of the poplars
that stood so tall and still against the western sky.
The boy came in and had his lonely cup of tea in the “parlour,” and
a little talk with the somewhat sour and sad old servant. He was
longing for the night. Yearning to see Tom’s friendly face and to end
his suspense.
At last the twilight was gone. The night had indeed come, and the
moon shone serenely over the old gray roof and the solemn trees;
over the dead and the living.
The boy lay down in his bed at the accustomed early hour. The old
woman had taken away his candle and shut the door. He lay with his
eyes wide open listening with a palpitating heart for every sound.
The inflexible regularity which the absent master had established
in his household was in the boy’s favour. He heard the servant shut
and bar the outer door at the wonted hour. He saw the boy’s candle
in his window for a while and then put out. Tony was in his bed, and
for tired Tony to lie down was generally to be asleep.
Peeping stealthily from his lattice he saw the old servant’s candle
glimmering redly through the window on the juniper that stood near
the wall in the shadow; and soon that light also disappeared, and he
knew that the old woman had gone into her room. It was half-past
ten. She would be asleep in a quarter of an hour, and in another
fifteen minutes his critical adventure would have commenced.
Stealthily, breathlessly, he dressed. His window looked toward the
ozier trees, where Tom was to await him. It opened, lattice fashion,
with a hinge.
Happily the night was still, and the process of preparing to
descend perfectly noiseless. The piece of old rope that lay in the
corner he had early fixed on as his instrument of escape. He made it
fast to the bed-post, and began to let himself down the wall. The
rope was too short, and he dangled in air from the end of it for a
second or two, and then dropped to the ground. The distance of the
fall, though not much, was enough to throw him from his feet, and
the dog in the lock-up yard at the other side of the house began to
bark angrily. For a minute the boy gave himself up.
He lay, however, perfectly still, and the barking subsided. There
was no other alarm, and he stole very softly away under cover of the
trees, and then faster down the slope toward the appointed oziers.
There indeed was Tom Orange in that faint light, more solemn
than he ever remembered to have seen him before. Tom was
thinking that the stealing away this boy might possibly turn out the
most serious enterprise he had yet engaged in.
He had no notion, however, of receding, and merely telling the boy
to follow him, he got into a swinging trot that tried the little fellow’s
endurance rather severely. I think they ran full three miles before
Tom came to a halt.
Then, more like himself, he inquired how he was, and whether he
thought he could go on fifteen miles more that night.
“Oh, yes, he could do anything that night. Quite well.”
“Well, walk a bit that you may get breath, and then we’ll run again,”
said Tom, and so they set forward once more.
They had now accomplished about four miles more. The little
fellow was not so fresh as at starting. A drizzling rain, too, had
commenced, with a cold change of wind, and altogether the mere
adventure of running away was not quite so pleasant, nor even
Tom’s society quite so agreeable on the occasion, as he had fancied.
“You have done four out of the fifteen; you have only eleven of the
fifteen before you now. You have got over seven altogether up to
this. Not so bad. You’re not tired, youngster?”
“Not the least.”
“That’s right. You’re a good soldier. Now come, we’ll stand close
under this hedge and eat a bit.”
They supped very heartily on great slices of bread and corned
beef, which bore ample traces of the greens in which it had been
served when hot.
“And now, boy, you must get on to Hatherton by yourself, for I’m
known about here, and there’s a fair there in the morning, and there
will be people on the way before light. You must go a mile beyond
the town, to the George public. Mrs. Gumford keeps it, and there I’ll
meet you.” Then he detailed the route and the landmarks for the
boy’s guidance. “Take a drink of this,” said he, pulling a soda-water
bottle full of milk out of his coat pocket.
And when he had done—
“Take a mouthful of this, my hero, it will keep you warm.”
And he placed a flask of brandy to the boy’s lips, and made him
swallow a little.
“And here’s a bit more bread, if you should be hungry. Good-night,
and remember.”
After about an hour’s solitary walking, the boy began to grow
alarmed. Tom’s landmarks failed him, and he began to fear that he
had lost his way. In half an hour more he was sure that he was quite
out of his reckoning, and as his spirits sank he began to feel the cold
wind and drenching rain more and more.
And now he found himself entering a town not at all answering
Tom’s description of Hatherton.
The little town was silent, its doors and windows shut, and all
except a few old-fashioned oil-lamps dark.
After walking listlessly about—afraid to knock and ask anywhere
for shelter—worn out, he sat down on a door-step. He leaned back
and soon fell fast asleep.
A shake by the shoulder roused him. A policeman was stooping
over him.
“I say, get up out o’ that,” said the imperious voice of the
policeman.
The boy was not half awake; he stared at him, his big face and
leather-bound chimney-pot looked like a dream.
“I say,” he continued, shaking him, but not violently, “you must get
up out o’ that. You’re not to be making yourself comfortable there all
night. Come, be lively.”
Comfortable! Lively!—all comparative—all a question of degrees.
The boy got up as quickly as the cold and stiffness of his joints
would let him.
Very dutifully he got up, and stood drenched, pale, and shivering in
the moonlight.
The policeman looked down not unkindly now, at the little
wayfarer. There was something piteous, I dare say. He looked a
grave, thoughtful man, of more than fifty, and he put his hand on the
child’s shoulder.
“Ye see, boy, that was no place to sleep in.”
“No, sir, I’ll never do it again, sir, please.”
“You’re cold; you’d get pains in your bones.”
“I’ll not any more, sir, please.”
“Come with me, my boy, it’s only a step.”
He brought the boy into his house down the lane close by.
“There’s a fire. You warm yourself. There’s my little one in fever, so
you can’t stop long. Sit down, child, and warm yourself.”
He gave him a drink of hot milk and a piece of bread.
“You don’t get up, you know; there’s no need,” he added.
I think he was afraid of his pewter spoons. He kept the little fellow
nearly half an hour, and he lent him an old bottomless sack to wrap
about his shoulders, and charged him to bring it back in the morning.
I think the man thought he might be a thief. He was a kind man—
there was a balancing of great pity and suspicion.
The boy returned the sack with many thanks, in the first faint
twilight of morning, and set forth again for Hatherton. It was, the
fellow who directed him said, still five miles on.
At about a mile from Hatherton, cold and wet, and fearing to be too
early at the George Inn, the rendezvous agreed on, the tired little
fellow crept in, cold and wet, to a road-side pot-house.
At the fire of the ale-house three fellows were drinking beer. Says
one who had now and then had his eye on the boy—
“That boy there has run away from school.”
I cannot describe the terror with which the little fellow heard those
words. The other two looked at him. One was a fat fellow in
breeches and top boots, and a red cloth waistcoat, and a ruddy
good-humoured face; and after a look they returned to their talk; and
in a little while the lean man, who seemed to find it hard to take his
eyes off him, said, “That’s a runaway, that chap; we ought to tell the
police and send him back to school.”
“Well, that’s no business of ours; can’t you let him be?” said the
red waistcoat.
“Come here,” said the lean man, beckoning him over with his hard
eye on him.
He rose and slowly approached under that dreadful command.
I can’t say that there was anything malevolent in that man’s face.
Somewhat sharp and stern, with a lean inflexibility of duty. To the boy
at this moment no face could have been imagined more terrific; his
only hope was in his fat companion. He turned, I am sure, an
imploring look upon him.
“Come, Irons, let the boy alone, unless ye mean to quarrel wi’ me;
d—— me ye shall let him alone! And get him his breakfast of
something hot, and be lively,” he called to the people; “and score it
up to me.”
So, thanks to the good Samaritan in top boots and red waistcoat,
the dejected little man pursued his way comforted.
As he walked through Hatherton he was looking into a shop
window listlessly, when he distinctly saw, reflected in the plate glass,
that which appalled him so that he thought he should have fainted.
It was the marble, blue-chinned face of the Sergeant-Major looking
over his shoulder, with his icy gray eyes, into the same window.
He was utterly powerless to move. His great eyes were fixed on
that dreadful shadow. He was actually touching his shoulder as he
leaned over. Happily the Sergeant did not examine the reflection,
which he would have been sure to recognise. The bird fascinated by
the cold eye of a snake, and expecting momentarily, with palpitating
heart, the spring of the reptile, may feel, when, withdrawing the spell,
it glides harmlessly away, as the boy did when he saw that dreaded
man turn away and walk with measured tread up the street. For a
moment his terror was renewed, for Bion, that yellow namesake of
the philosopher, recognising him, stood against the boy’s leg, and
scratched repeatedly, and gave him a shove with his nose, and
whimpered. The boy turned quickly, and walking away the dog left
him, and ran after his master, and took his place at his side.
CONCLUSION.
At the George Inn, a little way out of Hatherton, the boy, to his
inexpressible delight, at last found Tom Orange.
He told Tom at once of his adventure at the shop window, and the
occurrence darkened Tom’s countenance. He peeped out and took a
long look toward Hatherton.
“Put the horse to the fly and bring it round at once,” said Tom, who
put his hand in his pocket and drew forth a rather showy handful of
silver.
I don’t pretend to say, when Tom was out of regular employment,
from what pursuits exactly he drew his revenue. They had rather
improved than otherwise; but I dare say there were anxious
compensations.
The boy had eaten his breakfast before he reached Hatherton. So
much the better; for the apparition of the Sergeant-Major would have
left him totally without appetite. As it was, he was in an agony to be
gone, every moment expecting to see him approach the little inn to
arrest him and Tom.
Tom Orange was uneasy, I am sure, and very fidgety till the fly
came round.
“You know Squire Fairfield of Wyvern?” said the hostess, while
they were waiting.
“Ay,” said Tom.
“Did you hear the news?”
“What is it?”
“Shot the night before last in a row with poachers. Gentlemen
should leave that sort o’ work to their keepers; but they was always a
fightin’ wild lot, them Fairfields; and he’s lyin’ now a dead man—all
the same—gave over by Doctor Willett and another—wi’ a whole
charge o’ duck-shot lodged under his shoulder.”
“And that’s the news?” said Tom, raising his eyes and looking
through the door. He had been looking down on the ground as Mrs.
Gumford of the George told her story.
“There’s sharp fellows poachers round there, I’m told,” he said,
“next time he’d a’ been out himself with the keepers to take ’em dead
or alive. I suppose that wouldn’t answer them.”
“’Tis a wicked world,” said the lady.
“D——d wicked,” said Tom. “Here’s the fly.”
In they got and drove off.
Tom was gloomy, and very silent.
“Tom, where are we going to?” asked the boy at last.
“All right,” said Tom. “All right, my young master. You’ll find it’s to
none but good friends. And, say now—Haven’t I been a good friend
to you, Master Harry, all your days, sir? Many a mile that you know
nothing about has Tom Orange walked on your business, and down
to the cottage and back again; and where would you or her have
been if it wasn’t for poor Tom Orange?”
“Yes, indeed, Tom, and I love you, Tom.”
“And now, I’ve took you away from that fellow, and I’m told I’m
likely to be hanged for it. Well, no matter.”
“Oh, Tom; poor Tom! Oh! no, no, no!” and he threw his arms round
Tom’s neck in a paroxysm of agonised affection, and, in spite of the
jolting, kissed Tom; sometimes on the cheek, on the eyebrow, on the
chin, and in a great jolt violently on the rim of his hat, and it rolled
over his shoulder under their feet.
“Well, that is gratifyin’,” said Tom, drying his eyes. “There is some
reward for prenciple after all, and if you come to be a great man
some o’ these days, you’ll not forget poor Tom Orange, that would
have spent his last bob and spilt his heart’s blood, without fee or
reward, in your service.”
Another explosion of friendship from the boy assured Tom of his
eternal gratitude.
“Do you know this place, sir?” asked Tom, with a return of his old
manner, as making a sudden turn the little carriage drove through an
open gate, and up to a large old-fashioned house. A carriage was
waiting at the door.
There could be no mistake. How delightful! and who was that?
Mammy! at the hall door, and in an instant they were locked in one
another’s arms, and “Oh! the darlin’,” and “Mammy, mammy,
mammy!” were the only words audible, half stifled in sobs and
kisses.
In a minute more there came into the hall—smiling, weeping, and
with hands extended toward him, the pretty lady dressed in black,
and her weeping grew into a wild cry, as coming quickly she caught
him to her heart. “My darling, my child, my blessed boy, you’re the
image—Oh! darling, I loved you the moment I saw you, and now I
know it all.”
The boy was worn out. His march, including his divergence from
his intended route, had not been much less than thirty miles, and all
in chill and wet.
They got him to his bed and made him thoroughly comfortable,
and with mammy at his bedside, and her hand, to make quite sure of
her, fast in his, he fell into a deep sleep.
Alice had already heard enough to convince her of the boy’s
identity, but an urgent message from Harry, who was dying,
determined her to go at once to Wyvern to see him, as he desired.
So, leaving the boy in charge of “mammy,” she was soon on her way
to the old seat of the Fairfields.
If Harry had not known that he was dying, no power could ever
have made him confess the story he had to tell.
There were two points on which he greatly insisted.
The first was, that believing that his brother was really married to
Bertha Velderkaust, he was justified in holding that his nephew had
no legal right to succeed.
The second was, that he had resolved, although he might have
wavered lately a little, never to marry, and to educate the boy better
than ever he was educated himself, and finally to make him heir to
Wyvern, pretending him to be an illegitimate son of his own.
Whether the Sergeant-Major knew more than he was ordered or
undertook to know, he never gave the smallest ground to conjecture.
He stated exactly what had passed between him and Harry Fairfield.
By him he was told that the child which was conveyed to Marjory
Trevellian’s care was his own unacknowledged son.
On the very same evening, and when old Mildred Tarnley was in
the house at Twyford, was a child taken, with the seeds of
consumption already active in it, from a workhouse in another part of
England and placed there as the son of Charles Fairfield and Alice. It
was when, contrary to all assurances, this child appeared for a few
days to rally, and the situation consequent on its growing up the
reputed heir to Wyvern alarmed Harry, that he went over, in his
panic, to the Grange, and there opened his case, that the child at
Twyford was a changeling, and not his brother’s son.
When, however, the child began to sink, and its approaching death
could no longer be doubtful, he became, as we have seen, once
more quite clear that the baby was the same which he had taken
away from Carwell Grange.
Dr. Willett’s seeing the child so often at Twyford, also prevented
suspicion, though illogically enough, for had they reflected they might
easily have remembered that the doctor had hardly seen the child
twice after its birth while at the Grange, and that, like every one else,
he took its identity for granted when he saw it at Twyford.
Alice returned greatly agitated late that evening. No difficulty any
longer remained, and the boy, with ample proof to sustain his claim,
was accepted as the undoubted heir to Wyvern, and the
representative of the ancient family of Fairfield.
The boy, Henry Fairfield, was as happy as mortal can be,
henceforward. His little playmate, the pretty little girl whom Alice had
adopted, who called her “mamma,” and yet was the daughter of a
distant cousin only, has now grown up, and is as a girl even more
beautiful than she was as a child. Henry will be of age in a few
months, and they are then to be married. They now reside at
Wyvern. The estate, which has long been at nurse, is now clear, and
has funded money beside.
Everything promises a happy and a prosperous reign for the
young Fairfield.
Mildred Tarnley, very old, is made comfortable at Carwell Grange.
Good old Dulcibella is still living, very happy, and very kind, but
grown a little huffy, being perhaps a little over petted. In all other
respects, the effect of years being allowed for, she is just what she
always was.
Tom Orange, with a very handsome sum presented by those
whom he had served, preferred Australia to the old country.
Harry Fairfield had asserted, in his vehement way, while lying in
his last hours at Wyvern, that the fellow with the handkerchief over
his face who shot him was, he could all but swear, his old friend Tom
Orange.
Tom swore that had he lived he would have prosecuted him for
slander. As it is, that eccentric genius has prospered as the
proprietor of a monster tavern at Melbourne, where there is comic
and sentimental singing, and some dramatic buffooneries, and
excellent devilled kidneys and brandy.
Marjory Trevellian lives with the family at Wyvern, and I think if
kind old Lady Wyndale were still living the consolations of Alice
would be nearly full.
[The End]
TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES.
The three volume edition published by Tinsley Brothers (London,
1869) was referenced for many of the fixes listed below.
Minor spelling inconsistencies (e.g. Alley/Allie/Ally, tea-things/tea
things, etc.) have been preserved.
Alterations to the text:
Assorted punctuation corrections.
Some images were relocated nearer the scene they depict.
[Chapter V]
Change “the old fellow with a mulberry coloured face” to mulberry-
coloured.
[Chapter VI]
(which he still called the “harpischord.”) to harpsichord.
“I’ll gi’e ye the jewellery—dy’e hear?” to d’ye.
[Chapter VIII]
“of a a saturnine and sulky sort” delete one a.
[Chapter IX]
“no use in parting at worse odds that we need” to than.
[Chapter XIV]
(by-and-by,” he laaghed; “you shall) to laughed.
[Chapter XV]
“was supposed to cover a gread deal of” to great.
“but somtimes the thunder and flame” sometimes.
“let me see how long his stick his—his stick and his...” add an m-
dash after first instance of stick.
[Chapter XVI]
“A good house-wife, is she, that’s something,” delete first comma.
[Chapter XVII]
“nothin’ but old ’oman’stales and fribble-frabble” to ’oman’s tales.
[Chapter XXI]
“but that’s nothing to do wi’it” to wi’ it.
[Chapter XXIV]
“swear that he meant no villany” to villainy.
“suprised lean, straight Mrs. Tarnley” to surprised.
[Chapter XXVI]
“Give it me. Ha, yes, my bibe” add to after it.
[Chapter XXVIII]
“thought that occured more than once” to occurred.
“was not concilitated, but disgusted” to conciliated.
[Chapter XXXV]
“I’m thinkin,’ as sound before if ye” attach the apostrophe to thinkin
to form thinkin’.
“she heard the click-clack of Mildred’s shoe grow fainter” to shoes.
[Chapter XXXVIII]
“that nervous tremor which is so pleasant to see” to unpleasant.
[Chapter XL]
“and there’s two stout lad’s wi’ him” to lads.
[Chapter XLII]
“I am tired, I but won’t mind the wine” to but I.
[Chapter XLVIII]
“Dead men, ’tis an old sayin,’ is kin” attach second appostrophe to
sayin to form sayin’.
[Chapter XLIX]
“Mildred had made him—a promise write often” add to after
promise.
[Chapter L]
“mud—too high: o put your foot on” to high to.
[Chapter LI]
“and if try to manage for him I’ll want the best...” add I after if.
“and ye look out some decent poor body” to ye’ll.
“three stops, sir—diapason, principal, dulciana.” add and to the
list.
[Chapter LIII]
(“That wouldn’t do nohow,” you know, said Harry) move the right
quotation mark to after know.
“but one and ’tother, both together.” to t’other.
[Chapter LIV]
“Doctor’s Willett says he’ll have it well” to Doctor.

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Visualization, Modeling, and Graphics

for Engineering Design 2nd Edition –

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Biological Reaction Engineering: Dynamic Modeling

Section One: Laying the Foundation

Chapter 2 Sketching 2-1

2.08.01 Circular Holes in Oblique Pictorial Sketches

Chapter 3 Visualization 3-1

Chapter 4 Creativity and the Design Process 4-1

4.03.05 Concept Mapping

Section Two: Modern Design Practice and Tools

5.07.07 Cosmetic Features

Chapter 6 Assembly Modeling 6-1

Chapter 7 Design Analysis 7-1

Section Three: Setting Up an Engineering Drawing

8.04.03 Hidden Lines versus More Views

Chapter 9 Pictorial Drawings 9-1

Chapter 10 Section Views 10-1

Chapter 11 Auxiliary Views 11-1

Section Four: Drawing Annotation and Design Implementation

12.04 Definitions_______________________________________ 12-8

Chapter 13 Tolerancing 13-1

13.05.01 Features With and Without Size

Chapter 14 Working Drawings 14-1

14.08.03 Elevation Views

The following chapters will be available in our MindTap product

Chapter 15 Working in a Team Environment

Chapter 16 Fabrication Processes

Chapter 17 Advanced Visualization Techniques

17.05.03 Strategy for Constructing Pictorials by Inverse Tracking of Edges

Chapter 19 Technical and Engineering Animation

Chapter 20 Presentation of Engineering Data

appendix A _______________________________________________ A-1

L eonardo da Vinci. You have

•• Use of a problem-based approach. Chapter 4

One of the case studies to be pre- Sheryl Sorby Chapter 6

••Caution (pp. 10-51 through 10-62)

Chapter 14 La Verne Abe Harris, Purdue

••Formerly Chapter 14. Processes has been removed from

T he authors would like to thank

Chapter 2 Sketching 2-1

Chapter 3 Visualization 3-1

Chapter 4 Creativity and the Design Process 4-1

T he materials presented in this section focus

After completing this chapter, you should be able to

• Define how engineering visualization, modeling, and graphics

• Provide a short history of how engineering graphics, as a

1.02 A Short History

Figure 1.01. Undated cave

1.02.01 Ancient History

© CDuschinger/Shutterstock.com © ADi G/Shutterstock.com

Figure 1.03. Ancient Egyptian

17.05.03 Strategy for Constructing Pictorials by Inverse Tracking of Edges