Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock normally occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds

or coal seams. The harder forms, such as anthracite coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. Coal is composed primarily of carbon along with variable quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, with smaller quantities of sulfur, oxygen andnitrogen.[ As geological processes apply pressure to dead biotic material over time, under suitable conditions it is transformed successively into:

Peat, considered to be a precursor of coal, has industrial importance as a fuel in

some regions, for example, Ireland and Finland. In its dehydrated form, peat is a highly effective absorbent for fuel and oil spills on land and water

Lignite, also referred to as brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal and used almost

exclusively as fuel for electric power generation. Jet is a compact form of lignite that is sometimes polished and has been used as an ornamental stone since the Upper Palaeolithic

Sub-bituminous coal, whose properties range from those of lignite to those of

bituminous coal are used primarily as fuel for steam-electric power generation. Additionally, it is an important source of light aromatic hydrocarbons for the chemical synthesis industry.

Bituminous coal, dense sedimentary rock, black but sometimes dark brown, often

with well-defined bands of bright and dull material, used primarily as fuel in steamelectric power generation, with substantial quantities also used for heat and power applications in manufacturing and to make coke

Steam coal is a grade between bituminous coal and anthracite, once widely used as

a fuel for steam locomotives. In this specialized use it is sometimes known as seacoal in the U.S.[5] Small steam coal (dry small steam nuts or DSSN) was used as a fuel for domestic water heating

Anthracite, the highest rank; a harder, glossy, black coal used primarily for residential

and commercial space heating. It may be divided further into metamorphically altered bituminous coal and petrified oil, as from the deposits in Pennsylvania

Graphite, technically the highest rank, but difficult to ignite and is not so commonly

used as fuel: it is mostly used in pencils and, when powdered, as a lubricant.

The classification of coal is generally based on the content of volatiles. However, the exact classification varies between countries. According to the German classification, coal is classified as follows:[6]

German English Volatiles % C H O S Heat Classification Designation Carbon % Hydrogen % Oxygen % Sulfur % content

kJ/kg

Braunkohle

Lignite

45-65

60-75

6.0-5.8

34-17

0.5-3

<28470

Flammkohle

Flame coal

40-45

75-82

6.0-5.8

>9.8

~1

<32870

Gasflammkohl Gas flame e coal

35-40

82-85

5.8-5.6

9.8-7.3

~1

<33910

Gaskohle

Gas coal

28-35

85-87.5

5.6-5.0

7.3-4.5

~1

<34960

Fettkohle

Fat coal

19-28

87.5-89.5

5.0-4.5

4.5-3.2

~1

<35380

Esskohle

Forge coal

14-19

89.5-90.5

4.5-4.0

3.2-2.8

~1

<35380

Magerkohle

Non baking 10-14 coal

90.5-91.5

4.0-3.75

2.8-3.5

~1

35380

Anthrazit

Anthracite

7-12

>91.5

<3.75

<2.5

~1

<35300

Different Types of Coal

There are four major types of coal. From the softest to the hardest they are:

1) Lignite coal

Lignit Briquette

The softest of the four types of coal. It is a brownish black in color, very crumbly and primarily used for the generation of electricity. Because of its

color, it is often referred to as "brown coal." Lignite is the result of millions of tons of plants and trees that decayed in a swampy atmosphere about 5070 million years ago. The heating content of lignite is approximately 4,000-8,000 Btu's per pound. The carbon content of lignite is 25%-35% and it has a very high water content - about 35 percent. It has been estimated that nearly half of the world's total proven coal reserves are made up of lignite and subbituminous coal, but lignite has not been exploited to any great extent, because it is inferior to higher-rank coals (e.g., bituminous coal) in calorific value, ease of handling, and storage stability. In areas where other fuels are scarce, the production of brown coal far exceeds that of bituminous coal.

Lignite with a fossil embedded

See article of Otto C. Kopp on Lignite in the Encyclopedia Britannica. Lignite can be separated into two types. The first is xyloid lignite orfossil wood and the second form is the compact lignite or perfect lignite. Although xyloid lignite may sometimes have the tenacity and the appearance of ordinary wood it can be seen that the combustible woody tissue has experienced a great modification. It is reducible to a fine powder by trituration and if submitted to the action of a weak solution of potash it yields a considerable quantity of ulmic acid.

The worlds biggest Lignite or Brown Coal Producers are Germany, the Russian Federation and the US. Lignite is mined in so-called open pit mines. The Rhenish (Rhineland) lignite-mining region covers an area of some 2,500km2 to the west of Cologne and is one of the world's most important lignite-mining regions. Where Mechanised lignite mining began in the 1890s, the first bucketwheel excavator was commissioned in 1933 and, by 1940, output was over 60Mt/y from 23 surface mines. began in the 1890s, the first bucket-wheel excavator was commissioned in 1933 and, by 1940, output was over 60Mt/y from 23 surface mines. mechanised lignite mining began in the 1890s, the first bucket-wheel excavator was commissioned in 1933 and, by 1940, output was over 60Mt/y from 23 surface mines.

The Garzweiler Strip Mine in Germany and also visit: Rhineland Lignite Mining, Germany.

2) Sub-bituminous coal

Sub-bitumous coal

Under greater pressure and heat, brown coal continued to lose moisture. The carbon content of coal increased as water was lost. The properties of sub-bituminous coal range from those of "lignite" (with a lower carbon

content) to those of "bituminous coal" (with a higher carbon content). Subbituminous coal is primarily used for steam-electric power generation. This is a medium soft coal that contains much less moisture than lignite and is not nearly as crumbly. Like lignite, its primary use is in the generation of electricity. The carbon content of sub-bituminous coal runs from 35%-45% and its heat value generally ranges from 8,000-13,000 Btu's per pound.

Greg, uptill here I am going to Coiba we speak monday

Peat is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation matter. It is not yet coal, that will take a couple of million years.

Bituminous coal contains even less moisture than the subbituminous type. The carbon content of bituminous coal is generally from 45%-85%. Its heat value ranges from 10,50015,000 Btu's per pound - greater than either lignite or the subbituminous types. In addition to being used for electrical generation, it is also used in making coke or coking coal, an essential ingredient in making steel. Anthracite coal - discovered in 1769 - is the hardest of the four types. It averages 85%-95% carbon content and has the highest heating value of the four types of coal. It is not uncommon to find anthracite that produces well in excess of 15,000 Btu's per pound. To put that in perspective, that is roughly one and onehalf times as much heat as the same volume of oil and four times as much as seasoned hard-maple firewood. Anthracite makes excellent home heating fuel because it burns cleanly, does not produce volatile gases and does not deteriorate. It can be stored on the ground for long periods of time without creating environmental problems. Early use AS fuel
The earliest reference to the use of coal as fuel is from the geological treatise On stones (Lap. 16) by the Greek scientist Theophrastus (c. 371287 BC):

Among the materials that are dug because they are useful, those known as coals are made of earth, and, once set on fire, they burn like charcoal. They are found in Liguria and in Elis as one approaches Olympia by the mountain road; and they are used by those who work in metals.[8]

Outcrop coal was used in Britain during the Bronze Age (30002000 BC), where it has been detected as forming part of the composition of funeral pyres.[9][10]In Roman Britain, with the exception of two modern fields, "the Romans were exploiting coals in all the major coalfields in England and Wales by the end of the second century AD".
[11]

Evidence of trade in coal (dated to about AD 200) has been found at the inland

port of Heronbridge, near Chester, and in the Fenlandsof East Anglia, where coal from the Midlands was transported via the Car Dyke for use in drying grain.[12] Coal cinders have been found in the hearths of villasand military forts, particularly in Northumberland, dated to around AD 400. In the west of England contemporary writers described the wonder of a permanent brazier of coal on the altar of Minerva at Aquae Sulis (modern day Bath) although in fact easily accessible surface coal from what became the Somerset coalfield was in common use in quite lowly dwellings locally.[13] Evidence of coal's use for iron-working in the city during the Roman period has been found.[14]In Eschweiler, Rhineland, deposits of bituminous coal were used by the Romans for the smelting of iron ore.[11]

There is no evidence that the product was of great importance in Britain before the High Middle Ages, after about AD 1000.[15] Mineral coal came to be referred to as "seacoal" in the 13th century; the wharf where the material arrived in London was known as Seacoal Lane, so identified in a charter of King Henry IIIgranted in 1253.
[16]

Initially the name was given because much coal was found on the shore, having

fallen from the exposed coal seams on cliffs above or washed out of underwater coal outcrops,[15] but by the time of Henry VIII it was understood to derive from the way it was carried to London by sea.[17] In 125759, coal from Newcastle was shipped to London for the smiths and lime-burners building Westminster Abbey.[15] Seacoal Lane and Newcastle Lane where coal was unloaded at wharves along the River Fleet, are still in existence.[18] (See Industrial processes below for modern uses of the term.)

These easily accessible sources had largely become exhausted (or could not meet the growing demand) by the 13th century, when underground mining fromshafts or adits was developed.[9] The alternative name was "pitcoal," because it came from mines. It was, however, the development of the Industrial Revolutionthat led to the large-scale use of coal, as the steam engine took over from the water wheel. In 1700, 5/6 of the world's coal was mined in Britain. Without coal, Britain would have run out of suitable sites for watermills by the 1830s.[19] In 1947, there

were some 750,000 miners,[20] but by 2004 this had shrunk to some 5,000 miners working in around 20 collieries.[21]

In ancient China, coal was used as fuel by the 4th century AD, but there was little extensive use until the 11th century.[22

Today s use

Coal as fuel

Further information: Electricity generation, Clean coal technology, Coal electricity, and Global warming Coal is primarily used as a solid fuel to produce electricity and heat through combustion. World coal consumption was about 6.75 billion short tons in 2006[23]and is expected to increase 48% to 9.98 billion short tons by 2030.[24] China produced 2.38 billion tons in 2006. India produced about 447.3 million tons in 2006. 68.7% of China's electricity comes from coal. The USA consumes about 14% of the world total, using 90% of it for generation of electricity.[25] When coal is used for electricity generation, it is usually pulverized and then combusted (burned) in a furnace with a boiler. The furnace heat converts boiler water to steam, which is then used to spin turbines which turn generators and create electricity. The thermodynamic efficiency of this process has been improved over time. Simple cycle steam turbines have topped out with some of the most advanced reaching about 35% thermodynamic efficiency for the entire process. Increasing the combustion temperature can boost this efficiency even further.[26] Old coal power plants, especially "grandfathered" plants, are significantly less efficient and produce higher levels of waste heat. At least 40% of the world's electricity comes from coal,[27] and in 2008 approximately 49% of the United States' electricity came from coal.[28] The emergence of the supercritical turbine concept envisions running a boiler at extremely high temperatures and pressures with projected efficiencies of 46%, with further theorized

increases in temperature and pressure perhaps resulting in even higher efficiencies.[29] Other ways to use coal are combined heat and power cogeneration and an MHD topping cycle. More than 40% of the world's electricity production uses coal. [30] The total known deposits recoverable by current technologies, including highly polluting, low energy content types of coal (i.e., lignite, bituminous), is sufficient for many years. However, consumption is increasing and maximal production could be reached within decades (see World Coal Reserves, below). An experimental way of coal combustion is in a form of coalwater slurry fuel (CWS, which was well-developed in Russia (since the Soviet Union time). CWSsignificantly reduces emissions saving the heating value of coal.
[edit]Coking

coal and use of coke

Main article: Coke (fuel)

Coke oven at a smokeless fuel plant inWales, United Kingdom

Coke is a solid carbonaceous residue derived from low-ash, low-sulfur bituminous coal from which the volatile constituents are driven off by baking in an oven without oxygen at temperatures as high as 1,000 C (1,832 F) so that the fixed carbon and residual ash are fused together. Metallurgical coke is used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in smelting iron ore in a blast furnace[31]. The coking coal should be low in sulphur and phosphorus so that they do not migrate to the

metal. The product is cast iron and is too rich in dissolved carbon, and so must be treated further to make steel. The coke must be strong enough to resist the weight of overburden in the blast furnace, which is why coking coal is so important in making steel using the conventional route. However, the alternative route to is direct reduced iron, where any carbonaceous fuel can be used to make sponge or pelletised iron. Coke from coal is grey, hard, and porous and has a heating value of 24.8 million Btu/ton (29.6 MJ/kg). Some cokemaking processes produce valuable by-products that include coal tar, ammonia, light oils, and "coal gas". Petroleum coke is the solid residue obtained in oil refining, which resembles coke but contains too many impurities to be useful in metallurgical applications.
[edit]Gasification

Main articles: Coal gasification and Underground coal gasification Coal gasification can be used to produce syngas, a mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrogen (H2) gas. This syngas can then be converted into transportation fuels like gasoline and diesel through the Fischer-Tropsch process. This technology is currently used by the Sasol chemical company of South Africa to make gasoline from coal and natural gas. Alternatively, the hydrogen obtained from gasification can be used for various purposes such as powering a hydrogen economy, making ammonia, or upgrading fossil fuels. During gasification, the coal is mixed with oxygen and steam (water vapor) while also being heated and pressurized. During the reaction, oxygen and water molecules oxidize the coal into carbon monoxide (CO) while also releasing hydrogen (H2) gas. This process has been conducted in both underground coal mines and in coal refineries. (Coal) + O2 + H2O H2 + CO If the refiner wants to produce gasoline, the syngas is collected at this state and routed into a Fischer-Tropsch

reaction. If hydrogen is the desired end-product, however, the syngas is fed into the water gas shift reaction where more hydrogen is liberated. CO + H2O CO2 + H2 High prices of oil and natural gas are leading to increased interest in "BTU Conversion" technologies such as gasification, methanation and liquefaction. The Synthetic Fuels Corporation was a U.S. governmentfunded corporation established in 1980 to create a market for alternatives to imported fossil fuels (such as coal gasification). The corporation was discontinued in 1985. In the past, coal was converted to make coal gas, which was piped to customers to burn for illumination, heating, and cooking. At present, the safer natural gas is used instead.
[edit]Liquefaction

Main article: Coal liquefaction Coal can also be converted into liquid fuels such as gasoline or diesel by several different processes. In the direct liquefaction processes, the coal is either hydrogenated or carbonized. Hydrogenation processes are the Bergius process,[32] the SRC-I and SRC-II (Solvent Refined Coal) processes and the NUS Corporation hydrogenation process.[33][34] In the process of low-temperature carbonization, coal is coked at temperatures between 360 C (680 F) and 750 C (1,380 F). These temperatures optimize the production of coal tars richer in lighter hydrocarbons than normal coal tar. The coal tar is then further processed into fuels. Alternatively, coal can be converted into a gas first, and then into a liquid, by using the Fischer-Tropsch process. An overview of coal liquefaction and its future potential is available.[35] Coal liquefaction methods involve carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in the conversion process. If coal liquefaction is

done without employing either carbon capture and storage technologies or biomass blending, the result is lifecycle greenhouse gas footprints that are generally greater than those released in the extraction and refinement of liquid fuel production from crude oil. If CCS technologies are employed, reductions of 5-12% can be achieved in CTL plants and up to a 75% reduction is achievable when co-gasifying coal with commercially demonstrated levels of biomass (30% biomass by weight) in CBTL plants.[36] For most future synthetic fuel projects, Carbon dioxide sequestration is proposed to avoid releasing it into the atmosphere. Sequestration will, however, add to the cost of production. Currently all US and at least one Chinese synthetic fuel projects,[37] include sequestration in their process designs.
[edit]Refined

coal

Main article: Refined coal Refined coal is the product of a coal-upgrading technology that removes moisture and certain pollutants from lowerrank coals such as sub-bituminous and lignite (brown) coals. It is one form of several pre-combustion treatments and processes for coal that alter coal's characteristics before it is burned. The goals of pre-combustion coal technologies are to increase efficiency and reduce emissions when the coal is burned. Depending on the situation, pre-combustion technology can be used in place of or as a supplement to post-combustion technologies to control emissions from coal-fueled boilers.
[edit]Industrial

processes

Finely ground bituminous coal, known in this application as sea coal, is a constituent of foundry sand. While the molten metal is in the mould the coal burns slowly, releasing reducing gases at pressure and so preventing the metal from penetrating the pores of the sand. It is also contained in mould wash, a paste or liquid with the same function applied to the mould before casting.[38] Sea coal

can be mixed with the clay lining (the "bod") used for the bottom of a cupola furnace. When heated the coal decomposes and the bod becomes slightly friable, easing the process of breaking open holes for tapping the molten metal.[39]
[edit]

Environmental effects
Main article: Environmental effects of coal

Aerial photograph of Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill site taken the day after the event

There are a number of adverse health[43] and environmental effects of coal burning[44] especially in power stations, and of coal mining. These effects include:

Coal-fired power plants shorten nearly 24,000 lives a year in the United States, Generation of hundreds of millions of tons of waste products, including fly

including 2,800 from lung cancer[45]

ash, bottom ash, flue gas desulfurization sludge, that containmercury, uranium, thorium, arsenic, and other heavy metals

Acid rain from high sulfur coal

Interference with groundwater and water table levels Contamination of land and waterways and destruction of homes from fly ash spills Impact of water use on flows of rivers and consequential impact on other land-uses Dust nuisance Subsidence above tunnels, sometimes damaging infrastructure Uncontrollable underground fires which may burn for decades or centuries. Coal-fired power plants without effective fly ash capture are one of the largest Coal-fired power plants emit mercury, selenium, and arsenic which are harmful to Release of carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, which causes climate

such as Kingston Fossil Plant coal fly ash slurry spill

sources of human-caused background radiation exposure

human health and the environment[46]

change and global warming according to the IPCC and the EPA. Coal is the largest contributor to the human-made increase of CO2 in the air[47] Production of Coal by Country and year (million tonnes)
[71]

Reserve Country 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Shar Life e (years) 1834. 2122. 2349. 2528. 2691. 2802. 2973. 3240. 48.3 9 6 5 6 6 0 0 0 % 972.3 1008. 1026. 1054. 1040. 1063. 14.8 975.2 984.6 9 5 8 2 0 %

China

35

USA India EU Austra lia

241 106 105 180 495 18

375.4 407.7 428.4 449.2 478.4 515.9 556.0 569.9 5.8 % 637.2 627.6 607.4 595.1 592.3 563.6 538.4 535.7 4.2 % 350.4 364.3 375.4 382.2 392.7 399.2 413.2 423.9 6.3 %

Russia 276.7 281.7 298.3 309.9 313.5 328.6 301.3 316.9 4.7 % Indon esia South Africa 114.3 132.4 152.7 193.8 216.9 240.2 256.2 305.9 5.0 %

237.9 243.4 244.4 244.8 247.7 252.6 250.6 253.8 3.8 %

119

Germ any Polan d Kazak hstan Total World

204.9 207.8 202.8 197.1 201.9 192.4 183.7 182.3 1.2 %

223

163.8 162.4 159.5 156.1 145.9 144.0 135.2 133.2 1.5 %

43

84.9

86.9

86.6

96.2

97.8 111.1 100.9 110.8 1.5 %

303

5,301 5,716 6,035 6,342 6,573 6,795 6,880 7,273 100 .3 .0 .3 .0 .3 .0 .8 .3 %

118

[edit]Major

coal exporters

Countries with annual export higher than 10 million tonnes are shown. Exports of Coal by Country and year (million short tons)[72][73]
[74]

Country Australia

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Share 238.1 247.6 255.0 255.0 268.5 278.0 288.5 26.5%

Indonesia 107.8 131.4 142.0 192.2 221.9 228.2 261.4 24.0% Russia Colombia South Africa USA China Canada Vietnam Kazakhst an Poland Total 41.0 50.4 78.7 43.0 103.4 27.7 6.9 30.3 28.0 55.7 56.4 74.9 48.0 95.5 28.8 11.7 27.4 27.5 98.6 103.4 112.2 115.4 130.9 12.0% 59.2 78.8 51.7 93.1 31.2 19.8 28.3 26.5 68.3 75.8 51.2 85.6 31.2 23.5 30.5 25.4 74.5 72.6 60.6 75.4 33.4 35.1 32.8 20.1 74.7 68.2 83.5 68.8 36.5 21.3 47.6 16.1 75.7 73.8 60.4 38.4 31.9 28.2 25.7 14.6 6.9% 6.8% 5.5% 3.5% 2.9% 2.6% 2.4% 1.3%

713.9 764.0 936.0

1,000 1,073 1,087 1,090 100% .6 .4 .3 .8

[edit]Major

coal importers

Countries with annual import higher than 30 million tonnes are shown. Imports of Coal by Country and year (million short tons)[75] Country Japan China South Korea India Taiwan Germany United Kingdom Total 2006 2007 2008 2009 Share 199.7 209.0 206.0 182.1 17.5% 42.0 84.1 52.7 69.1 50.6 56.8 56.2 44.5 151.9 14.5%

94.1 107.1 109.9 10.6% 29.6 72.5 56.2 48.9 70.9 70.9 55.7 49.2 76.7 64.6 45.9 42.2 7.4% 6.2% 4.4% 4.1%

991.8

1,056 1,063 1,039 100% .5 .2 .8

EASTERN COALFIELDS LTD. (1) BHARAT COKING COAL LTD. (2) CENTRAL COALFIELDS LTD. (3) NORTHERN COALFIELDS LTD. (4) WESTERN COALFIELDS LTD. (5) SOUTH EASTERN COALFIELDS LTD. (6) MAHANADI COALFIELDS LTD. (7) NORTH EASTERN COALFIELDS. (8) ( A UNIT UNDER CIL(HQ) ) SINGARENI COLLIERIES CO. LTD . (9) NEYVELI LIGNITE CORPORATION (10)
India's Position in Minerals & Mining Sector

India produces as many as 86 minerals which include 4 fuels, 10 metallic, 46 nonmetallic, 3 atomic and 23 minor minerals (including building and other materials); India ranks 2nd in barytes, chromite and talc/steatite/pyrophillite; India ranks 3rd in coal & lignite and bauxite; India ranks 4th in iron ore and kyanite/sillimanite; India ranks 5th in manganese ore and steel (crude); India ranks 7th in zinc; and Ranks 8th in aluminium Major Players in the Mining Sector The major players in the mining sector are classified on the basis of the minerals produced by them namely, Exploration and production of coal/lignite: Coal India Ltd, Neyveli Lignite Corporation, IISCO, etc. Exploration of metals (copper, bauxite, iron ore, chromite, lead zinc): National Aluminium Company Limited (NALCO), Bharat Aluminium Company Limited (BALCO), Mineral Exploration Corporation Ltd, Bharat Gold Mines Ltd (BGML), Oil and natural gas Corporation (ONGC), Hindustan Zinc Ltd, Hindustan Copper Ltd (HCL), etc. Iron Ore Sector: National Mineral Development Corporation, Kudremukh Iron Ore company, Steel Authority of India Ltd, Orissa Mining Corporation. Bauxite mining and aluminium production: National Aluminium Company. Copper-ore mining: Hindustan Copper Ltd. Rock-phosphate and barites mining: Rajasthan State Mines and Minerals Ltd, Andhra Pradesh Mining Development Corporation. Global Mining Companies Operating in India Transworld Garnet Co., Canada Meridian Peak Resources Corpn, Canada Pebble Creek Resources Ltd., Canada BHP Billiton, Australia Rio-Tinto Minerals Development Ltd., UK

Metdist Group, UK Phelps Dodge Exploration Corpn, USA De-Beers Consolidated Mines Ltd., South Africa Anglo American Exploration (India) BV, Netherlands