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Conodonts

Introduction

Conodont elements are phosphatic tooth-like structures whose

affinity and function is now believed to be part of the feeding
apparatus of an extinct early vertebrate. Early ideas concluded that
the conodontophorid was a soft bodied, bilaterally symmetrical
nektonic organism, although there is still much debate concerning
possible benthic, nektonic or combined mode of life. Conodont
elements are composed of calcium carbonate fluorapatite with
additional organic matter. They are found in marine deposits,
commonly in black shales associated with graptolites, radiolarians,
fish remains, brachiopods, cephalopods, trilobites and palaeocopid
ostracods.

History of Study

The name "conodont" was coined by C.H. Pander (a Russian) in

1856, who worked on Silurian fish fossils of Eastern Europe. Ulrich
and Bassler (1926) described many new species from North
America and were the first to recognise their biostratigraphic
usefulness. In 1934 Schmidt and Scott discovered groups of
individual elements preserved together on the same bedding plain.
This importantly led to the theory that the individual elements were
in life held in pairs (termed an apparatus) often likened to mouth
parts. From the 1960's onwards conodonts have developed into one
of the most important biostratigraphic tools available in Palaeozoic
and Triassic rocks.

Range

The very earliest conodonts are known from rocks of probable

Precambrian age in Siberia, they are found more commonly in
Cambrian deposits, diversity increased in the Ordovician and again
during the Devonian. The conodont-bearing organism clearly
survived the Permo-Triassic boundary extinctions but became
extinct during the late Triassic. It has been noted that the extinction
of the conodonts coincides with the diversification of dinoflagellates
and first appearance of calcareous nannofosils. The most primitive
conodonts are single cones, which dominate early Ordovician
assemblages and reach a peak in the Arenigian (late Early
Ordovician). The first platform type conodonts occur around this
time as well. Conodont diversity and abundance declined in the
Silurian. During the early and mid Devonian diversity gradually
increased, reaching an acme in the late Devonian. In the early
Carboniferous conodonts remained abundant and widespread but
diversity decreased during the late Carboniferous. In the Permian the
conodonts almost became extinct, however, they made a recovery in
the early to middle Triassic only to disappear in the late Triassic.
Classification

Conodonts have been assigned to their own Phylum, Conodonta,

divided into two Orders based on chemical and ultrastructure
differences. Eleven superfamilies have been recognised by
reconstructing associations of individual elments into apparatuses;
and morphological and element compositonal differences further
divide these into forty seven families. One hundred and eighty
genera have been recognised. It must be remembered that any
classification of conodonts is an un-natural one, as it is based on
morphology only. Morphologically, four main groups of conodonts
can be distinguished.

Simple cones: formed by a single tooth, or denticle.

Blade-type: elongate, laterally compressed units formed by a
row of denticles which are fused except at their tips.
Bar-type: thin bars with or without a bent shaft which is
commonly branched.
Platform: it is thought these forms evolved from bar and blade-
type conodonts by the developement of broad flanges into
plates.
Applications

The fact that conodonts are relatively common in rocks of

Palaeozoic age, a period when other microfossil groups are either
not present or scarce, has made them extremely useful stratigraphic
tools. Together with acritarchs, chitinozoa and spores, conodonts
are the primary microfossils available to palaeontologists working
on Ordovician to Permo-Triassic strata.

Biology

Isolated conodonts are widespread and abundant. Untill the

nineteen eighties their biological affinities were still not known. Two
enlightening fossil finds provided a few clues to the affinity of
conodonts. The first, a chordate animal with conodonts scattered
within what is interpreted as its gut from the fish bearing Namurian
(Carboniferous) Bear Gulch limestone of Montana. The second, from
the famous Cambrian Burgess Shale of British Columbia, is a
flattened worm-like animal 60mm long with a distinct head bearing
a U-shaped structure interpreted as a lophophore (a circular or
horseshoe shaped fleshy ridge surrounding the mouth, bearing
tentacles found in Bryozoans and Brachiopods). At the base of each
of the 20-25 tentacles is a compressed cone closely resembling
some contemporaneous conodonts. However, the discovery of a
Carboniferous fossil near Edinburgh (and subsequent finds in South
Africa) has finaly solved the mystery of what the conodont elements
are. It is now believed that they are the tooth-like feeding apparatus
of a hagfish-like vertebrate. The co-occurrence of conodont
elements in symmetrical pairs has allowed certain inferences to be
made: The host animal probably exhibited bilateral symmetry.
Several pairs of one sort can be associated with one or more pairs
of another sort. The shape and arrangement of conodont elements
in the apparatuses suggest that they were tooth-like feeding tools.
The use of scanning electron microscopy has revealed signs of wear
on conodont elements and it is thought that the host organism
probably produced only one set in its life time.

Life Cycle

Clearly very little can be stated about possible life cycles since the
host organism of conodonts (conodontophorid) is extinct.

Preparation Techniques

Since conodonts are resistant to mechanical and chemical attack

preparation techniques can utilise acids such as acetic, formic, or
monochloric to release the elements from their host rocks, which
are commonly carbonates. Conodonts are commonly between 200
microns and 5 millimeters in size and can be sieved from finer
materials and further concentrated by heavy liquid or ultrasonic
techniques.

Observation Techniques

The cleaned specimens can then be viewed using a reflected light

microscope and manipulated and mounted in slides in the same
manner as foraminifera. Conodonts can also be observed in thin
sections.

Images
The following images are of a representative selection of conodonts
aimed at giving a general overview of the different morphotypes.
Each specimen is given a generic and if possible a species name
followed by the formation and the site location from which the
sample was obtained. Click on an image to view a larger version.
SEM images in all cases, courtesy of Leicester University

Aulacognathus kuehni Pa element

Hughley Shales, Telychian Stage, Llandovery

Series, Silurian

Devils Dingle, nr. Buildwas, Shropshire

Apsidognathus tuberculatus Pa element

Wych Formation, Telychian Stage, Llandovery

Series, Silurian

Gullet Quarry, Malvern Hills, UK

Distomodus staurognathoides Pa element

Hughley Shales, Telychian Stage, Llandovery

Series, Silurian

Devils Dingle, nr. Buildwas, Shropshire

Eoplacognathus sp. Pa element

Middle Ordovician

Suhkrumagi Section, Tallinn, Estonia

Eoplacognathus sp. Pb element

Middle Ordovician

Suhkrumagi Section, Tallinn, Estonia

Gamachignathus macroexcavatus Pa element

Upper Member, Xiushan Formation, Llandovery

Series, Silurian

Leijiatun Section nr. Shiqian, Guizhou Province,

China

Gamachignathus macroexcavatus Pb element

Upper Member, Xiushan Formation, Llandovery
Series, Silurian
Leijiatun Section nr. Shiqian, Guizhou Province,
China

Gamachignathus macroexcavatus Sa element

Upper Member, Xiushan Formation, Llandovery
Series, Silurian
Leijiatun Section nr. Shiqian, Guizhou Province,
China

Gamachignathus macroexcavatus Sb element

Upper Member, Xiushan Formation, Llandovery
Series, Silurian
Leijiatun Section nr. Shiqian, Guizhou Province,
China
Gamachignathus macroexcavatus Sc element
Upper Member, Xiushan Formation, Llandovery
Series, Silurian
Leijiatun Section nr. Shiqian, Guizhou Province,
China

Icriodella inconstans Pa element

Wych Formation, Telychian Stage, Llandovery

Series, Silurian

Storridge, Malvern Hills, UK

Ozarkodina gulletensis Pa element

Wych Formation, Telychian Stage, Llandovery

Series, Silurian

Storridge, Malvern Hills, UK

Pseudooneotodus tricornis
Wych Formation, Telychian Stage, Llandovery
Series, Silurian
Storridge, Malvern Hills, UK