ARRL Extra Class License Manual 12th Edition For Ham Radio-Arrl Inc (2020)

Copyright © 2020 by
The American Radio Relay

League, Inc
Copyright secured under the

Pan-American Convention
All rights reserved. No part of

this work may be reproduced in
any form except by written
permission of the publisher. All
rights of translation are reserved.
Printed in USA
Quedan reservados todos los

derechos
ISBN: 978-1-62595-131-1
Twelfth Edition
First Printing
This book may be used for Extra

license exams given beginning July 1,
2020. QST and the ARRL website
(www.arrl.org) will have news about
any rules changes affecting the Extra
class license or any of the material in
this book.
We strive to produce books without

errors. Sometimes mistakes do occur,
however. When we become aware of
problems in our books (other than
obvious typographical errors), we post
corrections on the ARRL website. If
you think you have found an error,
please check www.arrl.org/extra-
class-license-manual for corrections.
If you don’t find a correction there,
please let us know by sending an e-
mail to pubsfdbk@arrl.org.
Contents
Foreword
ARRL Membership Benefits
What is Amateur Radio?
When to Expect New Books
Online Review and Practice Exams
About the ARRL
1 Introduction
1.1 The Extra Class License and
Amateur Radio
1.2 Extra Class Overview
1.3 The Volunteer Testing Process
1.4 How to Use This Book
2 Operating Practices
2.1 General Operating
2.2 Amateur Satellites
3 Rules and Regulations

3.1 Operating Standards
3.2 Station Restrictions
3.3 Station Control
3.4 Amateur Satellite Service
3.5 Volunteer Examiner Program
3.6 Miscellaneous Rules
4 Electrical Principles
4.1 Radio Mathematics
4.2 Electrical and Magnetic Fields
4.3 Principles of Circuits
5 Components and Building Blocks

5.1 Semiconductor Devices
5.2 Optoelectronics
5.3 Digital Logic
6 Radio Circuits and Systems

6.1 Amplifiers
6.2 Signal Processing
6.3 Digital Signal Processing (DSP)
and Software Defined Radio (SDR)
6.4 Filters and Impedance Matching
6.5 Power Supplies
7 Radio Measurements and Performance

7.1 Test Equipment
7.2 Receiver Performance
7.3 Interference and Noise
8 Modulation, Protocols, and Modes

8.1 Modulation Systems
8.2 Digital Protocols and Modes
8.3 Amateur Television
9 Antennas and Feed Lines

9.1 Basics of Antennas
9.2 Practical Antennas
9.3 Antenna Systems
9.4 Transmission Lines
9.5 Antenna Design
10 Topics in Radio Propagation

10.1 Electromagnetic Waves
10.2 Solar Effects
10.3 HF Propagation
10.4 VHF/UHF/Microwave
Propagation
11 Safety
11.1 Hazardous Materials
11.2 RF Exposure
11.3 Grounding and Bonding
12 Glossary
13 Extra Question Pool

Extra Class (Element 4) Syllabus
Subelement E1 — Commission’s
Rules
Subelement E2 — Operating
Procedures
Subelement E3 — Radio Wave
Propagation
Subelement E4 — Amateur Practices
Subelement E5 — Electrical
Principles
Subelement E6 — Circuit
Components
Subelement E7 — Practical Circuits
Subelement E8 — Signals and
Emissions
Subelement E9 — Antennas and
Transmission Lines
Subelement E0 — Safety
Advertising
Foreword
Welcome to the twelfth edition of The
ARRL Extra Class License Manual. You
are holding the key to your final step up
the amateur radio license ladder! With
full access to the entire amateur radio
frequency spectrum, you will be
permitted to operate using every
privilege granted to amateurs by the
Federal Communications Commission.
With your increased privileges comes
the challenge of increased responsibility
to fulfill the Basis and Purpose of the
Amateur Service as stated in Part 97.1
of the FCC’s rules and regulations:
• Engaging in public service
• Advancing the radio art
• Enhancing your technical and
operating skills
• Providing trained operators and
technicians
• Enhancing international goodwill
That last point is significant in that
even in this age of instant worldwide
connectivity — no other group has
access to direct personal communication
without any intervening networks or
equipment. As an Extra class licensee,
you’ll be able to take full advantage of
those communication opportunities.
The ARRL Extra Class License
Manual may seem huge, but it covers
every one of the 622 questions. Each
topic is addressed in sufficient detail
that you can learn the “why” and “how”
behind each answer. This will help you
retain the information after you pass the
exam and you will get more benefit and
enjoyment from your upgraded license.
The book includes numerous
examples to help you become
comfortable with the necessary
calculations. Graphics are included to
help you visualize the concepts and
explanations. If you would like a more
concise study guide, ARRL’s Extra Q&A
is a companion to this book, presenting
each question and a short explanation of
the correct answer.
As with the license manuals for the
Technician and General licenses, this
manual organizes the material into a
natural progression of topics. Each topic
is followed by a list of questions from
the exam on that subject. This makes the
material easier to learn, remember, and
use. Along with the printed manuals,
additional resources are provided on the
ARRL website at www.arrl.org/extra-
class-license-manual. These web pages
list supplemental references, such as a
math tutorial, and links to resources you
can use to go beyond the exam questions.
Of course, you aren’t just studying to
pass a license exam and we aren’t
satisfied just to help you pass. We want
you to enjoy amateur radio to its fullest
and that’s why the ARRL provides
opportunities for continued education,
experimentation, and growth through
technical and operating training
resources, in both print and electronic
form.
Be sure to take advantage of the
technical and operating aids in the many
books and supplies that make up our
“Radio Amateur’s Library.” Make the
Technology section of the ARRL’s
website (www.arrl.org/technology) a
frequent stop on your web travels. If
you’re not yet an ARRL member, these
are great reasons to join! Check QST
each month for new material or browse
the ARRL Publications Catalog on-line
at www.arrl.org/arrl-store. You can
also request a printed catalog or place
an order by phone, 888-277-5289; by
fax, 860-594-0303; by e-mail,
pubsales@arrl.org
This twelfth edition of The ARRL
Extra Class License Manual builds on
the excellent material developed by
authors and editors, many ARRL staff
members, and readers of the earlier
editions. You can help make this manual
better, too. After you’ve used the book to
prepare for your exam, e-mail your
suggestions (including any corrections
you think need to be made) to us at
pubsfdbk@arrl.org or use the Feedback
Form at the back of this book and mail
the form. Your comments are welcome!
Upgrading your license is only the
beginning of your adventure – you’ll
have access to the complete palette of
the amateur experience with every one
of ham radio’s tool available. You can
use these for personal enjoyment as well
as apply them for the benefit of other
amateurs and the public.
Thanks for making the decision to
upgrade and reach the highest level of
achievement in amateur radio. You
won’t regret it — good luck!
Ward Silver, NØAX

ARRL Contributing
Editor
Newington, CT
March 2020
What is Amateur
Radio?
Perhaps you’ve just picked up this
book in the library or from a bookstore
shelf and are wondering what this
amateur radio business is all about.
Maybe you have a friend or relative who
is a “ham” and you’re interested in
becoming one, as well. In that case, a
short explanation is in order.
Amateur radio or “ham radio” is one
of the longest-lived wireless activities.
Amateur experimenters were operating
right along with Marconi in the early
part of the 20th century. They have
helped advance the state-of-the-art in
radio, television and dozens of other
communications services since then,
right up to the present day. There are
more than 700,000 amateur radio
operators or “hams” in the United States
alone and several million more around
the world!
Amateur radio in the United States is
a formal communications service,
administered by the Federal
Communications Commission or FCC.
Created officially in its present form in
1934, the amateur Service is intended to
foster electronics and radio
experimentation, provide emergency
backup communications, encourage
private citizens to train and practice
operating, and even spread the goodwill
of person-to-person contact over the
airwaves.
Who Is a Ham and What Do Hams
Do?
Anyone can be a ham — there are no
age limits or physical requirements that
prevent anyone from passing their
license exam and getting on the air. Kids
as young as 6 years old have passed the
basic exam, and there are hams out there
over the age of 100. You probably fall
somewhere in the middle of that range.
Once you get on the air and start
meeting other hams, you’ll find a wide
range of capabilities and interests. Of
course, there are many technically
skilled hams who work as engineers,
scientists or technicians. But just as
many don’t have a deep technical
background. You’re just as likely to
encounter writers, public safety
personnel, students, farmers, truck
drivers — anyone with an interest in
personal communications over the radio.
The activities of amateur radio are
incredibly varied. Amateurs who hold
the Technician class license — the usual
first license for hams in the US —
communicate primarily with local and
regional amateurs using relay stations
called repeaters. Known as “Techs,”
they sharpen their skills of operating
while portable and mobile, often joining
emergency communications teams. They
may instead focus on the burgeoning
wireless data networks assembled and
used by hams around the world. Techs
can make use of the growing number of
amateur radio satellites, built and
launched by hams along with the
commercial “birds.” Technicians
transmit their own television signals,
push the limits of signal propagation
through the atmosphere and experiment
with microwaves. Hams hold most of the
world records for long-distance
communication on microwave
frequencies, in fact!
Hams who advance or upgrade to
General and then to Extra class are
granted additional privileges with each
step to use the frequencies usually
associated with shortwave operation.
This is the traditional amateur radio you
probably encountered in movies or
books. On these frequencies, signals can
travel worldwide and so amateurs can
make direct contact with foreign hams.
No internet, phone systems, or data
networks are required. It’s just you, your
radio, and the ionosphere — the upper
layers of the Earth’s atmosphere!
Many hams use voice, Morse code,
computer data modes and even image
transmissions to communicate. All of
these signals are mixed together where
hams operate, making the experience of
tuning a radio receiver through the
crowded bands an interesting
experience.
One thing common to all hams is that
all of their operation is noncommercial,
especially the volunteers who provide
emergency communications. Hams
pursue their hobby purely for personal
enjoyment and to advance their skills,
taking satisfaction from providing
services to their fellow citizens. This is
especially valuable after natural
disasters such as hurricanes and
earthquakes when commercial systems
are knocked out for a while. Amateur
operators rush in to provide backup
communication for hours, days, weeks or
even months until the regular systems are
restored. All this from a little study and
a simple exam!
Want to Find Out More?
If you’d like to find out more about
amateur radio in general, there is lots of
information available on the internet. A
good place to start is on the American
Radio Relay League’s (ARRL) ham
radio introduction page at
www.arrl.org/what-is-ham-radio.
Books like Ham Radio for Dummies
will help you fill in the blanks as you
learn more.
Along with books and internet pages,
there is no better way to learn about ham
radio than to meet your local amateur
operators. It is quite likely that no matter
where you live in the United States,
there is a ham radio club in your area —
perhaps several! The ARRL provides a
club lookup web page at
www.arrl.org/find-a-club where you
can find a club just by entering your Zip
code or state. Carrying on the tradition
of mutual assistance, many clubs make
helping newcomers to ham radio a part
of their charter.
If this sounds like hams are confident
that you’ll find their activities
interesting, you’re right! Amateur radio
is much more than just talking on a radio,
as you’ll find out. It’s an opportunity to
dive into the fascinating world of radio
communications, electronics, and
computers as deeply as you wish to go.
Welcome!
When to Expect
New Books
A Question Pool Committee (QPC)
consisting of representatives from the
various Volunteer Examiner
Coordinators (VECs) prepares the
license question pools. The QPC
establishes a schedule for revising and
implementing new question pools. The
current question pool revision schedule
is as follows:
As new question pools are released,
ARRL will produce new study materials
before the effective date of the new
pools. Until then, the current question
pools will remain in use, and current
ARRL study materials, including this
book, will help you prepare for your
exam.
As the new question pool schedules
are confirmed, the information will be
published in QST and on the ARRL
website at www.arrl.org.
Online Review and
Practice Exams
Use this book with the ARRL Exam
Review for Ham Radio to review
material you are learning chapter-by-
chapter. Take randomly generated
practice exams using questions from the
actual examination question pool. You
won’t have any surprises on exam day!
Go to www.arrl.org/examreview.
About the ARRL
The seed for amateur radio was
planted in the 1890s, when Guglielmo
Marconi began his experiments in
wireless telegraphy. Soon he was joined
by dozens, then hundreds, of others who
were enthusiastic about sending and
receiving messages through the air —
some with a commercial interest, but
others solely out of a love for this new
communications medium. The United
States government began licensing
amateur radio operators in 1912.
By 1914, there were thousands of
amateur radio operators — hams — in
the United States. Hiram Percy Maxim, a
leading Hartford, Connecticut inventor
and industrialist, saw the need for an
organization to unify this fledgling group
of radio experimenters. In May 1914, he
founded the American Radio Relay
League (ARRL) to meet that need.
ARRL is the national association for
amateur radio in the US. Today, with
approximately 150,000 members, ARRL
numbers within its ranks the vast
majority of active radio amateurs in the
nation and has a proud history of
achievement as the standard-bearer in
amateur affairs. ARRL’s underpinnings
as amateur radio’s witness, partner, and
forum are defined by five pillars: Public
Service, Advocacy, Education,
Technology, and Membership. ARRL is
also International Secretariat for the
International Amateur Radio Union,
which is made up of similar societies in
150 countries around the world.
ARRL’s Mission Statement: To
advance the art, science, and enjoyment
of amateur radio.
ARRL’s Vision Statement: As the
national association for amateur radio in
the United States, ARRL:
• Supports the awareness and growth
of amateur radio worldwide;
• Advocates for meaningful access to
radio spectrum;
• Strives for every member to get
involved, get active, and get on the air;
• Encourages radio experimentation
and, through its members, advances
radio technology and education;
and
• Organizes and trains volunteers to
serve their communities by providing
public service and emergency
communications.
At ARRL Headquarters in Newington
Connecticut, the staff helps serve the
needs of members. ARRL publishes the
monthly journal QST, and the bimonthly
magazine On the Air, including
interactive digital versions of both, as
well as newsletters and many
publications covering all aspects of
amateur radio. Its Headquarters station,
W1AW, transmits bulletins of interest to
radio amateurs and Morse code practice
sessions. ARRL also coordinates an
extensive field organization, which
includes volunteers who provide
technical information and other support
services as well as communications for
public service activities. In addition,
ARRL represents US radio amateurs to
the Federal Communications
Commission and other government
agencies in the US and abroad.
Membership in ARRL means more
than receiving QST each month. In
addition to the services already
described, ARRL offers membership
services on a personal level, such as the
Technical Information Service, where
members can get answers — by phone,
email, or the ARRL website — to all
their technical and operating questions.
A bona fide interest in amateur radio
is the only essential qualification of
membership; an amateur radio license is
not a prerequisite, although full voting
membership is granted only to licensed
radio amateurs in the US. Full ARRL
membership gives you a voice in how
the affairs of the organization are
governed. ARRL policy is set by a
Board of Directors (one from each of 15
Divisions). Each year, one-third of the
ARRL Board of Directors stands for
election by the full members they
represent. The day-to-day operation of
ARRL HQ is managed by a Chief
Executive Officer and his/her staff.
Join ARRL Today! No matter what
aspect of amateur radio attracts you,
ARRL membership is relevant and
important. There would be no amateur
radio as we know it today were it not for
ARRL. We would be happy to welcome
you as a member! Join online at
www.arrl.org/join. For more
information about ARRL and answers to
any questions you may have about
amateur radio, write or call:
ARRL — The national
association for Amateur
Radio®
225 Main Street
Newington, CT 06111-
1494
Tel: 860-594-0200
FAX: 860-594-0259
email: hq@arrl.org
www.arrl.org
Prospective new radio
amateurs call (toll-free):
800-32-NEW HAM (800-
326-3942)
You can also contact ARRL
via email at
newham@arrl.org
or check out the ARRL
website at www.arrl.org
In this chapter, you’ll learn about:
• Added frequencies and activities
enjoyed by Extra licensees
• Reasons to upgrade from General
or Advanced
• Requirements and study materials
for the Extra exam
• How to prepare for your exam
• How to find an exam session
• Where to find helpful resources
Welcome to The ARRL Extra Class

License Manual! You’re about to begin
the final chapter of your amateur radio
license studies. By earning both a
Technician and a General class license,
you’ve learned a tremendous amount
about the technology of radio and the
operating practices that make it useful
and effective. By upgrading to Extra,
you’ll complete that journey, with full
access to everything amateur radio has
to offer, joining more than 150,000 other
“Extras.”
1.1 The Extra Class

License and Amateur
Radio
Just about every ham thinks about
obtaining the Extra class “ticket” at one
point or another in their ham career —
and why not? Extra class licensees have
complete access to all frequencies
available to the Amateur Service.
There’s also the good feeling of knowing
that you’ve demonstrated broad and
useful knowledge of technology,
operating practices, and the FCC rules
and regulations. Having an Extra class
license doesn’t mean you know
everything there is to know — quite the
contrary — but you will be better
prepared to learn and grow within the
service.
If you have been hesitant to study for
the exam because you feel the theory is
too difficult or your math and electronics
background is rusty, take heart. Study
patiently and make use of the available
resources for Extra class students — you
will succeed in passing the exam. It may
take more than one attempt, but this is
hardly unusual. You can continue to
study and try again later. You might also
try just taking a different version of the
exam at the very same test session.
Sooner or later, you’ll be able to add
“/AE” to your call sign on the air! The
key is to make the personal commitment
to passing the exam and be willing to
study.
Table 1.1 shows what you need to
qualify for Extra class, depending on
your current license. Remember how you
felt when you started studying for your
Technician license and again when you
hit the upgrade trail to General? Now
you know that it’s just a matter of
persistent study and practice to obtain
that coveted Extra class “ticket”!
Congratulations for taking the first step
— let’s get started!
About Amateur Radio

If you’re thumbing through this book
wondering what amateur radio is all about,
welcome to a unique and valuable hobby!
More than 760,000 people in the United
States and several million around the world
have a license to operate on the radio
wavelengths allocated to amateurs. You’ll find
them on the traditional shortwave bands
sending signals around the world, just as they
have for more than a century. Using portable
and handheld equipment, they communicate
with local and regional friends, too, even
using amateur-built satellites!
Amateurs or “hams” are experimenters and
innovators. Many design and build their own
equipment and antenna systems. Hams have
created novel and useful hybrids of computer
and internet technology along with the
traditional radio. It is possible today to use a
tiny handheld radio to access local systems
connected to the internet that relay the
signals to a similarly-equipped ham halfway
around the world. Along with the traditional
Morse code and voice signals, hams are
continually inventing ways to send digital data
over radio. In fact, you may have used a
technology adapted from an amateur
invention!
It’s not necessary to be an electrical
engineer to be a ham! There are hams from all
walks of life. During times of emergency,
hams step in to assist by adapting their
communications systems to the situation at
hand. The ham spirit of volunteerism and “can
do” helps relief and public safety agencies as
well as private citizens around the world. If
you can learn to operate a radio and follow
some simple “rules of the road,” you can
participate. All it takes is an interest in radio
and a willingness to learn and to help others.
Amateur radio is regulated by the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) and
amateurs must be licensed to use the public
airwaves that are allocated to their use. To get
the license, prospective amateurs must pass a
simple question-and-answer exam. In the
United States, there are three license classes:
Technician (entry-level), General and
Amateur Extra (top-level). Each successive
license grants additional privileges. This book
is the study guide for the Extra class license
exam.
Amateur radio has been around for quite a
while — since before World War I. It’s still a
vital service today, at the forefront of public
service communications, technical and
operating innovation, and spreading goodwill
around the world — one contact at a time. To
learn more about amateur radio, log on to
www.arrl.org/what-is-ham-radio for a
guided tour of a truly fascinating hobby!
Morse Code — Very Much Alive!
Part of amateur radio since its beginnings,
Morse code has been part of the rich amateur
tradition for more than 100 years and many
hams still use it extensively. At one time,
Morse code proficiency at 20 words per
minute (WPM) was required for an Extra
class license. That requirement was lowered
to a one-speed-fits-all 5 WPM and then
dropped entirely in February 2007. Morse is
likely to remain part of the amateur
experience, however.
Morse (also known as CW, for continuous
wave transmission) remains popular for solid
reasons. It’s easy to build CW transmitters
and receivers. There is no more power-
efficient mode of communications that is
“copied” by the human ear. The extensive set
of abbreviations, many of which have been
adapted to text messaging, allow amateurs to
communicate a great deal of information
even if they don’t share a common language.
Extra class licensees have access to
exclusive CW segments at the bottom of the
80, 40, 20, and 15 meter bands. These are
prime territory for contesting and DXing, a
powerful incentive to learn the code or
improve your code speed.
To help you learn Morse, the ARRL has a
complete set of resources listed on its web
page at www.arrl.org/learning-morse-
code. Computer software and on-the-air code
practice sessions are available for personal
training and practice. Organizations such as
CWops (www.cwops.org) and FISTS
(www.fists.org) — an operator’s style of
sending is referred to as his or her “fist” —
help hams learn Morse code and improve
their skills.
1.2 Extra Class
Overview
Most of this book’s readers will have
already earned their General license,
whether they have been a ham for quite a
while or are new to the hobby. Some
may have passed their Advanced class
exam years ago (Advanced licenses are
no longer issued but they can be
renewed). No matter which type you
might be, you’re to be commended for
making the effort to pass the Extra class
exam!
UPGRADING TO EXTRA
As you begin your studies, remember
that you’ve already overcome the
hurdles of passing not just one, but at
least two license exams! The Extra class
exam questions are certainly more
difficult, but you already know all about
the testing procedure and the basics of
ham radio. You can approach the
process of upgrading with confidence!
The Extra class licensee has access to
additional spectrum on four of the most
popular amateur HF bands. Located at
the lower edges of the CW and phone
segments of the 80, 40, 20, and 15 meter
bands, the “Extra sub-bands” are prime
frequencies for DXing and contest
operating. At other times, the less-
crowded frequencies make operating
more enjoyable. The improved technical
understanding of upgrading to Extra will
make you a more knowledgeable and
skilled operator, too.
Once you’ve earned Extra class status,
you’ll be able to administer license
exam sessions for any license class!
Extra class VEs are needed to give both
General and Extra class exams — an
excellent opportunity to repay some of
the assistance you’ve received.
Technician and General class hams may
turn to you for guidance, too. If you have
a desire to teach other hams, as an Extra
there’s no limit to what you can do.
Books to Help You Learn
As you study the material for the licensing
exam, you will have lots of other questions
about the how and why of amateur radio. The
following references, available from your
local bookstore or the ARRL
(www.arrl.org/shop), will help fill in the
blanks and give you a broader picture of the
hobby. Make sure you have the latest editions
that will have current information on rules,
regulations, and fast-changing technology.
• Ham Radio for Dummies by Ward Silver,
NØAX. Written for both new hams and for
experienced hams interested in new
activities, this book supplements the
information in study guides with an informal,
friendly approach to the hobby.
• ARRL Operating Manual. With in-depth
chapters on the most popular ham radio
activities, this is your guide to nets, award
programs, DXing, and more. It even includes
a healthy set of references.
• Understanding Basic Electronics by
Walter Banzhaf, WB1ANE. Students who
want more technical background about
electronics should take a look at this book. It
covers the fundamentals of electricity and
electronics that are the foundation of all
radio.
• Basic Radio by Joel Hallas, W1ZR. This
book goes beyond electronic circuits to
explain how radios are designed and perform.
It covers the key building blocks of receivers,
transmitters, antennas, and propagation.
• ARRL Handbook. This is the grandfather
of all amateur radio references and belongs
on the shelf of hams. Almost any topic you
can think of in amateur radio technology is
represented here. A new edition is published
each year.
• ARRL Antenna Book. After the radio
itself, all radio communication depends on
antennas. This book provides information on
every common type of amateur antenna, as
well as feed lines and related topics. It’s
filled with practical construction tips and
techniques to help you build your own
antennas.
CALL SIGNS
A call sign is a very personal
identification and many hams keep theirs
for a lifetime. Will you have to change
calls when you receive your Extra class
license? No — just as you could keep
your call sign when you upgraded to
General, it is the same when you
upgrade to Extra. However, you might
want your on-the-air identity to reflect
your new license status! Extra class
licensees can choose vanity call signs
from the coveted “one-by-two” or 1 × 2
series of call signs, such as K1EA or
N6TR, or a 2 × 1 such as NN1N or
KX9X. Extras are also allocated the set
of 2 × 2 calls that begin with the letter
combinations AA through AK, such as
AB1FM. If you would like to know more
about what calls are available, it’s fun to
browse through helpful websites such as
www.radioqth.net or www.ae7q.com.
Pick your favorite and put it in a
prominent location as an incentive to
keep studying!
FOCUS ON HF AND ADVANCED

MODES
Where the Technician and General
class licenses introduced you to whole
new areas of radio and electronics, the
Extra class license is more focused.
You’ll be expected to build on what you
learned for the first two licenses. If you
still have your study guides for those
licenses handy, they may provide useful
background material. The sidebar
“Books to Help You Learn” lists several
additional reference books that provide
more than enough information for the
Extra class student. Here are some
examples of topics you’ll be studying:
• The different types of station control
• AC impedance, resonance, and filters
• Contest and DX operating procedures
• Digital modes and operating
procedures
• Test instruments and measurements
• Semiconductor devices and common
RF circuits
• Special topics on antennas, feed
lines, and propagation
Not every ham uses every mode and
frequency, of course. By learning about
this wider range of ideas, it helps hams
to make better choices for regular
operating. You will become aware of
just how wide and deep ham radio really
is. Better yet, the introduction of these
new ideas may just get you interested in
giving them a try!
1.3 The Volunteer

Testing Process
The procedure for upgrading to Extra
class is identical to the one you
followed for other license exams. You
must attend an exam session
administered by Volunteer Examiners
(VEs) accredited by a Volunteer
Examiner Coordinator (VEC) and pass a
50-question written exam consisting of
questions drawn from the Element 4
Question Pool. (You’ll also have to have
passed the elements for the Technician
and General class licenses.) This is an
increase of 15 questions from the
General and Technician 35-question
exams (see Table 1.2).
When you’re ready, you’ll need to find

a test session. If you’re in a licensing
class, the instructor will help you find
and register for a session. Otherwise,
you can find a test session by using the
ARRL’s web page for finding exams,
www.arrl.org/exam. If you can register
for the test session in advance, do so.
Other sessions, such as those at hamfests
or conventions, are usually available to
anyone who shows up, also known as
walk-ins. You may have to wait for an
available space though, so go early!
Bring the original of your current
FCC-issued license and a photocopy to
send with the application. You’ll need a
photo ID, such as a driver’s license,
passport, or employer’s identity card.
Two forms of identification are required
if no photo ID is available. Know your
Social Security Number (SSN) or FCC-
issued Federal Registration Number
(FRN). You can bring pencils or pens,
blank scratch paper, and a calculator
with the memory erased but any kind of
electronic devices or phones that can
access the internet are prohibited. For a
complete list of items to bring or that are
prohibited on exam day, please see the
ARRL’s web page www.arrl.org/what-
to-bring-to-an-exam-session. (If you
have a disability and need these devices
to take the exam, contact the session
sponsor ahead of time as described in
the sidebar later in this chapter.)
Special Testing Procedures
The FCC allows Volunteer Examiners (VEs)
to use a range of procedures to accommodate
applicants with various disabilities. If this
applies to you, you’ll still have to pass the
test, but special exam procedures can be
applied. Contact your local VE or the
Volunteer Examiner Coordinator (VEC)
responsible for the test session you’ll be
attending. You may also contact the ARRL
VEC Office at 225 Main St, Newington CT
06111-1494 or by phone at 860-594-0200,
or via e-mail to vec@arrl.org. Ask for more
information about special examination
procedures.
Once you’re signed in, you’ll need to

fill out a copy of the National
Conference of Volunteer Examiner
Coordinator’s NCVEC Quick Form 605
(Figure 1.1). This is an application for a
new or upgraded license. It is only used:
• At test sessions
• For a VEC to process a license
renewal
• For a VEC to process a license
change
• For a VEC to process a new club
license or a club license change
Do not use an NCVEC Quick Form 605
for any kind of application directly to the
FCC — it will be rejected. Use a
regular FCC 605-Main Form. After
filling out the form, pay the test fee and
get ready. Check the ARRL VEC website
www.arrl.org/arrl-vec-exam-fees or
the website of the VEC certifying the
exam for the current amount.
You will be given a question booklet
and an answer sheet. Be sure to read the
instructions, fill in all the necessary
information and sign your name
wherever it’s required. Check to be sure
your booklet has 50 questions and be
sure to mark the answer in the correct
space for each question.
If you’ve already passed the General
class exam, it might be useful (and
calming) to review. You don’t have to
answer the questions in order — skip the
hard ones and go back to them. If you
read the answers carefully, you’ll
probably find that you can eliminate one
or more “distracters.” Of the remaining
answers, only one will be the best. If
you can’t decide on the correct answer,
go ahead and guess. There is no penalty
for an incorrect guess. When you’re
done, go back and check your answers
and double-check your arithmetic —
there’s no rush!
Once you’ve answered all 50
questions, the VEs will grade and verify
your test results. Assuming you’ve
passed (your last amateur exam ever!)
you’ll fill out a Certificate of Successful
Completion of Examination (CSCE)
and the VE team will complete your
NCVEC FCC Form 605. The exam
organizers will submit your results to the
FCC while you keep the CSCE as
evidence that you’ve passed your Extra
test.
You’ll be more than ready to start using
those new privileges as soon as you get
home! When you give your call sign,
append “/AE” (on CW or digital modes)
or “temporary AE” (on phone). As soon
as your license class is upgraded in the
FCC’s database of licensees, typically a
week or two later, you can stop adding
the suffix. The CSCE is good for 365
days or until receiving your paper
license.
If you don’t pass, don’t be
discouraged! You might be able to take
another version of the test right then and
there if the session organizers can
accommodate you. Even if you decide to
try again later, you now know just how
the test session feels — you’ll be more
relaxed and ready next time. The Extra
class sub-bands are full of hams who
took their Extra test more than once
before passing. You’ll be in good
company!
FCC AND ARRL VEC LICENSING

RESOURCES
After you pass your exam, the
examiners will file all of the necessary
paperwork so that your license will be
granted by the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC). Within two weeks
(often sooner) you will be able see your
new license status — and your new call
sign if you requested one — in the
FCC’s database via the ARRL website.
The FCC has gone “paperless” and no
longer routinely mails paper licenses,
but you can still request a copy — see
www.arrl.org/obtain-license-copy. The
ARRL VEC can also process license
renewals and modifications for you as
described at www.arrl.org/call-sign-
renewals-or-changes.
When you initially passed your
Technician exam, you may have applied
for your FCC Federal Registration
Number (FRN) or may have been issued
one automatically by FCC from the
information gathered from your form.
This allows you to access the
information for any FCC licenses you
may have and to request modifications to
them. These functions are available via
the FCC’s Universal Licensing System
(ULS) website
(www.fcc.gov/wireless/systems-
utilities/universal-licensing-system).
Complete instructions for using the site
are available at
www.arrl.org/universal-licensing-
system. When accessing the ULS, your
FRN will allow you to watch the
database for your license upgrade!
1.4 How to Use This
Book
Designed to help the student really
learn the material, the topics in this study
guide build on one another. The first
sections cover operating techniques and
FCC regulations, while later chapters
progress from simple electronics through
radio signals. The book concludes with
antennas, propagation, and safety topics.
Each section includes the exact
questions that could be on the exam, so
you’ll have a chance to test your
understanding as soon as you complete
each topic. Online references and
sources supplement the information in
the study guide, so you can get extra help
on a topic or just read for interest.
You’ll have a lot of resources on your
side during your studies!
This study guide will provide the
necessary background and explanation
for the answers to the exam questions.
By learning this material, you will go
beyond just learning the answers. You’ll
understand the fundamentals behind them
— and this makes it easier to learn,
remember, and use what you know. This
book also contains many useful facts and
figures that you can use in your station
and on the air.
If you are taking a licensing class, help
your instructors by letting them know
about areas in which you need help.
They want you to learn as thoroughly and
quickly as possible, so don’t hold back
with your questions. Similarly, if you
find the material particularly clear or
helpful, tell them that, too, so it can be
used in the next class!
Just before the Question Pool section
of this book you’ll find a large glossary
of radio terminology. The Question Pool
contains the complete set of exam
questions and answers and it is followed
by the Index and an advertising section
with displays from some of amateur
radio’s best-known vendors of
equipment and supplies.
WHAT WE ASSUME ABOUT YOU

You don’t have to be a technical guru
or an expert operator to upgrade to Extra
class! The topics you will encounter
build from the basic science of radio and
electricity that you mastered for
Technician and General. The math is a
little more involved than for General
class topics and tutorials are available
at the ARRL Extra Class License
Manual website, www.arrl.org/extra-
class-license-manual. You should have
a calculator capable of doing logarithms
and trigonometric functions. You’ll also
be allowed to use it during the license
exam, of course.
ADVANCED STUDENTS
If you have some background in radio,
perhaps as a communications tech or
radio operator, you may be able to short-
circuit some of the sections. To find out,
locate the shaded boxes in the text listing
the exam questions for each topic. Turn
to the Question Pool and if you can
answer the questions correctly, move to
the next topic in the text. It’s common for
technically-minded students to need help
with the rules and regulations, while
students with an operating background
tend to need more help with the technical
material. Regardless of your previous
knowledge and experience, be sure that
you can answer the questions because
they will certainly be on the test!
SELF-STUDY OR CLASSROOM
STUDENTS
The ARRL Extra Class License
Manual can be used either by an
individual student studying on his or her
own, or as part of a licensing class
taught by an instructor. If you’re part of a
class, the instructor will guide you
through the book, section by section. The
solo student can move at any pace and in
any convenient order. You’ll find that
having a friend to study with makes
learning the material more fun as you
help each other over the rough spots.
Don’t hesitate to ask for help! Your
instructor can provide information on
anything you find difficult. Classroom
students may find asking their fellow
students to be helpful. If you’re studying
on your own, there are resources for
you, too! If you can’t find the answer in
the book or at the website, e-mail your
question to the ARRL’s New Ham Desk,
newham@arrl.org. You may not be a
new ham, but your question will be
routed to the appropriate person. The
ARRL’s experts will answer directly or
connect you with another ham who can
answer your questions.
USING THE QUESTION POOL

The Element 4 Question Pool is
divided into 10 subelements, E0 through
E9. Each subelement is further divided
into sections that focus on specific
topics. For example, E1 on the
Commission’s Rules has six sections,
E1A through E1F. Each question is then
numbered E1Axx, with “xx”
representing the number of the question
in the section. The questions are given as
lists at the beginning of each section of
the text. The questions are also listed
with the text covering the topic.
Sometimes questions from several
question pool sections may be discussed
in a combined section of text. Material
that addresses a question is indicated in
the text by the question number in bold
inside square brackets, such as
[E1A01].
As you complete each topic be sure to
review each of the exam questions
highlighted in the shaded text boxes.
This will tell you which areas need a
little more study time. When you
understand the answer to each of the
questions, move on. Resist the
temptation to just memorize the answers.
Doing so leaves you without the real
understanding that will make your new
Extra class privileges enjoyable and
useful. The ARRL Extra Class License
Manual covers every one of the exam
questions, so you can be sure you’re
ready at exam time.
When using the Question Pool section,
cover the answers at the edge of the page
to be sure you really do understand the
question. Each question is accompanied
by a cross-reference back to the page on
which that topic is discussed. If you
don’t completely understand the question
or answer, please go back and review
that material. The ARRL’s condensed
guide Extra Q&A also provides short
explanations for each one of the exam
questions.
ONLINE REVIEW AND PRACTICE

EXAMS
Use this book with ARRL Exam
Review for Ham Radio to review
chapter-by-chapter. Take randomly-
generated practice exams using
questions from the actual examination
question pool. You won’t have any
surprises on exam day! Go to
www.arrl.org/exam-review.
EXTRA CLASS LICENSE MANUAL

WEB PAGE
The ARRL also maintains a special
web page for Extra class students at
www.arrl.org/extra-class-license-
manual. It provides or links to helpful
supplements and clarifications to the
material in the book. The useful and
interesting online references listed there
put you one click away from additional
information on many topics.
FOR INSTRUCTORS
If you’re an instructor, note that this
edition of the study guide has the same
organization as the previous edition.
Topics are presented in a sequence
intended to be easier for the student to
learn. For example, the section on Radio
Signals and Equipment comes after the
Components and Circuits section.
Because the Extra class exam topics are
more sophisticated than for General
class, it’s more important to develop the
context and background for each topic.
Want More Information?
Looking for more information about Extra
class instruction in your area? Are you ready
to take the Extra class exam? Do you need a
list of ham radio clubs, instructors or
examiners in your local area? The following
web pages are very helpful in finding the local
resources you need to successfully pass your
Extra class exam:
• www.arrl.org — the ARRL’s home page,
it features news and links to other ARRL
resources
• www.arrl.org/extra-class-license-
manual — the website that supports this
book
• www.arrl.org/find-a-club — a search
page to find ARRL-Affiliated clubs
• www.arrl.org/exam — the ARRL VEC
exam session search page
• www.arrl.org/technical-information-
service — the ARRL’s Technical Information
Service is an excellent resource
The ARRL has also created supporting

material for instructors such as graphics
files, handouts, and a detailed topics list.
Check www.arrl.org/resources-for-
license-instruction for support
materials.
CONVENTIONS AND RESOURCES

Throughout your studies keep a sharp
eye out for words in italics. These
words are important so be sure you
understand them. Many are included in
the extensive Glossary in the back of the
book. Another thing to look for are the
addresses or URLs for web resources in
bold, such as www.arrl.org/extra-class-
license-manual. By browsing these web
pages while you’re studying, you will
accelerate and broaden your
understanding.
Question numbers in square brackets,
such as [E1A01], indicate material that
addresses a specific question. This will
help you review or examine specific
topics.
Throughout the book, there are many
short sidebars that present topics related
to the subject you’re studying. These
sidebars may just tell an interesting story
or they might tackle a subject that needs
separate space in the book. The
information in sidebars supports the
information you’re studying.
TIME TO GET STARTED

By following these instructions and
carefully studying the material in this
book, soon you’ll be joining the rest of
the Extra class licensees! Each of us at
the ARRL Headquarters and every
ARRL member looks forward to the day
when you join the fun. 73 (best regards)
and good luck!
Extra Class (Element 4)

Syllabus
Valid July 1, 2020 through June 30, 2024
SUBELEMENT E1 —
COMMISSION’S RULES
[6 Exam Questions — 6 Groups] 75
Questions
E1A — Operating Standards:
frequency privileges; automatic
message forwarding; stations
aboard ships or aircraft; power
restriction on 630 and 2200 meter
bands
E1B — Station restrictions and special
operations: restrictions on station
location; general operating
restrictions; spurious emissions;
antenna structure restrictions;
RACES operations
E1C — Definitions and restrictions
pertaining to local, automatic and
remote control operation; IARP
and CEPT licenses; emission and
bandwidth standards
E1D — Amateur space and Earth
stations; telemetry and
telecommand rules; identification
of balloon transmissions; one-way
communications
E1E — Volunteer examiner program:
definitions; qualifications;
preparation and administration of
exams; accreditation; question
pools; documentation requirements
E1F — Miscellaneous rules: external
RF power amplifiers; prohibited
communications; spread spectrum;
auxiliary stations; Canadian
amateurs operating in the U.S.;
special temporary authority;
control operator of an auxiliary
station
SUBELEMENT E2 — OPERATING
PROCEDURES
Questions
E2A — Amateur radio in space:
amateur satellites; orbital
mechanics; frequencies and modes;
satellite hardware; satellite
operations
E2B — Television practices: fast scan
television standards and
techniques; slow scan television
standards and techniques
E2C — Operating methods: contest and
DX operating; remote operation
techniques; Cabrillo format;
QSLing; RF network connected
systems
E2D — Operating methods: VHF and
UHF digital modes and
procedures; APRS; EME
procedures; meteor scatter
procedures
E2E — Operating methods: operating
HF digital modes
SUBELEMENT E3 — RADIO
WAVE PROPAGATION
Questions
E3A — Electromagnetic waves; Earth-
Moon-Earth communications;
meteor scatter; microwave
tropospheric and scatter
propagation; aurora propagation;
ionospheric propagation changes
over the day; circular polarization
E3B — Transequatorial propagation;
long-path; ssordinary and
extraordinary waves; chordal hop;
sporadic E mechanisms
E3C — Radio horizon; ground wave;
propagation prediction techniques
and modeling; effects of space
weather parameters on
propagation
SUBELEMENT E4 — AMATEUR
PRACTICES
Questions
E4A — Test equipment: analog and
digital instruments; spectrum
analyzers; antenna analyzers;
oscilloscopes; RF measurements;
computer-aided measurements
E4B — Measurement technique and
limitations: instrument accuracy
and performance limitations;
probes; techniques to minimize
errors; measurement of Q;
instrument calibration; S
parameters; vector network
analyzers
E4C — Receiver performance
characteristics: phase noise, noise
floor, image rejection, MDS,
signal-to-noise ratio, noise figure,
reciprocal mixing; selectivity;
effects of SDR receiver non-
linearity; use of attenuators at low
frequencies
E4D — Receiver performance
characteristics: blocking dynamic
range; intermodulation and cross-
modulation interference; third-
order intercept; desensitization;
preselector
E4E — Noise suppression and
interference: system noise;
electrical appliance noise; line
noise; locating noise sources; DSP
noise reduction; noise blankers;
grounding for signals; common
mode currents
SUBELEMENT E5 —
ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES
Questions
E5A — Resonance and Q:
characteristics of resonant circuits:
series and parallel resonance;
definitions and effects of Q; half-
power bandwidth; phase
relationships in reactive circuits
E5B — Time constants and phase
relationships: RL and RC time
constants; phase angle in reactive
circuits and components;
admittance and susceptance
E5C — Coordinate systems and
phasors in electronics: rectangular
coordinates; polar coordinates;
phasors
E5D — AC and RF energy in real
circuits: skin effect;
electromagnetic fields; reactive
power; power factor; electrical
length of conductors at UHF and
microwave frequencies; microstrip
SUBELEMENT E6 — CIRCUIT
COMPONENTS
Questions
E6A — Semiconductor materials and
devices: semiconductor materials;
germanium, silicon, P-type, N-
type; transistor types: NPN, PNP,
junction, field-effect transistors:
enhancement mode; depletion
mode; MOS; CMOS; N-channel;
P-channel
E6B — Diodes
E6C — Digital ICs: Families of digital
ICs; gates; Programmable Logic
Devices (PLDs)
E6D — Toroidal and Solenoidal
Inductors: permeability, core
material, selecting, winding;
transformers; piezoelectric
devices
E6E — Analog ICs: MMICs, IC
packaging characteristics
E6F — Electro-optical technology:
photoconductivity; photovoltaic
devices; optical sensors and
encoders; optical isolation
SUBELEMENT E7 — PRACTICAL
CIRCUITS
Questions
E7A — Digital circuits: digital circuit
principles and logic circuits;
classes of logic elements; positive
and negative logic; frequency
dividers; truth tables
E7B — Amplifiers: Class of operation;
vacuum tube and solid-state
circuits; distortion and
intermodulation; spurious and
parasitic suppression; microwave
amplifiers; switching-type
amplifiers
E7C — Filters and matching networks:
types of networks; types of filters;
filter applications; filter
characteristics; impedance
matching; DSP filtering
E7D — Power supplies and voltage
regulators; Solar array charge
controllers
E7E — Modulation and demodulation:
reactance, phase and balanced
modulators; detectors; mixer
stages
E7F — DSP filtering and other
operations; software defined radio
fundamentals; DSP modulation and
demodulation
E7G — Active filters and op-amp
circuits: active audio filters;
characteristics; basic circuit
design; operational amplifiers
E7H — Oscillators and signal sources:
types of oscillators; synthesizers
and phase-locked loops; direct
digital synthesizers; stabilizing
thermal drift; microphonics; high-
accuracy oscillators
SUBELEMENT E8 — SIGNALS
AND EMISSIONS
Questions
E8A — AC waveforms: sine, square,
and irregular waveforms; AC
measurements; average power and
PEP of RF signals; Fourier
analysis; analog to digital
conversion: digital to analog
conversion; advantages of digital
communications
E8B — Modulation and demodulation:
modulation methods; modulation
index and deviation ratio;
frequency and time division
multiplexing; Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiplexing
E8C — Digital signals: digital
communication modes; information
rate vs. bandwidth; error
correction
E8D — Keying defects and
overmodulation of digital signals;
digital codes; spread spectrum
SUBELEMENT E9 — ANTENNAS
AND TRANSMISSION LINES
Questions
E9A — Basic Antenna parameters:
radiation resistance, gain,
beamwidth, efficiency; effective
radiated power
E9B — Antenna patterns and designs:
E and H plane patterns; gain as a
function of pattern; antenna
modeling
E9C — Practical wire antennas; folded
dipoles; phased arrays; effects of
ground near antennas
E9D — Yagi antennas; parabolic
reflectors; circular polarization;
loading coils; top loading; feed
point impedance of electrically
short antennas; antenna Q; RF
grounding
E9E — Matching: matching antennas to
feed lines; phasing lines; power
dividers
E9F — Transmission lines:
characteristics of open and shorted
feed lines; coax versus open-wire;
velocity factor; electrical length;
coaxial cable dielectrics
E9G — The Smith chart
E9H — Receiving Antennas: radio
direction finding antennas;
Beverage antennas; specialized
receiving antennas; long-wire
receiving antennas
SUBELEMENT E0 — SAFETY
[1 exam question — 1 group] 11
Questions
E0A — Safety: RF radiation hazards;
hazardous materials; grounding
• Frequencies available to Extra
class licensees
• DX and contest operating
• Using a remote station
• Satellite orbits and signals
• Satellite transponders, frequencies
and modes
Congratulations, you’re going to be an

Extra and no amateur frequency will be
denied to your transmissions! You may
have picked up quite a bit of operating
experience as a Technician and General.
If so, you can probably just scan this
section for the items on which you need
to brush up. If you have spent most of
your operating time on VHF+
frequencies, or if you’re wondering if
the new HF frequencies are really that
special, read on. This chapter also
covers amateur satellite operations.
2.1 General Operating

EXTRA CLASS HF FREQUENCIES
The small additional portions of the HF
spectrum available only to Extra class
licensees don’t look like much on the
allocation charts in Figure 2.1, but they
are prime real estate for the HF
operator.
Why are these small slices of spectrum
worth upgrading for? Traditional
operating practice is for DX contacts to
take place closer to the bottom edge of
the bands. The higher ends of the bands
are where most domestic QSOs and net
operations take place. You’ll find that
nearly all serious DXers and contest
operators hold Extra class licenses
because that’s where the contacts are
most likely to be made! Even without
DX contacts going on, the Extra class
segments are less crowded.
Frequency Selection
As an Extra class operator, you will be
expected to accommodate all sorts of
band conditions. Be flexible. Know how
to complete a scheduled contact, even if
the planned frequency is busy. Always
have a “plan B” of an alternate
frequency or time. Use the resources
available to all hams for planning your
activities. For example, there are plenty
of “contest calendars” on the web, such
as those at www.arrl.org/contests or
www.contestcalendar.com. Take a look
to see if there is a major contest before
making a schedule. Special event
stations (www.arrl.org/special-event-
stations) and DXpeditions may appear
on your favorite frequency for a few
days, as well. If you’re a net control
station or net manager, be sure that your
net has an alternate frequency to
accommodate a busy band or poor
conditions — practice switching to Plan
B so that you’ll be ready when you
really do need to use it!
DXING
E2C05 — What is the function of a
DX QSL Manager?
E2C08 — Which of the following
contacts may be confirmed
through the U.S. QSL
bureau system?
E2C10 — Why might a DX station
state that they are listening
on another frequency?
E2C11 — How should you generally
identify your station when
attempting to contact a DX
station during a contest or in
a pileup?
Why chase DX? Why chase those

elusive distant contacts through noisy
bands and unruly pileups? DXing
exemplifies a big part of what ham radio
is about: the continuous improvement of
equipment, antennas, propagation
knowledge and operating skills. The
quest for “a little more distance” or that
special propagation opportunity drives a
lot of technical and operating advances.
Your definition of DX will probably
depend upon the bands on which you are
operating. For HF operators, DX usually
means any stations outside of your own
country. On the VHF and UHF bands,
however, DX may mean stations more
than 50 or 100 miles away — beyond
your radio horizon. DX extends into
space, too — amateurs have been
bouncing signals off the Moon to work
nearly halfway around the world on
microwave frequencies!
Once you’ve made some DX contacts,
perhaps you’ll want to chase an award
or two. To confirm your contacts, you
can use an on-line service such as the
ARRL’s online Logbook of The World
(LoTW — www.arrl.org/logbook-of-
the-world) or exchange a traditional
paper QSL card. The ARRL’s QSL
Service (www.arrl.org/qsl-service)
handles both US-to-DX and DX-to-US
QSLs, but not US-to-US cards because
there would be too many and for which
regular mail is available. [E2C08]
While mailing the card directly is quick
and using the QSL bureau system is
inexpensive, many DX stations use the
services of a QSL manager who
confirms contacts and sends out
responding QSL cards for a DX station.
[E2C05] Some DXpeditions also use
online systems, such as the Online QSL
Request System (OQRS —
www.m0urx.com/oqrs) which also
accepts contributions to help defray
expenses. These are good compromises
for active DXers.
DX Windows and Watering Holes

DX activity most common toward the
low end of the bands, concentrated
around calling frequencies and DX
windows. Table 2.1 shows some of the
“watering holes” used by DXers on both
HF and VHF/UHF.
Resources for DXing
This section of the Extra Class License
Manual only touches on the basics of DX
operating. To get the most out of your station
and your operating time, there are many
resources to turn to:
• The ARRL Operating Manual —this
reference book has a detailed section on
DXing discussing everything from DXing
basics to maps and QSLing directions.
• The Complete DXer, by Bob Locher
W9KNI — now in its third edition, this easy-
to-read book provides valuable guidance with
real-life stories and discussions.
• The ARRL DX Bulletin
(www.arrl.org/w1aw-bulletins-archive-
dx), the OPDX Bulletin
(www.papays.com/opdx.html), and Daily
DX (www.dailydx.com) are e-mailed to
subscribers around the world. The DX World
website (dx-world.net) also carries news and
stories of interest to DXers.
A DX window is a narrow range of
frequencies in which QSOs take place
between countries or continents that may
not share frequency allocations or that
have very narrow amateur bands. For
example, 160 meters once had many
different frequency allocations around
the world because of conflicts with
radionavigation systems. The 1830 to
1835 kHz window was a narrow slice of
the band common to many different
countries. As these conflicts disappear
and allocations become worldwide, so
will the need for a DX window.
Pileup Productivity
You’ve tuned across a bunch of stations
giving their call signs repeatedly. If there
is a pause after a station gives his call
and a signal report, then many stations
call, you’ve almost certainly found a DX
pileup! Listen for someone giving the
DX station’s call during a contact, such
as “T77C from W1JR, you’re five-nine”
on phone or “T77C DE W1JR 5NN” on
CW. While the temptation is great to
jump in there and call, don’t! You have
to be able to hear the DX station before
you start calling. Otherwise, you are just
causing QRM.
If all of the stations are on one
frequency or close to one frequency, the
DX station is probably working simplex.
If the stations are spread out over a few
kilohertz, the DX station is probably
working split. Look for the DX station
down a few kilohertz or more if the DX
station is operating on a frequency
unavailable to you, perhaps outside the
US band entirely. This practice
separates the signals of the calling
stations from the DX station, reducing
interference and improving efficiency.
[E2C10]
Listen to the stations that get through —
how are they operating? Are they from
your area? Is the DX station staying on
one frequency or tuning around for
callers? Follow that pattern. In general,
give your full call sign once or twice
(using standard phonetics on phone),
then pause to listen for the DX station.
[E2C11] Remember that a little bit of
listening will pay big dividends — if
you are transmitting you can’t be
listening!
DXing Propagation
The DXer soon learns the truth of the
old adage, “You can’t work ’em if you
can’t hear ’em!” That makes
understanding propagation crucial to
DXing success. During the years that this
edition of the Extra Class License
Manual is in print (2020 to 2024), the
sun will begin its next sunspot cycle.
This will be a period of rapid changes in
HF conditions, shifting the DXer’s
attention to the higher-frequency bands.
Regardless, it’s important to understand
the basic variations of long-distance
propagation that occur hour-to-hour,
day-to-day, and season-to-season.
You can maximize your operating
enjoyment by paying attention to band
conditions. This will help you decide
when to change bands or look for signals
from different regions. It is especially
important to notice openings and change
bands during a period of low sunspot
activity because the higher-frequency
bands may close entirely after dark, with
no DX stations to be heard.
For information about solar conditions,
visit websites such as
www.spaceweather.com,
www.swpc.noaa.gov/communities/radio-
communications, and www.hfradio.org.
You will quickly learn what to watch for
as ionospheric and solar conditions
change. By listening to worldwide on-
the-air beacons, such as those that are
part of the International Beacon Project
sponsored by Northern California DX
Foundation and International Amateur
Radio Union (www.ncdxf.org), you can
correlate your expectations with actual
behavior. The Reverse Beacon Network
(www.reversebeacon.net) and websites
such as DX Maps (www.dxmaps.com)
can show you what’s happening in real
time!
Subscribe to ARRL propagation
bulletins via your member information
web page and read the columns on
propagation in magazines and on
websites. Supplement your tuning with
DX spotting information from around the
world to give you an idea about
propagation in other areas.
Use propagation prediction software,
but remember it is statistical in nature
and actual conditions may vary
dramatically from the predictions. The
software is only as good as its models of
the Earth’s geomagnetic field, so it may
not predict unusual openings.
CONTESTING
E2C02 — Which of the following best
describes the term “self-
spotting” in connection with
HF contest operating?
E2C03 — From which of the following
bands is amateur radio
contesting generally
excluded?
E2C06 — During a VHF/UHF contest,
in which band segment would
you expect to find the
highest level of SSB or CW
activity?
E2C07 — What is the Cabrillo
format?
What is a radio contest, anyway?

Contests, also known as radiosport, are
on-the-air operating events, usually held
on weekends, in which operators try to
make as many contacts as possible
within defined time limits and according
to a detailed set of rules. Contests
provide a competitive outlet, enable
quick additions to your state or DXCC
totals, and offer a level of excitement
that’s hard to imagine until you’ve tried
it!
Why contest? While each contest has
its own particular purpose and operating
rules, the main purpose for all amateur
radio contests is to enhance
communication and operating skills.
When you optimize your station for best
operating efficiency “in the heat of
battle” and learn to pull out those weak
stations to make the last available
contacts, you are honing useful skills and
building a station that can make a big
difference in public service or
emergency operating. The best way to
maintain both is to use them on a regular
basis. Contests provide a fun way to
keep a keen edge on your equipment
capabilities and your operating skills.
Resources for Contesting

There is much more to contesting than
these few paragraphs, of course. The goal of
this license study guide is to make you aware
of basic contest principles in accordance with
your new licensing privileges. If you’d like to
know more about contesting, try some of
these resources:
• The ARRL Operating Manual — this
reference book has a detailed section on
contest operating and equipment.
• Amateur Radio Contesting for Beginners
by Doug Grant, K1DG — published by the
ARRL, this book focuses on practical advice
for those new to contesting
• National Contest Journal
(www.ncjweb.com) — published by the
ARRL, this bimonthly magazine includes in-
depth articles on contesting, interviews,
technical projects and product reviews, and
scores of NCJ contests. Print subscriptions
are available, and the magazine is available in
digital form to all ARRL members.
• ARRL Contest Update
(www.arrl.org/the-arrl-contest-update) is
a biweekly e-mail newsletter covering
contesting news, upcoming contests and log
due dates, technical tips, and news about
contest results. It’s free to ARRL members
via the member information page!
• cq-contest and vhf-contesting are two of
the largest e-mail reflectors about contesting.
Subscriptions are free via
www.contesting.com.
Every contest contact includes its own

particular set of information (called an
exchange) that participants send to each
other. Most exchanges include call signs,
signal report, contact sequence number
(called a serial number), or location.
You can find out the complete rules for
contests using WA7BNM’s Contest
Calendar (www.contestcalendar.com),
QST’s Contest Corral and the ARRL
website (www.arrl.org/contests). These
list contests for each month, showing the
sponsor’s website and the contest’s
exchange. Check the rules on the
sponsor’s website to see what you need
to do to participate. Even if you’re not a
contester, these are good resources to let
you know when the bands will be busy!
Contest activity is permitted by the
FCC regulations on any frequency
available to the station licensee that
complies with the mode subband
divisions. HF contest activity, like
DXing with which it shares many traits,
is usually concentrated toward the
lowest frequencies of a phone or CW
band, expanding upward according to
activity levels. Digital contest activity
centers around the digital calling
frequencies for that mode. By general
agreement, contesting does not take
place on the 60, 30, 17 and 12 meter
bands, giving non-contest operators
some room during busy weekend events.
[E2C03]
VHF and UHF contests, sometimes
called VHF+ contests, are conducted in
the “weak signal” areas at the low end
of the VHF, UHF and microwave bands.
Most activity is close to the calling
frequencies for CW and SSB activity.
[E2C06]
Submitting a Contest Log

You are encouraged to make contacts
whether you intend to submit a log to the
contest sponsors or not — no entry is
required. But even if you’ve just entered
the contest casually, making a handful of
QSOs, go ahead and submit a log. The
sponsor will appreciate your efforts and
it allows them to more accurately gauge
contest activity and score the results.
The standard method of submitting a
log is as a Cabrillo-formatted computer
file via an online log submission service
or e-mail. You can submit a log for
ARRL contests at contest-log-
submission.arrl.org. The Cabrillo
format is a standard for organizing the
information in a submitted contest log so
the sponsor can check and score the
QSOs. [E2C07] You can read about the
Cabrillo format at wwrof.org/cabrillo.
Cabrillo-formatted files consist of
printable ASCII characters with the log
information in fixed-position columns.
Cabrillo also adds a number of
standardized “header” lines that contain
information about the log, such as the
operator’s name, call, and location,
contest category, power, and so forth.
Figure 2.2 shows an example of a
Cabrillo log file’s header and QSO
section.
Using Spotting Networks
Many contests offer a Single-Operator
Assisted (SOA) or Single-Operator
Unlimited (SOU) category. This
category usually has the same rules as
the Single-Operator category with one
major exception: The operator may use
information from DX spotting networks
such as dxsummit.fi and/or the Reverse
Beacon Network
(www.reversebeacon.net) that generate
a stream of “spots” listing the call sign
and frequency of stations operating in the
contest.
Feel free to make use of the
information from spotting networks, as
long as it is permitted by the rules of the
contest for your entry category. The only
way in which spotting networks may not
be used is to self-spot, that is
announcing your own call sign and
frequency on the spotting networks.
[E2C02] This is because self-spotting is
another form of CQing. HF contest rules
generally require that soliciting contacts
be done only on the bands of the contest
and without intermediate stations or the
internet.
REMOTE STATIONS
E2C01 — What indicator is required
to be used by U.S.-licensed
operators when operating a
station via remote control
and the remote transmitter
is located in the U.S.?
Once rather unusual, the use of stations

operated by remote control has become
common. There are even stations you
can use on a subscription basis. While
this “changes the game,” especially for
award-chasing and contesting, using a
remote station is allowing many hams
who can’t put up an effective station at
home to get on (or stay on) the air. For
most remote setups, all you need to
operate them is an internet connection
and a web browser. Hams have even
operated while traveling on a
commercial aircraft!
The ability to operate a station that is
literally anywhere with the operator also
literally anywhere brings with it some
additional ethical and regulatory
concerns. (See also the discussion on
remote control in the Rules and
Regulations chapter.) You must be
licensed to transmit from that location
and you must have permission to use that
station.
You must identify your transmissions
according to the rules for operation that
apply at the transmitter if they are
different from those that apply where the
operator is located. If an FCC-licensed
operator uses a remote station within the
United States, no special identification
beyond the FCC-issued call sign is
required by the rules. [E2C01]
However, if K1ABC operates a station
in Brazil under remote control, the
proper identification is PY/K1ABC (or
something similar) to show the
transmissions are coming from Brazil
and not the United States.
2.2 Amateur Satellites

The spherical shape of the Earth and
other factors limit terrestrial
communication at VHF and UHF. Long-
haul communication at VHF and UHF
may require the use of higher effective
radiated power (ERP) or may not be
possible at all. The communication
range of amateur stations is increased
greatly by using repeaters, transponders,
or store-and-forward equipment onboard
satellites orbiting the Earth. There are
several operational amateur satellites
providing communications, plus the
amateur equipment on board the
International Space Station (ISS) and a
number of experimental CubeSats. Most
of the satellites can be accessed or used
to relay signals with very modest
equipment. (More information on using
amateur satellites is available at
www.amsat.org.)
UNDERSTANDING SATELLITE
ORBITS
E2A01 — What is the direction of an
ascending pass for an
amateur satellite?
E2A06 — What are Keplerian
elements?
E2A10 — What type of satellite
appears to stay in one
position in the sky?
E2A11 — What type of antenna can
be used to minimize the
effects of spin modulation
and Faraday rotation?
Two factors affect a body in orbit

around the Earth: forward motion
(inertia) and gravitational attraction.
Forward motion, the inertia of a body,
tends to keep a body moving in a straight
line in the direction it is moving at that
instant. If the body is above the surface
of the Earth, that straight line heads
away into space. Gravity, on the other
hand, tends to pull the body toward the
Earth. When inertia and gravity are
balanced, the object’s path is a stable
orbit around the Earth. One orbit is
defined as one complete revolution
about the Earth (the orbital period).
Johannes Kepler was the first to
describe the mechanics of the orbits of
the planets mathematically. His three
laws of planetary motion, called
“Kepler’s Laws,” also describe the
lunar orbit and the orbits of artificial
Earth satellites. [E2A06] Kepler’s Laws
can be expressed mathematically, and if
you know the values of a set of
measurements of the satellite orbit
(called Keplerian elements), you can
calculate the position of the satellite at
any time. Keplerian elements for the
current amateur satellites are available
online from the AMSAT website,
www.amsat.org.
Kepler’s First Law tells us that all
satellite orbits are shaped like an ellipse
with the center of the Earth at one of the
ellipse’s focal points (Figure 2.3
describes the geometry of an ellipse).
The eccentricity of an ellipse (or an
orbit) is equal to the distance from the
center to one of the focal points divided
by the semimajor axis. Notice that when
the focal point is at the center, the
eccentricity is 0, corresponding to a
circle. The larger the eccentricity, the
“thinner” the ellipse. The eccentricity of
an elliptical orbit ranges between 0 and
1.
Kepler’s Second Law is illustrated in

Figure 2.4. The time required for a
satellite to move in its orbit from point A
to point B is the same as the time
required to move from A′ to B′. What
this means is that a satellite moves faster
in its elliptical orbit when it is closer to
the Earth, and slower when it is farther
away. The area of section AOB is the
same as the area of section A′OB′.
Kepler’s Third Law tells us that the
greater the average distance from the
Earth, the longer it takes for a satellite to
complete each orbit. The time required
for a satellite to make a complete orbit
around the Earth is called the orbital
period. The low-flying amateur
satellites and International Space Station
(ISS) have nearly circular orbits with
typical periods of approximately 90
minutes. Satellite AO-40 had a high,
elliptical orbit and a period of more than
19 hours. If the orbit is high enough and
circular, the satellite’s orbit will be
geosynchronous with a period equal to
the time that it takes the Earth to rotate
once about its axis. If the
geosynchronous orbit is over the Earth’s
equator, the satellite appears to stay in
the same position in the sky. This special
type of orbit is called geostationary.
[E2A10]
Orbital Definitions
Inclination is the angle of a satellite
orbit with respect to Earth. Inclination is
measured between the plane of the orbit
and the plane of the equator (Figure
2.5). If a satellite is always over the
equator as it travels through its orbit, the
orbit has an inclination of 0 degrees. If
the orbit path takes the satellite over the
poles, the inclination is 90 degrees. (If it
goes over one pole, it will go over the
other.) The inclination angle is always
measured from the equator
counterclockwise to the satellite path.
Figure 2.6 gives some examples of
orbits with different inclinations.
A node is the point where a satellite’s
orbit crosses the equator. The
ascending node is the point where the
orbit crosses the equator when the
satellite is traveling from south to north.
Inclination is specified at the ascending
node. Equator crossing (EQX) is
usually specified in time (UTC) of
crossing and in degrees west longitude.
The descending node is the point where
the orbit crosses the equator traveling
from north to south. When the satellite is
within range of your location, it is
common to describe the pass as either an
ascending pass (traveling south to north
over your area) or a descending pass
(traveling north to south). [E2A01]
The point of greatest height in a
satellite orbit is called the apogee as
shown in Figure 2.7. Perigee is the
point of least height. Half the distance
between the apogee and perigee is equal
to the semimajor axis of the satellite
orbit.
Faraday Rotation and Spin Modulation
The polarization of a radio signal
passing through the ionosphere does not
remain constant. A “horizontally
polarized” signal leaving a satellite will
not be horizontally polarized when it
reaches Earth. The signal will seem to
be changing polarization at a receiving
station. This effect is called Faraday
rotation and it is caused by the effect of
the ionosphere on the signal passing
through it. The best way to deal with
Faraday rotation is to use circularly
polarized antennas for transmitting and
receiving.
Satellites are often stabilized by being
spun like a gyroscope around an axis.
This stabilizes the satellite and keeps it
oriented in the same direction as it
travels around the Earth. When the
spacecraft’s spin axis is not pointed
directly at your ground station, you are
likely to experience amplitude changes
and possibly polarization changes
resulting from the spacecraft rotation.
This effect is called spin modulation.
Using linear antennas (horizontal or
vertical polarization) will deepen the
spin-modulation fades to a point where
they may become annoying. Circularly
polarized antennas will minimize the
effect, just as they do for Faraday
rotation. [E2A11]
SATELLITE OPERATION
E2A02 — Which of the following
occurs when a satellite is
using an inverting linear
transponder?
E2A03 — How is the signal inverted
by an inverting linear
transponder?
E2A04 — What is meant by the term
“mode” as applied to an
amateur radio satellite?
E2A05 — What do the letters in a
satellite’s mode designator
specify?
types of signals can be
relayed through a linear
transponder?
E2A08 — Why should effective
radiated power to a satellite
that uses a linear
transponder be limited?
E2A09 — What do the terms “L
band” and “S band” specify
regarding satellite
communications?
E2A12 — What is the purpose of
digital store-and-forward
functions on an amateur
radio satellite?
techniques is normally used
by low Earth orbiting digital
satellites to relay messages
around the world?
Of the many components of a satellite

— batteries, solar panels, controllers —
the most important to the amateur radio
operator trying to use the satellite are the
radio components. Satellites can have
three different types of radio equipment
onboard — repeaters, transponders, and
store-and-forward systems.
Repeaters
A satellite-borne repeater operates in
the same way as a terrestrial repeater. It
receives FM voice signals on a single
frequency or channel and retransmits
what it receives on another channel.
Satellite repeaters typically operate with
their input and output frequencies on
different bands (called a cross-band
repeater) to allow them to dispense with
the heavy and bulky cavity duplexers
required for same-band operation.
Otherwise, accessing a satellite repeater
is just the same as a terrestrial repeater.
With some satellites, you can even use
low power, handheld transceivers with
small beam antennas to make contacts.
(See the AMSAT website for
operational status and new satellites.)
Transponders
By convention, transponder is the
name given to any linear translator that
is installed in a satellite. In contrast to a
repeater, a transponder’s receive
passband includes enough spectrum for
many channels. An amateur satellite
transponder does not use channels in the
way that voice repeaters do. Received
signals from an entire segment of a band
are amplified, shifted to a new frequency
range by a mixer and retransmitted by
the transponder. See Figure 2.8.
The major hardware difference

between a repeater and a transponder is
signal detection. In a repeater, a
received signal is converted to audio
and then retransmitted. In a transponder,
signals in the passband are shifted to an
intermediate frequency (IF) for
amplification and retransmission.
Operationally, the contrast is much
greater. An FM voice repeater is a one-
signal, one-mode-input and one-signal,
one-mode-output device. A transponder
can receive several signals at once and
convert them to a new frequency range.
Further, a transponder can be thought of
as a multimode repeater. Whatever mode
is received is retransmitted. [E2A07]
The same transponder can
simultaneously handle SSB and CW
signals.
An inverting linear transponder
inverts the uplink signals before
retransmitting them on the downlink.
This is done by using the mixer output’s
difference products instead of the sum.
In other words, if you transmit to the
satellite at the bottom of the uplink
passband, your signal position is
reversed to the top of the downlink
passband. In addition, if your uplink
signal is upper sideband (USB), your
downlink signal will be lower sideband
(LSB). While this sounds confusing,
there is a benefit — it counteracts the
effects of Doppler shift on the received
and transmitted signals. An increase in
uplink frequency results in a
corresponding decrease in downlink
frequency. [E2A02, E2A03]
The use of a transponder rather than a
channelized repeater allows more
stations to use the satellite at one time. In
fact, the number of different stations
using a transponder at any one time is
limited only by mutual interference, and
the fact that the output power of the
satellite is divided among the users. (On
the Low Earth Orbit — LEO —
satellites, the output power is a couple
of watts. For higher-orbit, multi-band
satellites, transponder outputs range
from about 50 W on the 2.4 and 10 GHz
bands to about 1 W on the 24 GHz
band.) Because all users must share the
power output, continuous-carrier modes
such as FM and RTTY generally are not
used through amateur satellites and all
users should limit their transmitting ERP
(effective radiated power) to allow as
many stations as possible to use the
transponder. [E2A08]
PACSATs
Packet radio store-and-forward
systems in space, called PACSATs,
provide an interesting mix of satellites
and packet-radio technology. (See the
Modulation, Protocols and Modes
chapter for more about packet radio.)
These small satellites function as packet
bulletin board store-and-forward
systems. A terrestrial station can send a
message through a PACSAT by
uploading it to the satellite for another
station to download when the satellite is
in view. [E2A12, E2A13] The most
widely used store-and-forward satellite
is the packet system on-board the
International Space Station. Other short-
lived “CubeSats” often provide
temporary digital capabilities on an
experimental basis. (See the “Satellite
Status” page at www.amsat.org for
more information on these satellites.)
Satellite Operating Frequencies

Satellites used for two-way
communication generally use one
amateur band for the uplink and another
for the downlink. Amateur satellites use
a variety of uplink and downlink bands,
ranging from HF through microwave
frequencies. When describing satellite
transponders, the input (uplink) band is
given, followed by the corresponding
output (downlink) band. For example, a
2 meter/70 cm transponder would have
an input passband centered near 145
MHz and an output passband centered
near 435 MHz.
Transponders usually are identified by
mode — but not mode of transmission
such as SSB or CW or RTTY. Mode has
an entirely different meaning in this case.
The operating mode of a satellite
identifies the uplink and downlink
frequency bands that the satellite is
using. [E2A04]
Satellite operating modes are specified
by letter designators that correspond to
the frequency range of the uplink and
downlink bands. For example, the letter
V designates a satellite uplink or
downlink in the 2 meter band and U
designates uplinks and downlinks in the
70 cm band. So a satellite operating with
an uplink on 70 cm and a downlink on 2
meters is in “Mode U/V.” (Remember,
the uplink band is always the first letter.)
Table 2.2 lists various satellite
operating modes by their frequency
bands and letter designations. [E2A05,
E2A09]
An amateur satellite may operate on
several of these modes, sometimes
simultaneously. Some of the more
flexible communications satellites can
use various band combinations at
different times. You will have to check
the operating schedule for the particular
satellite you plan to use.
• Operating regulations and
frequency privileges
• Restrictions on station operation,
location, and antennas
• Local, remote, and automatic
station control
• Amateur-satellite service rules
• Rules for exams and volunteer
examiners
• Auxiliary stations, power amplifier
certification, spread spectrum
requirements, and non-US
operating agreements
The Amateur Extra class license exam

(Element 4) includes six questions about
the FCC’s Part 97 rules for the amateur
service. These questions cover a wide
range of topics, including operating
standards, station restrictions and
special operations, station control, the
amateur-satellite service, the Volunteer
Examiner program, and miscellaneous
rules.
The Extra Class License Manual does
not contain a complete listing of the Part
97 rules, but focuses on the specific
rules on the exam. Every amateur should
have an up-to-date copy of the complete
Part 97 rules in their station or easily
available from a website for reference.
The ARRL’s booklet FCC Rules and
Regulations for the Amateur Radio
Service contains the complete printed
text of Part 97. The text of Part 97 is
also available on the ARRL website at
www.arrl.org/part-97-text.
3.1 Operating
Standards
carrier frequencies is illegal
for LSB AFSK emissions on
the 17 meter band RTTY and
data segment of 18.068 to
18.110 MHz?
E1A02 — When using a transceiver
that displays the carrier
frequency of phone signals,
which of the following
displayed frequencies
represents the lowest
frequency at which a
properly adjusted LSB
emission will be totally
within the band?
E1A03 — What is the maximum legal
carrier frequency on the 20
meter band for transmitting
USB AFSK digital signals
having a 1 kHz bandwidth?
E1A04 — With your transceiver
displaying the carrier
frequency of phone signals,
you hear a DX station calling
CQ on 3.601 MHz LSB. Is it
legal to return the call using
lower sideband on the same
frequency?
E1A05 — What is the maximum
power output permitted on
the 60 meter band?
E1A06 — Where must the carrier
frequency of a CW signal be
set to comply with FCC rules
for 60 meter operation?
E1A07 — What is the maximum
power permitted on the 2200
meter band?
E1A14 — Except in some parts of
Alaska, what is the
maximum power permitted
on the 630 meter band?
E1C01 — What is the maximum
bandwidth for a data
emission on 60 meters?
E1C07 — At what level below a
signal’s mean power level is
its bandwidth determined
according to FCC rules?
E1C12 — On what portion of the 630
meter band are phone
emissions permitted?
E1C13 — What notifications must be
given before transmitting on
the 630 meter or 2200 meter
bands?
E1C14 — How long must an operator
wait after filing a
notification with the Utilities
Technology Council (UTC)
before operating on the 2200
meter or 630 meter band?
Having already passed your Technician

and General class license exams, you’re
pretty familiar with the basic structure of
the FCC rules. As an Extra class
licensee, however, your growing amount
of experience will expose you to a
wider variety of operating situations and
circumstances. While the exam can’t
cover every possible niche of the rules,
it can touch on a few areas that you
might encounter. The most obvious new
experiences will be your new and
exclusive HF operating privileges! The
exam also covers the responsibilities of
control operators when engaged in
automatic message forwarding,
operation aboard ships and planes, and
operation under RACES rules.
FREQUENCY AND EMISSION

PRIVILEGES
As an Extra class licensee, you will
have all of the frequency privileges
available in amateur radio. The
privileges above 50 MHz are listed in
Section 97.301(a) of the FCC rules and
those below 30 MHz in §97.301(b).
(Section is often represented by the §
character when referencing a specific
portion of the FCC rules and we’ll use
that convention in this manual.) Table
3.1 contains the latest additions to our
amateur bands. Any special frequency
sharing requirements are stated in
§97.303.
As an Extra class licensee you will

have several exclusive privileges on
segments of the 80, 75, 40, 20, and 15
meter bands. Table 3.2 shows that you
will have a total of 250 kHz of Extra
class spectrum. While the exam does not
contain questions about specific
frequency privileges, it is still important
to know what they are. (Figure 2.1, in
Chapter 2, shows a handy chart of all US
amateur privileges.) At the time this
manual was prepared (early 2020), the
FCC was considering several proposals
that would change emission privileges in
the amateur bands. Rule changes will be
published on the ARRL website,
although the schedule for any
announcements is unknown.
You must know where your transmitted

signal is with respect to the displayed
frequency on your transceiver! This is
essential for both compliance with your
license privileges and for operating
convenience. What frequency is your
radio displaying? This varies with
operating mode, as shown in Table 3.3
and Figure 3.1.
On CW, the radio displays the
frequency of the transmitted signal. On
AM, SSB, and FM the radio displays the
carrier frequency of the signal. On AM
and FM, the carrier frequency is in the
middle of your transmitted signal. (The
displayed frequency of some
transceivers can be configured
differently — check your radio’s
instruction manual.)
The bandwidth of a properly-adjusted
amateur USB or LSB signal is from 2.5
to 3 kHz. That means the sidebands of an
SSB phone signal extend up to 3 kHz
from the carrier frequency as shown in
Table 3.3. You must keep your sidebands
entirely within the band so it’s important
to understand how close you can operate
to the edge. On USB, it’s prudent to set
your carrier frequency no closer than 3
kHz below the band edge and on LSB no
closer than 3 kHz above the band edge.
[E1A02] If your carrier is closer than
that to the band edge — say 14.349 MHz
USB or 7.126 MHz LSB — your
sidebands will be outside the band!
[E1A04]
The same concerns apply to digital
mode signals. Most digital signals today
are transmitted using FSK or AFSK
(audio frequency shift keying)
techniques. (See the chapter Modulation,
Protocols, and Modes for more
information.) The signals are similar to
USB or LSB signals as shown in Figure
3.1. You must make sure your sidebands
remain within a band or band segment,
just as when using a voice mode. For
example, on 17 meters, when
transmitting RTTY using LSB so that the
mark and space sidebands are below the
carrier frequency, setting your carrier
frequency to 18.068 MHz, the lower
band edge, would put the sidebands
entirely outside the band. Similarly, for
data segments inside a band if you are
transmitting an USB AFSK signal with a
bandwidth of 1 kHz, the closest you
should set your carrier frequency to the
edge of the data segment on 20 meters is
14.149 MHz. Any higher in frequency
and the signal sidebands would extend
into the phone segment that starts at
14.150 MHz. [E1A01, E1A03]
Remember that CW signals have
sidebands, too, even though the signal is
quite narrow compared to SSB. A
typical CW signal has a bandwidth of 50
– 150 Hz, so setting the carrier
frequency exactly on a band edge will
result in your signal extending outside
the band even if your displayed carrier
frequency is exactly accurate.
Since signal bandwidth is determined
by the signal’s bandwidth, it’s important
to understand how the FCC measures
bandwidth. (See §97.3(a)(8)) Figure 3.2
shows a typical phone or data signal
with most of its energy contained in a
small range. The mean or average power
of the signal in this range is used as a
reference. The signal becomes weaker
above and below the central range as the
sidebands become less powerful. The
signal’s bandwidth is the difference
between the frequencies at which the
sideband strength is 26 dB (400 times)
lower than the mean signal power.
[E1C07] It doesn’t matter whether the
signal carrier frequency is centered in
the range or to one side — it is only the
average signal power that counts.
Special Restrictions
While most amateur bands are divided
into Phone and CW/Data segments and
have no other special restrictions on
operating privileges, two bands are
exceptions.
Amateurs may only transmit CW and
data signals on the 30 meter band and
are limited to 200 W output power —
phone and image signals are not
allowed.
Operation on the 60 meter band is
restricted to certain channels and
emission types [E1A05, E1A06,
E1C01]:
• Amateurs may only use five 2.8 kHz-
wide channels centered on 5332, 5348,
5358.5, 5373, and 5405 kHz.
• USB (upper sideband) voice is the
only phone emission allowed. The
carrier must be located 1.5 kHz below
the center of the channel. This centers a
properly-adjusted USB signal on the
specified channel frequency.
• RTTY and data emissions are
permitted as USB signals centered on the
specified channel frequency (not just
anywhere within the channel) as
described above. The bandwidth of the
transmitted signal may not exceed 2.8
kHz.
• CW is permitted with the carrier
frequency set to the specified channel
center frequency.
• Output power is limited to 100 W
ERP (effective radiated power) relative
to a dipole.
• Automatic control of RTTY and data
emissions is not permitted.
These restrictions are necessary to
coexist with other government fixed
service stations. The 2015 World
Radiocommunication Conference
(WRC-15) in Geneva approved an
allocation of 5351.5 – 5366.5 kHz to the
Amateur Service on a secondary basis
with a power limit of 15 W EIRP
(equivalent isotropic radiated power —
see the Antennas and Feed Lines
chapter). As of early 2020, however, the
FCC has not yet adopted the
recommendations and made formal rules
to allow amateurs access to this new
band. Watch for announcements on the
ARRL website when the new rules take
effect.
On 630 meters, which is just below the
AM broadcast band, amateurs are
allowed a maximum power of 5 W
EIRP. The power limit is even lower, 1
W EIRP, on the only amateur radio LF
(low frequency) band, 2200 meters.
Both of these bands require special
attention to antenna system design and
operating techniques for making contacts
with low power. However, permitted
emissions, including phone, may be
transmitted anywhere in the band —
good luck! [E1A07, E1A14, E1C12]
In order to operate on the 630 and 2200
meter bands, you must be sure you will
not cause interference to power line
control (PLC) systems that also operate
in this frequency range. This requires
informing the Utilities Technology
Council (UTC) of your call sign and
station coordinates. If after 30 days of
notifying the UTC you have not received
a notice that you are within 1 km of a
PLC system, you may go ahead and
operate. [E1C13, E1C14]
SPECIAL OPERATING RULES

E1A08 — If a station in a message
forwarding system
inadvertently forwards a
message that is in violation
of FCC rules, who is
primarily accountable for the
rules violation?
E1A09 — What action or actions you
should you take if your
digital message forwarding
station inadvertently
forwards a communication
that violates FCC rules?
E1A10 — If an amateur station is
installed aboard a ship or
aircraft, what condition must
be met before the station is
operated?
describes authorization or
licensing required when
operating an amateur station
aboard a U.S.-registered
vessel in international
waters?
E1A13 — Who must be in physical
control of the station
apparatus of an amateur
station aboard any vessel or
craft that is documented or
registered in the United
States?
E1B09 — Which amateur stations
may be operated under
RACES rules?
E1B10 — What frequencies are
authorized to an amateur
station operating under
RACES rules?
Automatic Message Forwarding

The FCC rules establish standards
governing the operation of amateur radio
stations. Within those standards,
amateurs relish experimenting with
methods of communication, such as types
of modulation and digital protocols.
Over the years, amateurs have
developed or adapted technology to
create radio-based data networks
capable of automatically forwarding
messages, such as packet radio and the
Winlink system.
Amateurs have always been held
accountable for any message transmitted
from their stations. When all third-party
communications were relayed by
individual amateurs, such rules made
sense and were easy to follow. With the
advent of automatic message forwarding,
requiring every individual station owner
to personally screen every message was
not feasible. In response, the rules now
state that the FCC holds the originating
station primarily responsible. [E1A08]
The first station to forward an illegal
message also bears some responsibility
but other stations that automatically
forward the message are not
responsible. If you become aware that
your station has inadvertently forwarded
a communication that violates FCC
rules, you should, of course,
immediately discontinue forwarding that
message to other stations. [E1A09]
§97.219 — Message Forwarding

System Rules
(a) Any amateur station may participate in a
message forwarding system, subject to the
privileges of the class of operator license
held.
(b) For stations participating in a message
forwarding system, the control operator of
the station originating a message is primarily
accountable for any violation of the rules in
this Part contained in the message.
(c) Except as noted in paragraph (d) of this
section, for stations participating in a
message forwarding system, the control
operators of forwarding stations that
retransmit inadvertently communications that
violate the rules in this Part are not
accountable for the violative
communications. They are, however,
responsible for discontinuing such
communications once they become aware of
their presence.
(d) For stations participating in a message
forwarding system, the control operator of
the first forwarding station must:
(1) Authenticate the identity of the station
from which it accepts communication on
behalf of the system; or
(2) Accept accountability for any violation
of the rules in this Part contained in
messages it retransmits to the system.
§97.11 — Stations Aboard Ships or

Aircraft
(a) The installation and operation of an
amateur station on a ship or aircraft must be
approved by the master of the ship or pilot in
command of the aircraft.
(b) The station must be separate from and
independent of all other radio apparatus
installed on the ship or aircraft, except a
common antenna may be shared with a
voluntary ship radio installation. The station’s
transmissions must not cause interference to
any other apparatus installed on the ship or
aircraft.
(c) The station must not constitute a hazard
to the safety of life or property. For a station
aboard an aircraft, the apparatus shall not be
operated while the aircraft is operating under
Instrument Flight Rules, as defined by the
FAA, unless the station has been found to
comply with all applicable FAA rules.
RACES Operation
Any FCC-licensed amateur station may
be operated under RACES (Radio
Amateur Civil Emergency Service)
rules, but to participate they must be
certified by the responsible civil defense
organization for the area served.
[E1B09] RACES station operators do
not receive any additional operator
privileges because of their RACES
registration. For example, a Technician
class operator may only use Technician
frequencies when serving as the control
operator. Extra class operators must also
follow the operator privileges granted
by their license. In general, all amateur
frequencies are available to stations
participating in RACES operation.
[E1B10] RACES stations may
communicate with any RACES station as
well as certain other stations as
authorized by the responsible civil
defense official. The complete RACES
rules are covered in §97.407.
Stations Aboard Ships or Aircraft

You may have worked a maritime
mobile station signing /MM or an
aeronautical mobile with an /AM suffix.
That sounds pretty exciting and there is
absolutely no reason not to try it yourself
except for one small caveat: If you want
to operate on board a ship or aircraft
you must have the radio installation
approved by the master of the ship or the
pilot in command of the aircraft.
[E1A10] The sidebar “§97.11 —
Stations Aboard Ships or Aircraft” lists
the specific requirements for such an
installation. You don’t need any other
special permit or permission from the
FCC for such an operation, though. Your
FCC amateur radio license is all that’s
needed. [E1A11]
You should also be aware that to
operate from international waters (or
international air space) from a vessel or
plane registered in the US you must have
an FCC-issued amateur license or
reciprocal operating permit. [E1A13]
This is because FCC rules apply to US-
registered ships and aircraft. If the boat
or plane travels into an area controlled
by another country then you must have a
license or permission from that country
to operate. In international waters or air
space, however, any amateur license is
sufficient to permit you to operate. You
must also obey the frequency restrictions
that apply to the ITU Region in which
you are operating.
3.2 Station
Restrictions
E1B01 — Which of the following
constitutes a spurious
emission?
E1B03 — Within what distance must
an amateur station protect
an FCC monitoring facility
from harmful interference?
E1B04 — What must be done before
placing an amateur station
within an officially
designated wilderness area
or wildlife preserve, or an
area listed in the National
Register of Historic Places?
additional rules apply if you
are installing an amateur
station antenna at a site at
or near a public use airport?
E1B07 — To what type of regulations
does PRB-1 apply?
E1B08 — What limitations may the
FCC place on an amateur
station if its signal causes
interference to domestic
broadcast reception,
assuming that the receivers
involved are of good
engineering design?
E1B11 — What does PRB-1 require of
regulations affecting
amateur radio?
E1C10 — What is the permitted mean
power of any spurious
emission relative to the
mean power of the
fundamental emission from a
station transmitter or
external RF amplifier
installed after January 1,
2003 and transmitting on a
frequency below 30 MHz?
In general, you can operate your

amateur radio station anytime you want
to. You can operate from nearly any
location in the United States.
Circumstances, however, may lead to
some restrictions on your ability to
operate.
OPERATING RESTRICTIONS
Under certain conditions spelled out in
§97.121, the FCC may modify the terms
of your amateur station license. These
have to do with interference between a
properly operating amateur station and
users of other licensed services. Here’s
what §97.121(a) says about interference
to broadcast signals:
“If the operation of an amateur station
causes general interference to the
reception of transmissions from stations
operating in the domestic broadcast
service when receivers of good
engineering design, including adequate
selectivity characteristics, are used to
receive such transmissions, and this fact
is made known to the amateur station
licensee, the amateur station shall not be
operated during the hours from 8 p.m. to
10:30 p.m., local time, and on Sunday
for the additional period from 10:30
a.m. until 1 p.m., local time, upon the
frequency or frequencies used when the
interference is created.”
Where the interference from the
amateur station is causing a sufficient
amount of interference, the FCC can
impose limited quiet periods on the
amateur station on the frequencies that
cause interference. [E1B08] This is not
a blanket injunction against interference
to broadcast radio and TV signals. Note
that the receiver must be “of good
engineering design, including adequate
selectivity characteristics.” The majority
of broadcast receivers, manufactured
under stringent price constraints, omit
key interference-rejection features,
particularly filtering. The result is that
quiet periods are rarely imposed by the
FCC.
It is also required that the amateur
station be operating properly without
violating any rules, especially those
regarding spurious emissions. §97.3(a)
(42) defines a spurious emission as “an
emission, on frequencies outside the
necessary bandwidth of a transmission,
the level of which may be reduced
without affecting the information being
transmitted.” [E1B01] For stations
installed in 2003 or later, spurious
emissions must be at least 43 dB below
the mean power of the fundamental
signal. [E1C10] (See the previous
section for a discussion of how the FCC
defines signal bandwidth.)
It’s important to realize that nearly all
transmissions have some associated
spurious emissions. The amateur may be
unable to reduce the spurious emissions
to zero; a station operating completely
legally may still transmit very low level
spurious signals that are within the
regulatory limits.
STATION LOCATION AND

ANTENNA STRUCTURES
Unless restricted by private agreements
such as deed restrictions and covenants,
or by local zoning regulations, you are
free to install and build whatever
antennas and support structures you want
— almost. There are certain conditions
that may restrict the physical location of
your amateur station and the height of the
structures associated with it — your
towers and antennas.
Restrictions on Location
If the land on which your station is
located has environmental importance,
or is significant in American history,
architecture, or culture you may be
required to take action as described in
§97.13(a). For example, if your station
will be located within the boundaries of
an officially designated wilderness area,
wildlife preserve, or an area listed in
the National Register of Historic Places,
you may be required to submit an
Environmental Assessment to the FCC.
[E1B04]
If your station will be located within 1
mile of an FCC monitoring facility, you
must protect that facility from harmful
interference. [E1B03] If you do cause
interference to such a facility, the FCC
Engineer in Charge may impose
operating restrictions on your station.
Table 3.4 contains a list of these FCC
facilities that must be protected from
interference.
§97.13 — Restrictions on Station
Location
(a) Before placing an amateur station on
land of environmental importance or that is
significant in American history, architecture
or culture, the licensee may be required to
take certain actions prescribed by §§1.1305 –
1.1319 of this chapter.
(b) A station within 1600 m (1 mile) of an
FCC monitoring facility must protect that
facility from harmful interference. Failure to
do so could result in imposition of operating
restrictions upon the amateur station by a
District Director pursuant to §97.121 of this
Part. Geographical coordinates of the
facilities that require protection are listed in
§0.121(c) of this chapter.
§97.15 — Station Antenna

Structures
(a) Owners of certain antenna structures
more than 60.96 meters (200 feet) above
ground level at the site or located near or at a
public use airport must notify the Federal
Aviation Administration and register with the
Commission as required by Part 17 of this
chapter.
(b) Except as otherwise provided herein, a
station antenna structure may be erected at
heights and dimensions sufficient to
accommodate amateur service
communications. [State and local regulation
of a station antenna structure must not
preclude amateur service communications.
Rather, it must reasonably accommodate such
communications and must constitute the
minimum practicable regulation to
accomplish the state or local authority’s
legitimate purpose. See PRB-1, 101 FCC 2d
952 (1985) for details.]
Restrictions on Antenna Structures

Amateurs may face considerable
hurdles in attempting to build effective
stations due to zoning limits, deed
restrictions, and Homeowner
Association (HOA) rules. The FCC
recognized that amateurs needed some
protection in order to be able to satisfy
the Basis and Purpose of the amateur
service stated in §97.1. This resulted in
PRB-1, an FCC regulation which
requires state and local or municipal
zoning to make reasonable
accommodations for amateur radio.
[E1B07] PRB-1 by no means prevents
any restrictions on antennas or stations,
but it does require that regulations
consider the needs of amateurs. [E1B11]
The FCC rules also place some
limitations and restrictions on the
construction of antennas for amateur
stations. Without prior FCC approval
and notification to the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA), you may not
build an antenna structure, including a
tower or other support structure, higher
than 200 feet. This applies even if your
station is located in a valley or canyon.
Unless it is approved, the antenna
structure may not be more than 200 feet
above the ground level at the station
location. This includes all of the tower
and antenna. The rule is needed to
maintain aviation safety. Structures over
200 feet may be approved, but will be
required to have warning markings and
tower lighting.
If your antenna is located near a
public-use airport, then further height
limitations may apply. You must obtain
approval from the FAA in such cases.
[E1B06] The FAA rules limit antenna
structure height based on the distance
from the nearest active runways. If your
antenna structure is no more than 20 feet
above any natural or existing man-made
structure then you do not need approval.
See www.fcc.gov/wireless/systems-
utilities/antenna-structure-
registration for more information.
3.3 Station Control

E1C03 — How do the control
operator responsibilities of a
station under automatic
control differ from one
under local control?
E1C05 — When may an automatically
controlled station originate
third party communications?
E1C08 — What is the maximum
permissible duration of a
remotely controlled station’s
transmissions if its control
link malfunctions?
E1D01 — What is the definition of
telemetry?
E1D04 — Which of the following is
required in the identification
transmissions from a
balloon-borne telemetry
station?
E1D05 — What must be posted at the
station location of a station
being operated by
telecommand on or within 50
km of the earth’s surface?
E1D06 — What is the maximum
permitted transmitter output
power when operating a
model craft by
telecommand?
E1D12 — Which of the following
amateur stations may
transmit one-way
communications?
The more experience you gain in

amateur radio, the more varied and
interesting the methods you’ll find of
putting together a functioning station.
With the internet connected directly to
the radio and all manner of “smart”
interfaces that allow all the equipment to
work in concert, the possibilities are
literally endless. Even so, all of the
different configurations can be reduced
to one of three types of control: local,
remote, and automatic as defined in the
next few sections. FCC regulations must
be followed under all methods of
control.
What’s important is that you, the
control operator, understand the rules
for each type of station. The FCC
definition for a control operator
[§97.3(a)(13)] is “an amateur operator
designated by the licensee of a station to
be responsible for the transmissions
from that station to assure compliance
with the FCC Rules.” The control
operator doesn’t have to be the station
owner and doesn’t even have to be
physically present at the transmitter, but
someone must be responsible for all
amateur transmissions, whether the
equipment is directly supervised or not.
LOCAL CONTROL
The FCC defines local control
[§97.3(a)(30)] as “the use of a control
operator who directly manipulates the
operating adjustments in the station to
achieve compliance with the FCC
Rules.” Local control is the classic form
of radio operation. If you are in your
station, turning the VFO knob and
pressing the PTT switch, that’s local
control. It doesn’t matter whether the
operator adjusts the equipment directly
by hand or uses a computer to make
changes or even uses a voice-activated
speech system.
REMOTE CONTROL
Operating a station by remote control
means that the control point is no longer
at the radio — it’s where the control
operator is. The control point is
wherever a control operator performs
the station's control functions.
If you’re not in direct contact with the
radio, but are managing to operate it by
means of some intermediary system,
that’s remote control. The intermediary
system that allows you to operate the
radio without being in direct contact
with it — that’s the control link.
Because it’s possible that the control
link could fail, you are expected to have
some control backup systems that will
keep the transmitter from being left on
the air. If the control link malfunctions,
§97.213 requires that backup control
equipment should limit continuous
transmissions to no more than three
minutes. [E1C08]
It’s important to be aware of the rules
for remote control because more and
more radio equipment is designed to
support remote control. Many amateurs
have constructed remote control stations
that allow them to operate from antenna-
restricted housing, for example. Another
common example of remotely-controlled
stations are the digital Winlink Express
stations (www.winlink.org) that wait for
a station to call them before responding.
The Winlink station is considered to be
remotely controlled by the calling
operator.
TELECOMMAND AND ONE-WAY

TRANSMISSIONS
The definition of telecommand is “one-
way transmissions to initiate, modify, or
terminate functions of a device at a
distance.” (§97.3(a)(44)) A station may
be operated under remote control by
telecommand. If the control link operates
through the internet or by a cable or Wi-
Fi from a separated front panel that is
considered a “wireline” connection. If a
radio link is used, however, an auxiliary
station (§97.3(a)(7)) must be used. So
that the control operator of the station
can be identified, the following must be
posted at the station being operated by
telecommand if it is on or within 50 km
of the Earth’s surface [E1D05]:
• A photocopy of the station license
• A label with the name, address, and
telephone number of the station licensee
• A label with the name, address, and
telephone number of the control operator
Telecommand is commonly used for
space stations as described in the next
section and for model craft such as
remotely piloted vehicles (RPVs, more
commonly known as “drones”), model
craft such as planes or boats, and for
experimental platforms such as high-
altitude balloons. The maximum power
allowed for operating a model craft via
telecommand is 1 W. [E1D06] In
addition, a label with the station call
sign and the licensee’s name and address
must be affixed to the station transmitter.
One-way transmissions such as for
telecommand and telemetry are
permitted for space stations, beacon
stations, and the special telecommand
stations that control space stations as
defined in the next section on the
amateur satellite service. [E1D12]
AUTOMATIC CONTROL
Does a human control operator have to
be present at the control point to
supervise every amateur transmission?
No — repeaters are a very good
example of stations operating under
automatic control with no control
operator present. Automatic control is
defined in §97.3(a)(6) as “the use of
devices and procedures for control of a
station when it is transmitting so that
compliance with the FCC Rules is
achieved without the control operator
being present at a control point.”
[E1C03] The FCC limits the frequencies
on which automatically-controlled
stations may operate to make sure the
amateur bands are used primarily by
human operators. Table 3.5 shows the
frequencies on which ground-based
stations may operate under automatic
control either as repeaters or as digital
stations.
Using Automatic Forwarding
Systems
More and more hams are building,
operating and using automated digital
message forwarding systems. These systems
require both a new on-the-air etiquette and a
careful attention to the rules to ensure that
the communication procedures and message
content comply with FCC rules. As an Extra
class licensee, you may become responsible
as a control operator for an automated station
or to lead a team using these systems. It’s
important that you understand and follow the
rules that keep these systems compatible with
amateur radio.
These systems use protocols to automate
the process of calling, connecting,
exchanging data, and disconnecting. The first
such amateur system was packet radio, using
the AX.25 protocol over VHF and UHF links.
These protocols do a good job of getting the
data from one station to another.
Unfortunately, the protocols aren’t built to
recognize signals from other modes that may
be operating on or near the same frequency.
This is a crucial difference between digital
and analog communications modes in which
the information is copied “by ear.” It is easy
for a human to recognize signals from other
modes, even signals that may not be on the
same frequency, just nearby. Digital systems
have not yet developed that capability. To an
HF digital protocol, CW or SSB voice signals
are just an interfering tone or noise. A station
using digital protocols is likely to react to
them as interference or ignore them as it
tries to connect with another digital station.
This often disrupts the analog
communications and is the reason why human
supervision of digital stations is so important,
particularly on HF where many modes share
the same limited band space.
One of the most common sources of
behavior-based conflict between modes is the
use of semi-automated digital systems on HF.
Amateurs have constructed “mailbox”
stations that wait silently on a published
frequency until called by another digital
station using the same protocol. The mailbox
station “will not transmit unless transmitted
to” and so does not cause interference to
signals from other modes. Unless, that is,
another digital station calls in, causing the
mailbox station to start the connection and
transfer process. That makes it important for
the operator of the calling station to listen
carefully for other signals on the frequency.
If the operator does not listen, this allows
the protocol controller to make the decisions
about when to transmit. This can and does
enable harmful interference to occur!
Another cause of interference is the “hidden
transmitter” problem caused by propagation
in which the calling station can’t hear the
other stations on frequency but the mailbox
station is heard by everyone. In this situation,
even a human operator will not hear the other
stations. Nevertheless, the best solution for
everyone is for operators of stations
attempting to connect to other digital stations
to listen by ear first whenever operating on
frequencies where other signals are likely to
be present. It is not enough to watch for a
BUSY light on a modem or controller — that
light may only signify the presence of
another recognizable digital signal.
Digital messages can also run afoul of
content regulations when they are generated
by non-amateurs. For example, it’s fine to
exchange e-mail messages about personal
topics but not about work or financial
matters. Remember that a non-ham sender is
probably unaware of the restrictions on
content with which amateurs must comply.
Third-party regulations and agreements also
apply — know the rules! Higher-speed digital
systems may even support direct Internet
access. Advertisements are commonplace on
many web pages but are not allowed in
amateur communications. For this reason
alone, web browsing via Amateur Radio is not
a good idea. It’s important to follow the rules
for our service even when they limit what we
can do compared to online activities from
home over non-amateur networks. It’s
important that Amateur Radio remain amateur
in fact as well as spirit!
Along with the familiar voice

repeaters, auxiliary and beacon stations
may be automatically controlled
(discussed in the Miscellaneous Rules
section later in this chapter). Beacon
stations transmit continuously (limited to
100 W of output power) so that other
amateurs can tell when propagation
exists between their location and that of
the beacon station.
There are special rules about the third-
party messages and automatically
controlled stations because of the power
of message forwarding networks. (see
the sidebar “Using Automatic
Forwarding Systems”) Third-party
traffic is not limited to radiograms — it
can be e-mail, digital files, or even
keyboard-to-keyboard chat sessions if
the content is transferred on behalf of
someone who is not a licensed amateur.
Automatically controlled stations may
only relay third-party communications as
RTTY or data emissions and are never
allowed to originate the messages.
[E1C05] These restrictions are in place
to be sure amateur radio does not
become an extension of the commercial
data networks.
TELEMETRY
Amateur radio can be used to conduct
experiments and make measurements.
For example, a satellite might record the
temperature, amount of solar radiation or
other measurements and then transmit
that information back to Earth. It is also
important for the satellite operators to
know the status of important parameters
such as the state of battery charge,
transmitter temperature, or other
spacecraft conditions. High-altitude
balloon-borne experiments and data
logging stations on buoys or in remote
sites also need to transmit similar
information back to a host station.
When transmitted, this information is
called telemetry, the general term for
any one-way transmission of
measurements to a receiver located at a
distance from the measuring instrument.
[E1D01] Telemetry transmissions can
include any kind of data but must include
the call sign of the transmitting station.
[E1D04]
3.4 Amateur-Satellite
Service
E1D02 — Which of the following may
transmit special codes
intended to obscure the
meaning of messages?
E1D03 — What is a space
telecommand station?
E1D07 — Which HF amateur bands
have frequencies authorized
for space stations?
E1D08 — Which VHF amateur bands
for space stations?
E1D09 — Which UHF amateur bands
for space stations?
E1D10 — Which amateur stations are
eligible to be telecommand
stations of space stations
(subject to the privileges of
the class of operator license
held by the control operator
of the station)?
E1D11 — Which amateur stations are
eligible to operate as Earth
stations?
Stations more than 50 km above the

Earth’s surface are called space
stations. The term can be confusing
since it is also commonly used to refer
to the International Space Station (ISS).
In the FCC rules (§97.207) “space
stations” refers to all amateur stations
located more than 50 km above the
Earth’s surface. Doubly confusing, the
amateur equipment aboard the ISS is
itself a space station aboard the
International Space Station! Space
stations operate according to the rules
for the amateur satellite service. Table
3.6 defines some of the terms used in the
amateur-satellite service rules.
SPACE TELECOMMAND
STATIONS
Since most space stations are not
operated by amateurs under local
control, amateurs must have some way to
control the various functions of the
satellite. A station that transmits
communications to a satellite to initiate,
modify, or terminate the various
functions of a space station is a space
telecommand operation. [E1D03]
Stations that transmit these command
communications are telecommand
stations. Any amateur station that is
designated by the space station licensee
may serve as a telecommand station.
§97.211 describes what telecommand
stations are and what they may do.
Obviously, sending telecommand
communications to a satellite should not
be something any amateur can do.
Unauthorized telecommand signals
would likely disrupt or even damage the
satellite. For this reason, the FCC
allows telecommand stations to use
special codes that are intended to
obscure the meaning of telecommand
messages. [E1D02] This is one of the
few times an amateur may intentionally
obscure the meaning of a message.
Otherwise, anyone who copied the
transmission could learn the control
codes for the satellite.
SATELLITE LICENSING AND

FREQUENCY PRIVILEGES
Any amateur radio station can also be a
space station — assuming you can get it
into space somehow! You’ll need
telecommand stations to control the
satellite. Any amateur station may be a
satellite telecommand station subject to
the restrictions of the control operator’s
license class, of course. [E1D10] You
just have to authorize them to do it and
give them the telecommand information.
On the HF bands, a space station may
only operate on the 17, 15, 12 and 10
meter bands and on portions of the 40
and 20 meter bands. [E1D07] Segments
of 2 meters, 70 cm, 23 cm, 13 cm, and
some microwave bands are also
available for space station operation.
[E1D08, E1D09]
And then there are the satellite users
who will be clamoring to “squirt your
bird”! Once again, no special license is
required — any amateur station can
operate as an Earth station if the
privileges of the license allow the
operator to use the frequencies and
modes on which the satellite operates.
[E1D11] The only reason a satellite
would not be usable by operators of
every class of US license would be if it
had an uplink frequency in either a
General or Extra class subband on 40,
20, or 15 meters. There are no satellites
currently active using those frequencies.
3.5 Volunteer
Examiner Program
E1E01 — For which types of out-of-
pocket expenses do the Part
97 rules state that VEs and
VECs may be reimbursed?
E1E02 — Who does Part 97 task with
maintaining the pools of
questions for all U.S.
amateur license
examinations?
E1E03 — What is a Volunteer
Examiner Coordinator?
E1E04 — Which of the following best
describes the Volunteer
Examiner accreditation
process?
E1E05 — What is the minimum
passing score on all amateur
operator license
examinations?
E1E06 — Who is responsible for the
proper conduct and
necessary supervision during
an amateur operator license
examination session?
E1E07 — What should a VE do if a
candidate fails to comply
with the examiner’s
instructions during an
amateur operator license
examination?
E1E08 — To which of the following
examinees may a VE not
administer an examination?
E1E09 — What may be the penalty
for a VE who fraudulently
administers or certifies an
examination?
E1E10 — What must the
administering VEs do after
the administration of a
successful examination for
an amateur operator
license?
E1E11 — What must the VE team do
if an examinee scores a
passing grade on all
examination elements
needed for an upgrade or
new license?
E1E12 — What must the VE team do
with the application form if
the examinee does not pass
the exam?
By now, you’ve passed at least two

amateur exams. You should be an expert
on the Volunteer Examiner (VE)
program! Just kidding, of course, but
since you’re about to pass your third and
final exam (Right? Right!) why do you
need to learn more about the program?
Well, because as an Extra class licensee,
you’ll have the opportunity to administer
those exams yourself! Extra class VEs
are needed to give both General and
Extra class exams, so this is a little
advertisement for you to become a
Volunteer Examiner and help others get
their licenses.
The questions on the Extra class exam
are designed to familiarize you with the
FCC rules in Part 97, Section F that
pertain to the “examiner side” of the
exam. We’ll start with some review of
the program’s structure.
THE VOLUNTEER EXAMINER

COORDINATOR
A Volunteer Examiner Coordinator
(VEC) is an organization that has entered
into an agreement with the FCC to
coordinate, prepare, and administer
amateur license examinations. [E1E03]
The organization must meet certain
criteria before it can become a VEC. As
described in §97.521, the organization
must exist for the purpose of furthering
the amateur service, but should be more
than just a local radio club or group of
hams. A VEC is expected to coordinate
exams at least throughout an entire call
district. The organization must also
agree to coordinate exams for all classes
of amateur operator license, and to
ensure that anyone desiring an amateur
license can register and take the exams
without regard to race, sex, religion, or
national origin.
THE VOLUNTEER EXAMINER

A VEC does not administer or grade
the actual examinations. The VEC
accredits licensed amateur radio
operators — the Volunteer Examiners
(VEs) — to administer exams. Each
VEC is responsible for recruiting and
training Volunteer Examiners to
administer amateur examinations under
their program. The Volunteer Examiners
determine where and when examinations
for amateur operator licenses will be
administered.
ACCREDITATION
When a VEC accredits a Volunteer
Examiner, it is certifying that the amateur
is qualified to perform all the duties of a
VE as required by §97.509 and §97.525.
The accreditation process is simply the
steps that each VEC takes to ensure their
VEs meet all the FCC requirements to
serve in the Volunteer Examiner
program. [E1E04] Each VEC has its
own accreditation process. A VEC has
the responsibility to refuse to accredit a
person as a VE if the VEC determines
that the person’s integrity or honesty
could compromise amateur license
exams.
The ARRL VEC coordinates exams in
all regions of the US, and would be
pleased to have you apply for
accreditation. You do not have to be an
ARRL member to serve as an ARRL VE.
In fact, one of the requirements of VECs
is that they not demand membership in
any organization as a prerequisite to
serving as a VE!
If you are at least 18 years of age and
hold at least a General class license, you
meet the basic FCC requirements to be a
VE. In addition, you must never have had
your amateur license suspended or
revoked. Figure 3.3 shows the
application form to become an ARRL
VE.
EXAM PREPARATION
Coordinating amateur exams involves a
bit more responsibility than simply
recruiting amateurs to administer the
exams. (§97.519 states the requirements
for coordinating an exam session.) A
VEC coordinates the preparation and
administration of exams. Some VECs
actually prepare the exams and provide
their examiners with the necessary test
forms, while others require their VEs to
prepare their own exams or purchase
exams from a qualified supplier. After
the test is completed, the VEC must
collect the application documents
(NCVEC Form 605) and test results.
After reviewing the materials to ensure
accuracy, the VEC must forward the
documentation to the FCC for applicants
that qualify for a new license or a
license upgrade.
All of the VECs must cooperate in the
development and maintenance of the
questions used on the exams. (§97.523)
The set of all the questions available to
be asked on an exam is called the
question pool. [E1E02] A Question
Pool Committee (QPC) works regularly
to update the questions for each exam
element. Exams are made up of
questions selected from the question
pool.
Volunteer Examiners may prepare
written exams for all classes of amateur
radio operator license. Section 97.507
of the FCC rules gives detailed
instructions about who may prepare the
various examination elements. You must
hold a General, Advanced, or Amateur
Extra license to prepare an Element 2
written exam for the Technician class
license. Only Advanced and Amateur
Extra licensees may prepare the Element
3 exam (General) and you must hold an
Amateur Extra license to prepare an
Element 4 exam (Amateur Extra).
If the VEC or a qualified supplier
prepares the exams, they must still use
amateurs with the proper license class to
prepare the exams. In every case, the
exams are prepared by selecting
questions from the appropriate question
pool.
EXAM SESSION
ADMINISTRATION
Extra class exams must be
administered by VEs holding Extra class
licenses. To administer a General exam,
you must hold an Advanced or Amateur
Extra license. To administer a
Technician license exam, you must hold
a General, Advanced, or Amateur Extra
license. VEs are prohibited from
administering exams to close relatives
as defined by the FCC. [E1E08] The
requirements for VEs administering an
exam are stated in §97.509.
Before actually beginning to administer
an examination, the VEs should
determine what exam credit, if any, the
candidates should be given as described
in §97.505. For example, any candidates
who already hold an amateur operator
license must receive credit for having
passed all of the exam elements
necessary for that class of license. In
addition, any candidate who presents a
valid Certificate of Successful
Completion of Examination (CSCE)
must be given credit for each exam
element that the CSCE indicates the
examinee has passed. The combination
of element credits and exam elements
passed at the current exam session will
determine if a candidate qualifies for a
higher class of license.
As a voluntary service, VEs and VECs
may not charge a fee to administer exams
or receive any type of payment for the
services they provide. Neither the VEC
nor the VEs should have to bear the
costs of administering exams out of their
own pockets, however. FCC rule
§97.527 provides a means for those
being examined to reimburse the VEs
and VEC for certain costs involved with
the program. These costs include actual
out-of-pocket expenses involved with
preparing, processing, and administering
license exams. [E1E01]
During the Exam
All three VEs are responsible for
supervising the exam session and must
be present during the entire exam
session, observing the candidates to
ensure that the session is conducted
properly. [E1E06]
During the exam session, the
candidates must follow all instructions
given by the Volunteer Examiners. If any
candidate fails to comply with a VE’s
instructions during an exam, the VE team
should immediately terminate that
candidate’s exam. [E1E07]
When the candidates have completed
their exams, the VEs must collect the test
papers and grade them immediately. A
score of 74% is the minimum to pass the
exam. [E1E05] They then notify the
candidates whether they passed or failed
the exam. If any candidates did not pass
all the exam elements needed to
complete their license upgrade, then the
examiners must return their applications
to those candidates and inform them of
the grades. [E1E12]
After grading the exams of those
candidates who do pass the exam, the
entire VE team must certify their
qualifications for new licenses and that
they have complied with the VE
requirements on their application forms
and issue each a CSCE (Figure 3.4) for
their upgrade. [E1E11]
Maintaining control of the exam
session and conducting it properly is key
to the success of the amateur VE
program. If the FCC determines that a
VE has fraudulently administered or
certified an exam, that VE can lose their
amateur station license and have their
operator privileges suspended. [E1E09]
Such problems are extremely rare
because of the high integrity of the
amateur volunteer licensing program.
After the Exam

After an exam session, the VE Team
must submit the application forms and
test papers for all the candidates who
passed to the coordinating VEC.
[E1E10] They must do this within 10
days of the test session. This is to ensure
that the VEC can review the paperwork
and forward the information to the FCC
in a timely fashion.
3.6 Miscellaneous
Rules
The following sections cover topics of
narrow interest. As an Extra class
licensee, you’ll be expected to know
about lesser-visited areas of the FCC
rules and have a more complete
knowledge of important rules.
AUXILIARY STATIONS
E1F10 — Who may be the control
operator of an auxiliary
station?
Auxiliary stations [§97.3(a)(7)] are

amateur stations, other than in a message
forwarding system, that transmit
communications point-to-point within a
system of cooperating amateur stations.
Amateurs are allowed to use auxiliary
stations to provide point-to-point
communications and control links
between a remotely controlled station
and its control point. Repeater systems
may use point-to-point links to relay
audio and control signals from one
repeater to all other repeaters in the
system. Control operators of auxiliary
stations must hold a Technician, General,
Advanced, or Extra class license.
[E1F10]
You might set up a mobile rig as a
cross-band repeater to act as an
auxiliary station relaying your signals to
and from a nearby low-power handheld
transceiver. §97.201(b) limits auxiliary
station transmissions to the 2 meter and
shorter wavelength bands, excluding the
144.0 – 144.5 MHz, 145.8 – 146.0 MHz,
219 – 220 MHz, 222.0 – 222.15 MHz,
431 – 433 MHz, and 435 – 438 MHz
segments.
EXTERNAL POWER AMPLIFIERS

E1F03 — Under what circumstances
may a dealer sell an external
RF power amplifier capable
of operation below 144 MHz
if it has not been granted
FCC certification?
E1F11 — Which of the following best
describes one of the
standards that must be met
by an external RF power
amplifier if it is to qualify for
a grant of FCC certification?
RF power amplifiers capable of

operating on frequencies below 144
MHz may require FCC certification.
Sections 97.315 and 97.317 describe the
conditions under which certification is
required, and set out the standards to be
met for certification. Many of these rules
apply to manufacturers of amplifiers or
kits, but several points are important for
individual amateurs. Amateurs may
build their own amplifiers or modify
amplifiers for use in an amateur radio
station without concern for the
certification rules. An unlicensed person
may not build or modify any amplifier
capable of operating below 144 MHz
without a grant of FCC certification.
To receive a grant of certification, an
amplifier must satisfy the spurious
emission standards specified in
§97.307(d) or (e) when operated at full
power output or 1500 W, whichever is
less. [E1F11] In addition, the amplifier
must meet the spurious emission
standards when it is placed in the
“standby” or “off” position but is still
connected to the transmitter. The
amplifier must not be capable of
amplifying the input signal by more than
15 dB, and it must exhibit no
amplification between 26 and 28 MHz.
(This is to prevent the amplifier from
being used illegally on Citizen’s Band
frequencies.)
A manufacturer must obtain a separate
grant of certification for each amplifier
model. The FCC maintains a database of
all certificated amplifier models, and an
amplifier must be on that list before it
can be marketed or sold for use in the
US amateur service. Dealers may also
sell non-certificated amplifiers if they
were purchased in used condition and
resold to another amateur for use in their
station. [E1F03] FCC certification may
be denied if the amplifier can be used in
a telecommunication service other than
the amateur service, or if it can be easily
modified to operate between 26 and 28
MHz.
70 CM BAND RESTRICTIONS
E1B12 — What must the control
operator of a repeater
operating in the 70 cm band
do if a radiolocation system
experiences interference
from that repeater?
E1F04 — Which of the following
geographic descriptions
approximately describes
“Line A”?
E1F05 — Amateur stations may not
transmit in which of the
following frequency
segments if they are located
in the contiguous 48 states
and north of Line A?
The 420 to 430 MHz band segment is

allocated to the fixed and mobile
services in the international allocations
table on a primary basis worldwide.
Canada has allocated this band segment
to its fixed and mobile services, so US
amateurs along the Canadian border are
not permitted to transmit on these
frequencies. An imaginary line, called
Line A, runs roughly parallel to and
south of the US-Canadian border.
[E1F04] US stations north of this line
may not transmit on the 420 to 430 MHz
band. [E1F05] Section 97.3(a)(29)
gives an exact definition of Line A. See
Figure 3.5.
The FCC has also allocated portions of

the 421 – 430 MHz band to the Land
Mobile Service within a 50-mile radius
centered on Buffalo, New York; Detroit,
Michigan; and Cleveland, Ohio.
Amateurs in these areas must not cause
harmful interference to the Land Mobile
or government radiolocation users.
Increased use of the 70 cm band for
military radar systems places
restrictions on amateur repeater systems,
which are a secondary allocation in that
band. This requires that the amateur
station cease operation or make changes
to the repeater to mitigate the
interference. [E1B12]
NATIONAL QUIET ZONES

E1B05 — What is the National Radio
Quiet Zone?
Certain other restrictions may apply if

your station is within specific
geographical regions. For example, there
is an area in Maryland, West Virginia
and Virginia surrounding the National
Radio Astronomy Observatory. This
area is known as the National Radio
Quiet Zone. [E1B05] The NRQZ serves
to protect the interests of the National
Radio Astronomy Observatory in Green
Bank, West Virginia, and also Naval
Research Laboratory at Sugar Grove,
West Virginia.
If you plan to install an automatically
controlled beacon station within the
NRQZ, you will have to obtain
permission from the National Radio
Astronomy Observatory. §97.203 lists
the details of this rule and the address to
contact.
BUSINESS, PAYMENT, AND

REBROADCASTING
types of communications
may be transmitted to
amateur stations in foreign
countries?
E1F07 — When may an amateur
station send a message to a
business?
amateur station
communications are
prohibited?
Business communications rules for

amateur radio are based on the principle
that no transmissions are permitted in
which you or your employer have a
pecuniary (monetary) interest. This is,
after all, amateur radio, and there are
plenty of radio services available for
commercial activities. That prohibition
is the same for voice and digital
messages, including those sent and
received via message forwarding
networks.
However, your own personal activities
don’t count as “business”
communications. For example, it’s
perfectly okay for you to use ham radio
to talk to your spouse about doing some
shopping or to confer about what to pick
up at the store. You can even send a
message to a business over the air, to
order something for example, as long as
you don’t do it regularly and as part of
your normal income-making activities
[E1F07]
Note that when you are contacting
stations in other countries,
communications are limited to remarks
of a personal nature or incidental to
amateur radio. No exception to the non-
business rule is made for
communications on behalf of nonprofit
organizations. [§97.117] [E1C02]
Although it seems like a useful service,
rebroadcasting propagation or weather
forecasts on a regular basis is not
permitted. [E1F08] The reason is that
stations are already authorized to
broadcast this information and it would
be an unnecessary use of the amateur
allocations. It is OK to relay an
occasional forecast in support of
amateur activities.
SPREAD SPECTRUM OPERATION

E1F01 — On what frequencies are
spread spectrum
transmissions permitted?
conditions apply when
transmitting spread
spectrum emissions?
Spread spectrum (SS) communication

is a modulation technique that spreads
the signal over a wide bandwidth. The
FCC refers to this as bandwidth-
expansion modulation. If you want to
learn more about these fascinating
modes you can find the details in The
ARRL Handbook.
The idea behind this communications
mode is to spread a little power over a
wide bandwidth to minimize
interference rather than concentrating a
lot of power in a narrow bandwidth. The
FCC rules allow US amateurs to
communicate using SS with other
amateurs in areas regulated by the FCC
and with other stations in countries that
permit SS communications. Amateurs
are permitted to use SS as long as it
does not cause harmful interference to
other stations using authorized
emissions. In addition, the SS
transmission must not be used to obscure
the meaning on any communication.
[E1F09] Operation using spread
spectrum techniques is restricted to
frequencies above 222 MHz. [E1F01]
NON-US OPERATING
AGREEMENTS
E1C04 — What is meant by IARP?
E1C06 — Which of the following is
required in order to operate
in accordance with CEPT
rules in foreign countries
where permitted?
operating arrangements
allows an FCC-licensed U.S.
citizen to operate in many
European countries, and
alien amateurs from many
European countries to
operate in the U.S.?
E1F02 — What privileges are
authorized in the U.S. to
persons holding an amateur
service license granted by
the government of Canada?
There are three basic types of

agreements that allow amateurs licensed
in one country to operate from the
territory of another country.
• European Conference of Postal and
Telecommunications Administrations
(CEPT) radio-amateur license — allows
US amateurs to travel to and operate
from most European countries and their
overseas territories without obtaining an
additional license or permit. (This does
not automatically confer permission to
enter restricted areas. You must also
carry with you a copy of FCC Public
Notice DA 16-1048.) Amateurs from
countries that participate in CEPT may
also operate in the US. [E1C06, E1C11]
The CEPT treaty does not automatically
allow remote-control operation across
international borders. Be sure you know
the rules for transmitting in the host
country!
• International Amateur Radio Permit
(IARP) — For operation in certain
countries of Central and South America,
the IARP allows US amateurs to operate
without seeking a special license or
permit to enter and operate from that
country. [E1C04]
• ITU Reciprocal Permit — a
reciprocal agreement between the US
and a country that does not participate in
either CEPT or IARP agreements.
The complete rules and procedures for
obtaining permission to use your license
else-where in the world are available on
the ARRL’s International Operating web
page at www.arrl.org/international-
operating and
www.arrl.org/international-regulatory.
Amateurs who are citizens of a foreign
country and are operating in the US
under the terms of an operating
agreement between the US and the other
country will have the same privileges as
a US Amateur Extra class licensee if
they hold a full-privilege license from
their country. This includes Canadians
with an Advanced Qualification as well
as operators with a Class 1 license
issued by the European Conference of
Posts and Telecommunications (CEPT)
or a Class 1 International Amateur
Radio Permit (IARP). Canadian
amateurs operating in the US may
operate to the extent of their Canadian
license privileges, but not in excess of
the US Extra class privileges. For
example, Canadian amateurs operating
in the US may not transmit SSB below
14.150 MHz even though they may do so
from home. [E1F02]
SPECIAL TEMPORARY
AUTHORITY
E1F06 — Under what circumstances
might the FCC issue a
Special Temporary Authority
(STA) to an amateur
station?
Occasionally, a new method or

technique of communicating comes along
that isn’t covered by the FCC rules or
would be in violation of the rules. If
sufficiently good reasons are provided
to the FCC, a Special Temporary
Authority or STA may be granted to
provide for experimental amateur
communications. [E1F06] For example,
STAs were granted to allow amateurs to
experiment with spread spectrum
communications before that mode was
generally permitted on amateur
frequencies. An STA was also granted
allowing amateurs to experiment with
communications to evaluate propagation
and interference on 630 meters and 2200
meters.
STAs are temporary, lasting long
enough for experiments to be performed
and information accumulated. For
particularly ambitious projects the STA
might last for six months or longer.
During this time, the STA does not grant
amateurs the exclusive use of a
frequency, nor does it waive all rules —
only the ones explicitly covered in the
STA. STAs can also be terminated by the
FCC at any time if the operation is found
to be causing interference, for example.
STAs may result in changes to the FCC
rules, but they are not permanent
waivers of any rule.
• Rectangular and polar coordinates
• Complex numbers
• Electric, magnetic, and
electromagnetic fields
• Time constants
• Impedance and admittance
• Reactive power and power factor
• Resonant circuits, Q, and
bandwidth
• Inductors with magnetic cores
The Amateur Extra class license exam

will include questions about electrical
principles from question pool
Subelement 5 (four groups of questions)
and Subelement 6 (six groups of
questions). This chapter begins with
some background in the way we use
math to talk about electrical signals.
Once prepared, we move on to the
relationship between voltage and current
in real circuits, impedance, resonance,
and even magnetic materials used in
inductors.
It would be easy to make this book
very, very large by trying to teach
fundamental subjects from the ground up.
To keep focused, you’ll be given
references on where to find
supplemental information on math and
electronics. The Extra Class License
Manual (ECLM) web page
(www.arrl.org/extra-class-license-
manual) is a good place to start looking,
and it should be added to the bookmarks
in your internet browser. Let’s get going!
4.1 Radio
Mathematics
You learned about frequency, phase,
impedance, and reactance to pass your
Technician and General exams. For the
Extra exam, we go a little farther and
learn how to work with those values in
this initial section of the chapter. By
learning these techniques, you’ll be able
to work with any combination of
resistance (R), inductance (L), and
capacitance (C). The very same
techniques are used to describe signals
in later sections.
RECTANGULAR AND POLAR

COORDINATES
We can’t actually see the electrons
flowing in a circuit, or look at voltage or
impedances, so we use math equations
or graphs to describe what’s happening.
Graphs are drawings of what equations
describe with symbols — they’re both
saying the same thing. The way in which
mathematical quantities are positioned
on the graph is called the coordinate
system. Coordinate is another name for
a numeric scale that divides a graph into
regular units. The location of every point
on the graph is described by a set of
coordinates.
The two most common coordinate
systems used in radio are the
rectangular-coordinate system shown in
Figure 4.1 (sometimes called Cartesian
coordinates) and the polar-coordinate
system shown in Figure 4.2. (Additional
information on coordinate systems is
available on the Math Supplement page
listed on the ECLM website.)
The horizontal line through the center
of a rectangular coordinate graph is the
X axis. The vertical line through the
center of the graph is the Y axis. Every
point on a rectangular coordinate graph
has two coordinates that identify its
location, X and Y, also written as (X,Y).
Every different pair of coordinate values
describes a different point on the graph.
The point at which the two axes cross —
where the numeric values on both axes
are zero — is called the origin, written
as (0,0).
Coordinates with positive values of X
and Y lie to the right of and above the
origin, respectively. In Figure 4.1, the
point with coordinates of (3,5) is
located 3 units to the right of the origin
along the X axis and 5 units above the
origin along the Y axis. Another point at
(–2,–4) is found 2 units to the left of the
origin along the X axis and 4 units
below the origin along the Y axis. Don’t
confuse the “X” that refers to position
along the X-axis with the “X” that refers
to reactance.
In the polar-coordinate system, points
on the graph are also described by a pair
of numeric values called polar
coordinates. In this case we use a
length, or radius, measured from the
origin, and an angle from 0° to 360°
measured counterclockwise from the 0°
line as shown in Figure 4.2. The symbol
r is used for the radius and θ for the
angle. A number in polar coordinates is
written rθ. So the two points described
in the last paragraph could also be
written as (5.83, 59.0°) and (4.5,
243.4°) and are drawn as polar
coordinates in Figure 4.2. Unlike maps,
the mathematical convention for the 0°
direction is to the right and angle
increases counterclockwise.
A negative angle essentially means,
“turn the other way.” With positive
angles measured counterclockwise from
the 0° axis, the polar coordinates of the
point at lower left in Figure 4.2 would
be (4.5, –116.6°). When you encounter a
negative value for the angle, it means to
measure the angle clockwise from 0°.
For example, –270° is equivalent to 90°;
–90° is equivalent to 270°; 0° and –360°
are equivalent; and +180° and –180° are
equivalent. An angle can also be
specified in radians (1 radian = 360 /
2π = 57.3 degrees) but all angles are in
degrees in this book and on the exam.
In electronics, it’s common to use both
the rectangular and polar-coordinate
systems when dealing with impedance
problems. The examples in the next few
sections of this book should help you
become familiar with these coordinate
systems and the techniques for changing
between them.
COMPLEX COORDINATES
So far in your radio career, you’ve
dealt exclusively with real numbers
such as π (pi), 5 Ω, 2.5 mH, or 53.2
MHz. In solving equations that describe
phase and angles, however, you will
encounter numbers that contain the
square root of minus one ( ).
Numbers based on are called

imaginary numbers to distinguish them
from the real numbers. For convenience,
is represented as j in
electronics. For example, 2j, 0.1j, 7j/4,
and 457.6j are all imaginary numbers.
(Mathematicians use i for the same
purpose, but i is used to represent
current in electronics.) j also has another
interesting property that you’ll use: 1/j =
–j. Imaginary numbers are used when
describing phase, rotation, or
waveforms that change with time.
Real and imaginary numbers can be
combined by using addition or
subtraction. Combining real and
imaginary numbers creates a hybrid
called a complex number, such as 1 + j
or 6 – j7. (The convention in complex
numbers is for j to be first in the
imaginary part of the number.) These
numbers come in very handy in radio,
describing impedances, relationships
between voltage and current, and many
other phenomena.
Working With Polar and Rectangular

Coordinates
Complex numbers representing electrical
quantities can be expressed in either
rectangular form (a + jb) or polar form (r θ).
Adding complex numbers is easiest in
rectangular form:
(a + jb) + (c + jd) = (a + c) + j(b + d)
Multiplying and dividing complex numbers is
easiest in polar form:
aq 1× bq 2= (a × b) (q1 + q2)
and
Converting from one form to another is

useful in some kinds of calculations. For
example, to calculate the value of two
complex impedances in parallel you use the
formula
To calculate the numerator (Z1Z2) you

would write the impedances in polar form. To
calculate the denominator (Z1 + Z2) you
would write the impedances in rectangular
form. So you need to be able to convert back
and forth from one form to the other. There is
a good explanation of this process, with
examples, on the
www.intmath.com/Complex-
numbers/4_Polar-form.php web page.
Here is the short procedure you can save
for reference:
To convert from rectangular (a + jb) to
polar form (r θ):
To convert from polar to rectangular form:

a = r cos θ
b = r sin θ
Many calculators have polar-rectangular
conversion functions built-in and they are
worth learning how to use. Be sure that your
calculator is set to the angle units you prefer,
radians or degrees. All calculations in this
book and on the exam use units of degrees
for angles.
Example
Convert 3 30° to rectangular form:
a = 3 cos 30° = 3 (0.866) = 2.6
b = 3 sin 30° = 3 (0.5) = 1.5
3 30° = 2.6 + j1.5
Example
Convert 0.8 + j0.6 to polar form:
0.8 + j0.6 = 1 36.8°
If the complex number is broken up into

its real and imaginary parts, those two
numbers can also be used as coordinates
on a graph using complex coordinates.
This is a special type of rectangular-
coordinate graph that is also referred to
as the complex plane. By convention, the
X axis coordinates represent the real
number portion of the complex number
and the Y axis coordinates represent the
imaginary portion. For example, the
complex number 6 – j7 would have the
same location as the point (6,–7) on a
rectangular-coordinate graph. Figure 4.3
shows the same points as Figure 4.1, but
now they are representing the complex
numbers 3 + j5 and –2 – j4, respectively.
4.2 Electrical and
Magnetic Fields
Electrical and magnetic energy are
invisible — you can’t detect them with
any of your senses. All you can do is
observe their effects such as when a
resistor gets hot, a motor spins, or an
electromagnet picks up iron or steel. The
energy exists as a field — a region of
space in which energy is stored and
through which electrical and magnetic
forces act. The metric system’s basic
unit for electrical and magnetic energy is
the joule (pronounced “jewel”) and
abbreviated J. (For serious reading on
the nature of fields, see
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_field
and
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_field.)
You are already quite familiar with
fields in the form of gravity. You are
being pulled down toward the Earth as
you read this (even astronaut-hams up
there studying for their Extra exam)
because you are in the Earth’s
gravitational field. Because your body
has mass it interacts with the
gravitational field in such a way that the
Earth attracts you. (You have your own
gravitational field, too, but many orders
of magnitude smaller than that of the
Earth.) Think of a bathroom scale as a
“gravitational voltmeter” that instead of
reading “volts,” reads “pounds.” The
heavier something is, the stronger the
Earth attracts it. Weight is the same as
force. (Metric scales provide readings
in kilograms, a unit of mass. To do so,
the scales assume a standard strength for
gravity in order to convert weight (a
force) to an equivalent mass in
kilograms.)
This field makes you do work, such as
when you climb stairs. Work has a
precise definition when it comes to
fields: Work equals force times distance
moved in the direction of the field’s
force. For example, let’s say you pick up
a mass — a stone that weighs 1 pound
— and lift it to a shelf 10 feet above
where it previously lay. How much work
did you do? You moved a weight of 1
pound a distance of 10 feet against the
attraction of the field, so you have done
10 foot-pounds of work. (It doesn’t
count if you move the stone sideways
instead of vertically.)
What did that work accomplish? You
stored gravitational energy in the stone
equal to the amount of work that you
performed! This stored energy is called
potential energy, whether gravitational,
electrical or magnetic. You could store
the same amount of gravitational energy
by lifting a 10-pound stone 1 foot or by
lifting a stone that weighs 1/10th of a
pound 100 feet. If you drop the stone (or
it falls off the shelf), the same amount of
potential energy is converted back to
kinetic energy as the stone moves
toward the Earth in the gravitational
field.
In electronics we are interested in two
types of fields: electric fields and
magnetic fields. Electric fields can be
detected as voltage differences between
two points. The electric field’s analog to
gravitational mass is electric charge.
Every electric charge has its own
electric field, just as every mass has its
own gravitational field. The more
charged a body is, the “heavier” it is in
terms of an electric field. Just as a body
with mass feels a force to move in a
gravitational field, so does an electric
charge in an electric field.
Electrical energy is stored by moving
electrical charges apart so that there is a
voltage between them. Figure 4.4 shows
the electric field in a capacitor that is
created by the imbalance of positive and
negative charge. If the field does not
change with time, it is called an
electrostatic field. By convention, the
direction of an electric field is assigned
to be from positive charge to negative
charge.
Magnetic energy is detected by its
effects on moving electrical charges or
current. Magnetic energy is stored
through the motion of electric charge
(current) creating a magnetic field.
Figure 4.5 shows the magnetic field
around the current flowing through a
wire. Magnetic fields that don’t change
with time, such as from a stationary
permanent magnet, are called
magnetostatic fields. The direction of
the magnetic field is discussed in the
following section.
Electric or magnetic potential energy is
released by allowing the charges to
move in the field. For example, electric
energy is released when current flows
from the charged-up capacitor in Figure
4.4. Magnetic energy stored by current
flowing in an inductor is released when
the current is allowed to change, such as
when a relay or motor is turned off.
If the electric or magnetic fields are
changing, they produce an
electromagnetic wave that travels
through space. Radio waves are
electromagnetic, or EM, waves. They
are described in more detail in the
chapter on Topics in Radio Propagation.
4.3 Principles of
Circuits
This section of the book covers the
fundamentals of how electrical circuits
work. We’ll get into the relationship
between voltage and current when
inductance and capacitance are involved
— that’s when things get interesting!
Understanding these basic ideas leads
you directly to resonance, tuned circuits,
Q, and all sorts of great radio know-
how.
Remember that this book doesn’t
attempt to be an electronic textbook —
there are plenty of good references
available for that job. If you find
yourself missing some crucial
background, step back and read through
one of the references on the ECLM
website.
RC AND RL TIME CONSTANTS

E5B01 — What is the term for the
time required for the
capacitor in an RC circuit to
be charged to 63.2% of the
applied voltage or to
discharge to 36.8% of its
initial voltage?
E5B04 — What is the time constant of
a circuit having two 220
microfarad capacitors and
two 1 megohm resistors, all
in parallel?
E5D06 — In what direction is the
magnetic field oriented
about a conductor in relation
to the direction of electron
flow?
In electronic circuits, electric and

magnetic energy are constantly being
stored and released by various
components. This exchange is observed
as the relationship between voltage and
current in components that store
electrical and magnetic energy.
Electrical Energy Storage

Electrical energy can be stored in a
capacitor by applying a dc voltage
across its terminals as shown in Figure
4.4. Figure 4.6 illustrates a simple
circuit for charging and discharging a
capacitor. Assuming no energy was
already stored in the capacitor, there
will be an instantaneous inrush of
current as charge moves into one
capacitor terminal and out of the other
when S1 is moved to the A position. The
only limit on current is the resistance of
the voltage source, the wires connecting
the capacitor and the capacitor’s internal
conducting electrodes (sometimes called
“plates”). The capacitor builds up a
voltage (indicating electric field
strength) as one set of electrodes
accumulates an excess of electrons and
the other set loses an equal number.
Eventually, the voltage at the capacitor
terminals is equal to the source voltage
and the current ceases to flow.
If the voltage source is disconnected,

the capacitor will remain charged at that
voltage. The charge will stay on the
capacitor electrodes as long as there is
no path for the electrons to travel from
one terminal to the other. The voltage
across the capacitor is an indicator of
how much electrical energy is stored in
the electric field inside the capacitor.
Since the charges (electrons) are no
longer moving, the energy is stored in
the electrostatic field between the
electrodes. If a resistor is then connected
across the capacitor terminals by moving
S1 to the B position, the stored energy
will be released as current flows
through the resistor, dissipating the
stored energy as heat.
Note that the discussion in this section
deals with ideal components, such as
resistors that have no stray capacitance
or inductance associated with the leads
or composition of the resistor itself.
Ideal capacitors exhibit no losses and
there is no resistance in the leads or
capacitor electrodes. Ideal inductors are
made of wire that has no resistance and
there is no stray capacitance between
turns. In practice there are no ideal
components, so the behavior described
here is modified a bit in real-life
circuits. Even so, components can come
pretty close to the ideal conditions. For
example, a capacitor with very low
leakage can hold a charge for days or
even weeks.
Magnetic Energy Storage

When electrons flow, usually through a
conductor, a magnetic field is produced.
This magnetic field exists in the space
around the conductor, and magnetic
energy is stored in this space. The field
can be detected by bringing a compass
near a wire carrying dc current and
watching the needle deflect. In fact, this
is how the relationship between
electrical current and magnetism was
discovered!
Figure 4.7 illustrates the magnetic field
around a wire connected to a battery. If
the wire is wound into a coil so that the
fields from adjacent turns add together,
then a much stronger magnetic field can
be produced. The direction of the
magnetic field is a circle around the
current at right angles to the current flow
and can be determined by the left-hand
rule. [E5D06] (See the sidebar
"Magnetic Field Direction" for more
about magnetic field polarity and
direction.)
The use of the left-hand rule is required
because we are referring to electronic
current (the flow of electrons) and not to
the more common conventional current
(the flow of positive charge) that flows
in the opposite direction. If electronic
current is being discussed, use the left-
hand rule and if conventional current,
use the right-hand rule. The exam
question refers to the flow of electrons
and electronic current, so use the left-
hand rule.
The strength of the magnetic field is
proportional to the amount of current.
Electrical energy from the voltage
source is transferred to the magnetic
field as the field is created. So we are
storing energy by building up a magnetic
field and that means work must be done
against a voltage (also called an
electromagnetic force or EMF) that is
induced (created) in the circuit
whenever the magnetic field (or current)
is changing. The induced voltage is
called a back EMF since it acts to
oppose any change in the amount of
current.
Magnetic Field Direction

How can you tell what direction a magnetic
field is “pointing” or do they even point? Yes,
they certainly do have a direction — think of
the north and south poles of a magnet! For a
permanent magnet, determining direction is
pretty easy. All you have to do is observe the
way the magnet wants to move when placed
near another permanent magnet. Opposite
poles (north-south and south-north) will
attract each other.
In the case of magnetic fields created by
current flowing, it’s not so easy. Figure 4.7
shows how a magnetic field is oriented based
on the direction of the electrons flowing in
the circuit. (The figure shows electronic
current — the true motion of the electrons
from negative to positive. Most electronics
uses conventional current that flows from
positive to negative, the exact opposite of
electronic current.) In order to find the
direction of the field, the left-hand rule is
used as described at
www.studyphysics.ca/30/Solenoidelectro.pdf
You just have to know how the inductor is
wound and in which direction the current is
flowing.
Time Constant
If you connect a dc voltage source
directly to a capacitor through a
resistance, the higher the resistance’s
value, the longer it will take to charge
the capacitor because the resistor limits
current flow in the circuit. Figure 4.8
shows an RC circuit (RC means
resistor-capacitor) that alternately
charges and discharges a capacitor (C)
through a resistor (R). With the switch in
position A, current through the resistor
charges the capacitor to the battery
voltage. When the switch is moved to
position B, the capacitor returns its
stored energy to the circuit as a current
through the resistor. The amount of time
it takes to charge the capacitor to a
certain percentage of the applied voltage
or discharge to a certain percentage of
its maximum voltage is called the
circuit’s time constant.
The same general process applies to an

RL circuit (RL means resistor-inductor)
with an inductor in series with a resistor
as in Figure 4.9. Instead of voltage
increasing toward some maximum value
when voltage is applied, it is the current
through the inductor that increases. The
time constant for this type of circuit is
the amount of time it takes inductor
current to increase or decrease to a
specific percentage of its maximum or
minimum value.
RC Circuit Time Constant
Calculations
The time constant for a simple RC
circuit as shown in Figure 4.8 is:
(Equation
τ = RC 4.1)
where:
τ is the Greek letter tau, used to
represent the time constant.
R is the total circuit resistance in ohms.
C is the capacitance in farads.
Note that if R is in megohms and C is
in microfarads, then τ is in seconds!
Remember “megohms times microfarads
equals seconds” and it will save you a
lot of calculating time.
The capacitor charges and discharges
according to an equation known as an
exponential curve. Figure 4.10
illustrates the charge and discharge
curves, where the time axis is shown in
terms of τ and the vertical axis is
expressed as a percentage of the applied
voltage. These graphs are true for any
RC circuit.
If you know the time constant and the

applied voltage, you can calculate the
voltage on the capacitor at any instant of
time. For a charging capacitor:
(Equation
V(t) = E (1 – e–t/τ)
4.2)
where:
V(t) is the voltage across the capacitor
at time t.
E is the applied voltage (the battery
voltage in Figure 4.6)
t is the time in seconds since the
capacitor began charging or discharging.
e is the base for natural logarithms,
2.718.
τ is the time constant for the circuit, in
seconds.
If the capacitor is discharging from E
volts, we have to write a slightly
different equation:
(Equation
V(t) = E (e–t/τ)
4.3)
These equations can be solved fairly
easily with an inexpensive calculator
that is able to work with natural
logarithms (it will have a key labeled
LN or LN X). In that case you could
calculate the value for e–t/τ as the inverse
natural log of –t / τ, written as ln–1 (–t /
τ). (For more information on natural
logarithms and exponential functions,
refer to the math supplement on the
ECLM website.)
Actually, you do not have to know how
to solve these equations if you are
familiar with the results at a few
important points. We’ll show you how to
use the solutions to the equations at these
points as short cuts to most problems
associated with time constants.
As shown on the graphs of Figure 4.10,
it is common practice to think of charge
or discharge time in terms of multiples
of the circuit’s time constant. If we
select times of zero (starting time), one
time constant (1τ), two time constants
(2τ), and so on, then the exponential term
in Equations 4.2 and 4.3 simplifies to e0,
e–1, e–2, e–3 and so forth. Then we can
solve the equations for those values of
time. Let’s pick a value for battery
voltage of E = 100 V so that the answers
will be in the form of a percentage of
any applied voltage.
After a time equal to five time
constants has passed, the capacitor is
charged to 99.3% of the applied voltage.
This is fully charged for all practical
purposes.
The equation used to calculate the
capacitor voltage while it is discharging
is slightly different from the one for
charging. For values of time equal to
multiples of the circuit time constant, the
solutions to Equation 4.3 have a close
relationship to those for Equation 4.2.
Here we see that after a time equal to
five time constants has passed, the
capacitor has discharged to less than 1%
of its initial value. This is fully
discharged for all practical purposes.
From the calculations for a charging
capacitor we can define the time
constant of an RC circuit as the time it
takes to charge the capacitor to 63.2% of
the supply voltage. [E5B01] From the
calculations of a discharging capacitor
we can also define the time constant as
the time it takes to discharge the
capacitor to 36.8% of its initial voltage.
Another way to think of these results is
that the discharge values are the
complements of the charging values.
Subtract either set of percentages from
100 and you will get the other set. You
may also notice another relationship
between the discharging values. If you
take 36.8% (0.368) as the value for one
time constant, then the discharged value
is 0.368 × 0.368 = 0.3682 = 0.135 after
two time constants, 0.3683 = 0.05 after
three time constants, 0.3684 = 0.018 after
four time constants and 0.3685 = 0.007
after five time constants. You can change
these values to percentages, or just
remember that you have to multiply the
decimal fraction times the applied
voltage. If you subtract these decimal
values from 1, you will get the values
for the charging equation. In either case,
by remembering the percentage 63.2%
you can generate all of the other
percentages without logarithms or
exponentials!
In many cases, you will want to know
how long it will take a capacitor to
charge or discharge to some particular
voltage. Probably the easiest way to
handle such problems is to first calculate
what percentage of the maximum voltage
you are charging or discharging to. Then
compare that value to the percentages
listed for either charging or discharging
the capacitor. Often you will be able to
approximate the time as some whole
number of time constants.
Suppose you have a 0.01-µF capacitor
and a 2-MΩ resistor wired in parallel
with a battery. The capacitor is charged
to 20 V, and then the battery is removed.
How long will it take for the capacitor
to discharge through the resistor to reach
a voltage of 7.36 V? First, calculate the
percentage decrease in voltage:
You should recognize this as the value

for the discharge voltage after 1 time
constant. Now calculate the time
constant for the circuit using Equation
4.1.
τ = RC = (2 × 106 Ω) × (0.01 × 10–6 F) =
0.02 second
It will take 0.02 second, or 20
milliseconds to discharge the capacitor
to 7.36 V.
The circuit shown in Figure 4.8 is a
series circuit. It is common to have a
circuit with several resistors and
capacitors connected either in series or
parallel. If the components are wired in
series we can still use Equation 4.1, but
we must first combine all of the resistors
into one equivalent resistor, and all of
the capacitors into one equivalent
capacitor. Then calculate the time
constant using Equation 4.1, as before.
If the components are connected in
parallel, there is an added complication
when the circuit is charging, but for a
discharging circuit you can still
calculate a time constant. Again combine
all of the resistors and all of the
capacitors into equivalent values, and
calculate the time constant using
Equation 4.1. (If you have forgotten how
to combine resistors and capacitors in
series and parallel, review the
appropriate sections of The Ham Radio
License Manual or The ARRL
Handbook.)
RC Circuit Examples
Let’s look at an example of calculating
the time constant for a circuit like the
one in Figure 4.8, using values of 220
µF and 470 kΩ for C and R. To calculate
the time constant, τ, multiply the R and C
values, in ohms and farads.
τ = RC = (470 × 103 Ω) × (220 × 10–6 F)
= 103.4 seconds
You can calculate the time constant for
any RC circuit in this manner.
If you have two 100-µF capacitors and
two 470-kΩ resistors, all in series, first
combine the resistor values into a single
resistance and the capacitor values into
a single capacitance.
RT (series) = R1 + R2 = 470 kΩ + 470
kΩ = 940 kΩ = 940 × 103 Ω
Then the time constant is:
τ = RC = (940 × 103 Ω) × (50 × 10–6 F)
= 47 seconds
Suppose you have two 220-µF
capacitors and two 1-MΩ resistors all in
parallel. Again, first combine the values
into a single resistance and a single
capacitance.
CT (parallel) = C1 + C2 = 220 µF + 220
µF = 440 µF = 440 × 10–6 F
Then the time constant is:
τ = RC = (5 × 105 Ω) × (440 × 10–6 F) =
220 seconds [E5B04]
Suppose you have a 450-µF capacitor
and a 1-MΩ resistor wired in parallel
with a power supply. The capacitor is
charged to 800 V, and then the power
supply is removed. How long will it
take for the capacitor to discharge to 294
V? First, calculate the percentage
decrease in voltage:
This is the value for the discharge
voltage after one time constant. Now
calculate the time constant for the circuit
using Equation 4.1.
τ = RC = (1 × 106 Ω) × (450 × 10–6 F) =
450 seconds
Or you could have recalled “megohms
times microfarads equals seconds” and
made the calculation that way.
RL Circuit Time Constant

Calculations
When resistance and inductance are
connected in series there is a situation
similar to what happens in an RC circuit.
Figure 4.9 shows a circuit for storing
magnetic energy in an inductor. When the
switch is closed, a current will try to
flow immediately. The instantaneous
transition from no current to a value
limited only by the voltage source and
resistance represents a very large change
in current and a back EMF is developed
by the inductance. The back EMF is
proportional to the rate of change of the
current and its polarity is opposite to
that of the applied voltage, meaning that
it will oppose the change in current. The
result is that the initial current is very
small but increases quickly, gradually
approaching the final current value given
by Ohm’s Law (I = E / R) as the back
EMF decreases toward zero.
Figure 4.11 shows how the current
through the inductor of Figure 4.9
increases as time passes. At any given
instant, the back EMF will be equal to
the difference between the voltage drop
across the resistor and the battery
voltage. You can see that when the
switch is closed initially and there is no
current, the back EMF is equal to the full
battery voltage. Later on, the current will
increase to a steady value and there will
be no voltage drop across the inductor.
The full battery voltage then appears
across the resistor and the back EMF is
zero. In practice, the current is
essentially equal to the final value after
5 time constants. The curve looks just
like the one we found for a charging
capacitor.
The time constant depends on the
circuit components, as for the RC
circuit. For an RL circuit, the time
constant is given by:
(Equation
4.4)
The equation for inductor current is

another exponential curve, with an
equation similar to Equation 4.2.
(Equation
4.5)
where:
I(t) is the current in amperes at time t.
E is the applied voltage.
R is the circuit resistance in ohms.
t is the time in seconds after the switch
is closed.
τ is the time constant for the circuit in
seconds.
If we choose values of time equal to
multiples of the circuit time constant, as
we did for the RC circuit, then we will
find that the current will build up to its
maximum value in the same fashion as
the voltage does when a capacitor is
being charged. This time let’s pick a
value of 100 A for the maximum current,
so that our results will again come out as
a percentage of the maximum current for
any RL circuit.
Notice that the current through the

inductor will increase to 63.2% of the
maximum value during 1 time constant.
After 5 time constants, the current is
within 1% of the maximum value.
PHASE ANGLE
E5B09 — What is the relationship
between the AC current
through a capacitor and the
voltage across a capacitor?
E5B10 — What is the relationship
between the AC current
through an inductor and the
voltage across an inductor?
Having learned that voltage and current

don’t rise and fall together in capacitors
and inductors, you’re ready to look at the
situation when ac voltage is applied,
instead of dc. The storage and release of
electrical and magnetic energy is what
creates the opposition to flow of ac
current, the property of capacitors and
inductors called reactance. (You learned
about reactance when studying for your
General class exam.)
To understand how ac voltage and
current behave in inductors and
capacitors, we’ll take a look at the
amplitudes of ac signals throughout the
complete cycle. The relationship
between the current and voltage
waveforms at a specific instant is
expressed as the phase of the
waveforms. Phase essentially means
time or the time interval between two
events taking place. The event that
occurs first is said to lead the second,
while the trailing event lags the first.
Since all ac cycles of the same
frequency have the same period (or
length in time), we can use the cycle’s
period as a basic unit of time. This
makes phase measurement independent
of the waveform frequency, relating only
to position relative to the waveform’s
cycle. If two or more different
frequencies are being considered, phase
measurements are usually made with
respect to the lowest frequency.
It is convenient to relate one complete
cycle of the wave to a circle, and to
divide the cycle into 360 degrees.
Figure 4.12 shows one complete cycle
of a sine-wave voltage or current, with
the wave broken into four quarters of
90° each. Each degree corresponds to
1/360 of the cycle’s period. So a phase
measurement is usually specified as an
angle. Because we know the period of
the waveform, we can convert degrees
to time.
The phase angle between two
waveforms is a measurement of the
offset in time between similar points on
each waveform — maximum-to-
maximum, zero-crossing-to-zero-
crossing, and so on. One of the
waveforms is designated as the
reference. A leading phase angle is
positive and a lagging phase angle is
negative.
AC Voltage-Current Relationship in
Capacitors
Figure 4.13 shows the voltage across a
capacitor as it charges and the charging
current that flows into a capacitor with a
dc voltage applied. As soon as a voltage
is applied across an ideal capacitor,
there is a sudden inrush of current as the
capacitor begins to charge. That current
tapers off as the capacitor is charged to
the full value of applied voltage. By the
time the applied voltage is reaching a
maximum, the capacitor is also reaching
full charge, and so the current into the
capacitor goes to zero. A maximum
amount of energy has been stored in the
electric field of the capacitor at this
point.
The situation is different when an ac
voltage is applied because the applied
voltage is not constant. Figure 4.14
graphs the relative current and voltage
amplitudes when an ac sine wave signal
is applied. The scale does not represent
specific current or voltage values.
Here’s what the graph of the two
waveforms is telling us during intervals
of one-quarter cycle of the voltage
waveform:
0° to 90° — Voltage is zero, so no
energy is stored in the capacitor. The
applied voltage begins increasing and a
large inrush of charging current occurs,
just as is the case for an applied dc
voltage. Current slows as more energy is
stored in the capacitor.
90° to 180° — Applied voltage has
reached a peak, so no additional charge
flows into the capacitor and current flow
stops — stored energy is at a maximum.
As voltage begins to drop, that is the
same as discharging the capacitor, so
current reverses and energy is returned
to the circuit.
180° to 270° — As the voltage reaches
zero it is dropping at its fastest rate, so
the discharge current in the reverse
direction is at a maximum. Now the
applied voltage is increasing again but
with the opposite polarity. Energy is
being stored in the capacitor again but
with the voltage reversed. Charging
current is now in the opposite direction,
too, but decreases as more energy is
stored in the capacitor.
270° to 360° — Once again, applied
voltage has reached a peak but with
reverse polarity. Charging current ceases
as the voltage peaks and begins to drop,
repeating the situation between 180° and
270° but with the opposite polarity.
When 360° arrives, voltage and current
have the same relationship as at 0° and
the cycle begins again.
Note that energy is stored in and
discharged from the capacitor twice
during each cycle — once with positive
voltage across the capacitor and once
with negative voltage. The current
waveform describes electrons flowing
in and out of the capacitor in response to
the applied voltage. Energy storage is at
a peak when voltage is maximum as
shown in Figure 4.15. This occurs at
90° and 270° when current is zero. Note
also that current reaches a peak 90°
ahead of the voltage waveform. We say
that the current through a capacitor leads
the applied voltage by 90°. [E5B09]
You could also say that the voltage
applied to a capacitor lags the current
through it by 90°. To help you remember
this relationship, think of the word ICE.
This will remind you that the current (I)
comes before (leads) the voltage (E) in a
capacitor (C). By convention, voltage is
the reference waveform for phase angle
so in a capacitor the phase angle is –90°
(negative).
AC Voltage-Current Relationship in
Inductors
The relationship between ac voltage
and current in an inductor complements
that in a capacitor. Figure 4.16 shows
that instead of stored energy being in
phase with applied voltage, it is in phase
with the inductor current. This causes the
phase relationship between voltage and
current to be reversed from that of the
capacitor.
In the section on magnetic energy, you
learned about back EMF. Back EMF is
greatest when the magnetic field is
changing the fastest. Furthermore, it is
generated with a polarity that opposes
the change in current or magnetic-field
strength. So, when the current is crossing
zero on the way to a positive peak, back
EMF is at its greatest negative value.
When the current is at the positive peak
back EMF is zero and so on.
As before, let’s examine the situation
during each quarter cycle of the applied
voltage waveform as shown in Figure
4.17. Along with applied voltage and
inductor current, the back EMF
waveform has been added. This will
help explain the relationship between
applied voltage and inductor current.
0° to 90° — Beginning at maximum
applied voltage, the opposing induced
voltage that resists changes in current
flow is also at a maximum so current
must increase slowly. As applied
voltage falls, the change in current is
also reduced and so induced voltage
also decreases. As applied voltage
reaches zero no additional current flows
and induced voltage is zero. Stored
energy is a maximum at this point.
90° to 180° — Applied voltage begins
to increase in the reverse direction
causing a reduction in current and stored
energy. Induced voltage increases
opposing the change in current. When
applied voltage reaches a maximum with
reverse polarity, current is now
completely stopped and stored energy is
zero.
180° to 270° — Reversed from the
situation between 0° and 90°, current is
now increasing in the opposite direction.
Applied voltage is falling and so the rate
of change of current is also falling,
causing induced voltage to fall as well.
As applied voltage reaches zero again,
current and stored energy has reached a
maximum.
270° to 360° — As between 90° and
180°, applied voltage is increasing in
the opposite polarity to current, causing
current to drop. The change in current
also causes induced voltage to rise in
opposition to the change in current. As
applied voltage reaches a maximum,
current and stored energy once again
reach zero.
The phase relationship between
applied ac voltage and current through
an inductor is the opposite from their
relationship in a capacitor. Current
through an inductor lags the applied
voltage by 90°. You could also say that
the voltage applied to an inductor leads
the current through it by 90°. [E5B10] A
useful mnemonic for remembering these
relationships is, “ELI the ICE man.” The
L and C represent the inductor and
capacitor, and the E and I stand for
voltage and current. Right away you can
see that E (voltage) comes before
(leads) I (current) in an inductor and that
I comes before (leads) E in a capacitor.
Using the same convention as for a
capacitor, the phase angle in an inductor
is 90° (positive).
Combining Reactance with Resistance

Up to this point we have studied the
phase relationships between voltage and
current only in inductors and capacitors.
Actual circuits include resistance, either
as a separate component or as part of the
inductor or capacitor. This affects the
phase angle between the voltage and
current waveforms. The voltage across a
resistor is in phase with the current
through it, so if a circuit contains both
resistance and reactance from either an
inductance or capacitance, the resulting
phase angle of current through all of the
components will be less than 90°. The
exact phase angle depends on the
relative amounts of resistance and
reactance in the circuit.
Revisiting reactance for a moment,
reactance is defined as the opposition to
ac current flow through an inductance or
capacitance. A resistor opposes any type
of current flow — ac or dc. You’ve just
seen that inductors develop a back EMF
that opposes changes in current flow
which is the same thing as resisting
changes in stored energy. Capacitors
also resist changes in energy by
opposing changes in voltage across them
that would cause current to flow. This
opposition to ac current flow is
reactance. To combine reactances in
series and parallel, use the same
equations as when combining
resistances.
Inductive reactance (XL) increases
with increasing frequency because as
frequency goes up, so does the rate of
change of the applied voltage and of
inductor current. A higher rate of change
increases the back EMF and thus the
opposition to current flow. Similarly,
higher inductance also increases
inductive reactance. The equation for XL
is:
XL = 2π f L
where:
XL is reactance in ohms.
f is frequency in hertz.
L is inductance in henrys.
Capacitive reactance increases with
decreasing frequency because the longer
cycle period means more current will
flow, resulting in more energy change
during each cycle. More energy change
requires the voltage source to overcome
wider swings in capacitor voltage and
that has the same effect of opposing
current flow. Lower capacitance also
increases capacitive reactance. The
equation for XC is:
where:
XC is reactance in ohms.
f is frequency in hertz.
C is capacitance in farads.
COMPLEX IMPEDANCE
represents capacitive
reactance in rectangular
notation?
E5C02 — How are impedances
described in polar
coordinates?
represents an inductive
reactance in polar
coordinates?
E5C04 — What coordinate system is
often used to display the
resistive, inductive, and/or
capacitive reactance
components of impedance?
E5C05 — What is the name of the
diagram used to show the
phase relationship between
impedances at a given
frequency?
E5C06 — What does the impedance
50–j25 represent?
E5C07 — Where is the impedance of
a pure resistance plotted on
rectangular coordinates?
E5C08 — What coordinate system is
often used to display the
phase angle of a circuit
containing resistance,
inductive and/or capacitive
reactance?
E5C09 — When using rectangular
coordinates to graph the
impedance of a circuit, what
do the axes represent?
When a circuit contains both resistance

and reactance the combined effect of the
two is called impedance, symbolized by
the letter Z. Impedance is a more general
term than either resistance or reactance
and is given as a complex number to
account for the phase difference between
voltage and current.
Writing and Graphing Impedance and
Phase Angle
Impedance values are written in
rectangular form as Z = R + jX where
the value of reactance, X, can be
positive (inductive, +jX) or negative
(capacitive, –jX). For example, the
impedance 50 – j 25 Ω consists of 50 Ω
of resistance and 25 Ω of capacitive
reactance. [E5C01, E5C03, E5C06]
Referring back to Figure 4.1, you can
plot complex impedance and the
associated phase angle using rectangular
coordinates by using the horizontal axis
for the value of R and the vertical axis
for the value of X. [E5C04, E5C09] The
j indicates that the reactance value (such
as j2 or –j3/2) is a vertical distance
along the Y axis.
When plotting impedances using
complex coordinates, any point that falls
on the horizontal axis from 0° to 180° is
a pure resistance and has no reactive
component. [E5C07] Any point that falls
on the vertical axis from 90° to –90° (or
270°) is a pure reactance and has no
resistive component.
Impedance can also be written in polar
coordinates (see Figure 4.2) as |Z|θ,
where |Z| is the magnitude of the
impedance and θ is its phase angle.
[E5C02] Impedances in polar
coordinates are plotted with the right
side of the horizontal axis indicating 0°,
the top half of the vertical axis indicating
90°, and so forth. [E5C08] Remember
that polar coordinates and maps have
different conventions for angles.
The polar coordinate representation of
an impedance or admittance is also
called phasor notation and the values
are called a phasor. A phasor diagram
shows impedance or admittance values
plotted using polar coordinates.
Remember that reactances change with
frequency so a phasor diagram assumes
the frequency is the same for all values.
[E5C05] Phasors are a type of vector
which is any quantity that has both a
magnitude and a direction. In the case of
phasors, the direction is the angular
coordinate.
Either the rectangular or polar-
coordinate system can be used to specify
impedance. Choose rectangular
coordinates to visualize the resistive and
reactive parts. Choose polar coordinates
to visualize the magnitude and the phase
angle of the impedance.
For More Information: Combining

Resistance and Reactance
A circuit’s reactance and resistance
may be connected in series or in
parallel, as shown in Figure 4.18. In
these circuits, the reactance is shown as
a box (X), to indicate that it can be
either inductive or capacitive. In the
series circuit shown at A, current is the
same through both elements but with
different voltages appearing across the
resistance and reactance. In the parallel
circuit shown at B, the same voltage is
applied to both elements but different
currents may flow in the two branches.
You can see that the phase relationship

between current and voltage for the
whole circuit can be anything between
zero and ±90°. The phase angle depends
on the relative amounts of resistance and
reactance in the circuit.
The simple R + jX value assumes that
all of the resistances and reactances
have been combined into one equivalent
value. If there is more than one resistor
in the circuit, you must combine them to
get one equivalent resistance value.
Likewise, if there is more than one
reactive element, they must be combined
into one equivalent reactance. If there
are several inductors and several
capacitors, combine all the like elements
and calculate the resulting capacitive
and inductive reactance.
Capacitive and inductive reactances
resist the flow of ac current in different
ways and have opposite phase angles so
that they cancel each other. This is
reflected in the convention of capacitive
reactance being treated as a negative
value and inductive reactive as a
positive value so that adding them
together results in a smaller total
reactance. If the two opposing
reactances have equal values, the
resulting cancellation means no
reactance is present in the circuit at all!
Combining resistance and reactance is
a little more complicated. When the
resistance and reactance are in series,
the two values can be combined in a
relatively straightforward manner. The
current is the same in all parts of the
circuit (I = IR = IX), and the voltage is
different across each component.
Remembering that Z is a complex
number, we can write an equation for the
impedance in the form:
This is really just Ohm’s Law written

for impedance instead of resistance, as
we are used to seeing it. This equation
also shows that we can consider the
voltage and current associated with the
resistive and reactive elements
separately.
Can we say that Z = R + X? No!
Because the phase angle of the current is
different in the resistance (phase angle =
0°) and reactance (phase angle = ±90°
as indicated by the j). To find the actual
impedance of the combined R and X, we
need to take phase angle into account.
This can be done graphically. Start by
drawing the axes for a rectangular
coordinate graph as shown in Figure
4.19. Resistance values correspond to
the X axis and reactance values to the Y
axis.
Start by assuming a current of 1 A
flowing in the circuit of Figure 4.19A,
so the voltage and impedance have the
same numeric values of ohms and volts.
(If I = 1 A, then numerically Z = E/1.)
Current is the same in both components
so use the voltage across the resistor as
a reference and draw the voltage across
the reactance in the direction of positive
reactance on the graph. It is helpful to
remember that the reason we label
inductive reactance as + and capacitive
reactance as – is because of this leading
and lagging current-voltage relationship.
In the circuit of Figure 4.19, R = 1000
Ω so the voltage across it will be 1000
V. Draw this voltage as a line from the
origin along the 0° axis (labeled “R 0°”)
to the point (1000,0). L = 20 mH and f =
10 kHz so,
XL = 6.28 × (20 × 10–3 H) × (10 × 103
Hz) = 1256 Ω.
Draw the voltage across XL = EL = 1 A
× 1256 Ω = 1256 V as a line pointing
straight up in the 90° direction. The line
should be parallel to the reactance axis
(labeled “90° X”) from the end of the
previous line to the point (1000,1256).
Because the reactance is inductive, the
phase angle between voltage and current
is 90° and the voltage line extends
upward from the X axis. If the reactance
had been capacitive the phase angle
would have been –90° and the voltage
line would extend down from the X axis.
Complete the figure by drawing a line
from the origin to the point (1000,1256).
This represents the combination of
voltages across 1000 Ω of resistance
and 1256 Ω of inductive reactance. The
complex impedance is 1000 + j1256 Ω.
The right triangle you just created
represents the solution to the problem.
The length of the hypotenuse from the
origin to (1000,1256) represents the
magnitude of the voltage, |ET|, across the
combination of R and L for 1 A of
current at 10 kHz. The angle θ is the
phase angle between the voltage and the
current.
The length of the hypotenuse and the
angle can be calculated using
trigonometry. (If you are unfamiliar with
trigonometry, use the review references
listed in the math supplement on the
ECLM web page.)
If frequency or inductance increased,
XL would increase with the result that
both ET and θ would increase. If
frequency or inductance decreased, XL
would also decrease, as would ET and
θ.
Completing the impedance calculation,
remember that Z = ET / I. We know I = 1
A and since it is the reference, it can be
written as 10° A. We just determined
that ET = 1605 V with a phase angle of
51.5°, so ET can be written as 160551.5°
V. Therefore,
If the reactance in the circuit had been
capacitive (negative), the final
impedance would have been 1605 –
51.5° Ω.
ADMITTANCE AND
SUSCEPTANCE
E5B02 — What letter is commonly
used to represent
susceptance?
E5B03 — How is impedance in polar
form converted to an
equivalent admittance?
E5B05 — What happens to the
magnitude of a pure
reactance when it is
converted to a susceptance?
E5B06 — What is susceptance?
E5B07 — What is the phase angle
between the voltage across
and the current through a
series RLC circuit if XC is
500 ohms, R is 1 kilohm, and
XL is 250 ohms?
100 ohms, R is 100 ohms, and
XL is 75 ohms?
25 ohms, R is 100 ohms, and
XL is 50 ohms?
E5B12 — What is admittance?
E5C10 — Which point on Figure E5-1
best represents the
impedance of a series circuit
consisting of a 400-ohm
resistor and a 38-picofarad
capacitor at 14 MHz?
E5C11 — Which point in Figure E5-1
best represents the
resistor and an 18-
microhenry inductor at 3.505
MHz?
E5C12 — Which point on Figure E5-1
best represents the
resistor and a 19-picofarad
capacitor at 21.200 MHz?
The reciprocal of impedance is

admittance (Y) and the imaginary part of
admittance is susceptance (B). [E5B02,
E5B06, E5B12] Admittance and
susceptance values are measured in
siemens (S).
Similar to impedance, admittance can
be written in either rectangular or polar
coordinates: Y = G + jB or |Y| θ. Since
impedance and admittance are
reciprocals, converting one to the other
is straightforward in polar form: |Y| =
1/|Z|
When taking the reciprocal of a phase
angle in polar notation, the sign is
changed from positive to negative or
vice versa. So the admittance’s phase
angle is simply the negative of the
impedance phase angle. Stated another
way, Y = 1/|Z|–θ. Converting a pure
reactance, Xθ, to susceptance is very
similar: B = 1/|X|–θ. [E5B05]
Calculating Impedances and Phase

Angles
Let’s get some practice working with
impedances, admittances, susceptances,
and with determining phase angles in
simple circuits by using the following
basic rules:
Rule 1: Impedances, resistances, and
reactances in series add together
Rule 2: Admittance is the
reciprocal of impedance (Y
= 1/Z) and vice-versa. If
only reactance is present in
the impedance — a pure
reactance — susceptance is
the negative reciprocal of
reactance (B = –1/X). For
example, Z = 1 / |Y|θ = |1/Y|
–θ and B = 1/|X|–θ.
Rule 3: Admittances, conductances,
and susceptances in parallel add
together
Rule 4: Inductive and capacitive
reactance in series cancel
Rule 5: 1/j = –j
(See the sidebar, “Working With Polar
and Rectangular Coordinates,” presented
earlier in this chapter for methods of
working with complex numbers in
rectangular and polar form.)
Note that when combining parallel
elements, it is often easiest to convert
them to conductances or susceptances,
which can be added together directly.
Then the combined element can be
converted back to a resistance or
reactance, if desired.
The following three examples practice
the basic steps of converting between
rectangular and polar forms and between
admittance and impedance.
Example 4.1
Write the impedance 100 – j100 Ω in
polar form:
Step 1 —
Step 2 — θ = tan–1 (–100/100) = –45°

Step 3 — Z = 141–45° Ω
and write the impedance 2560° in
rectangular form:
Step 1 — R = |Z| cos 60° = 12.5 Ω
Step 2 — X = |Z| sin 60° = 21.7 Ω
Step 3 — Z = 12.5 + j21.7 Ω
Example 4.2
The first step in these examples needs
more space from the question — see
example 4.1 for how they should look.
The steps and the calculations should all
be equally spaced. Convert the
admittance 7.0945° mS (millisiemens) to
impedance in polar form.
Step 1 — Use rule 2 to find:
|Z| = 1 / 0.00709 = 141 Ω
θ = – (45°) = – 45°
Step 2 — Z = 141–45° Ω
Example 4.3
Convert the impedance 5–30° Ω to
admittance in rectangular form. [E5B03]
Step 1 — Use rule 2 to find:
|Y| = 1 / 5 = 0.2 S
θ = – (–30°) = 30°
Step 2 — G = |Y| cos 30° = 0.17 S
Step 3 — B = |Y| sin 30° = 0.1 S
Step 4 — Y = 0.17 + j 0.1 S
Several of the following examples are
found in Subelements E5B and E5C of
the Extra class question pool. To apply
the examples to the questions on the
exam, remember that voltage is the
reference for phase angle polarity so that
if the phase angle is negative, voltage
lags current.
Example 4.4
Using the circuit and diagram of Figure
4.20, pick the point on the graph in
Figure 4.21 that represents the
impedance of a circuit consisting of a
300-Ω resistor in series with an 18-µH
inductor at 3.505 MHz? [E5C11]
Step 1 — Calculate the inductor’s
reactance:
XL = 2pfL = 400 Ω
Step 2 — Use rule 1 to add the
resistance and reactance together:
Z = 300 + j400 Ω
Step 3 — Locate the point on the graph,
300 units along the X (horizontal) axis
and +400 units on the Y (vertical) axis.
This is Point 3.
Example 4.5
Using the circuit and diagram of Figure
4.22, what is the impedance of the
circuit consisting of a 100-Ω resistor in
parallel with a capacitor that has –j100
Ω of reactance? Give the answer in
rectangular form, polar form, and state
the phase angle of the circuit. This type
of calculation is not on the exam but now
is a good opportunity to practice
converting and working with impedance
and admittance.
Step 1 — Use rules 2 and 5 to convert
the impedances to admittances because
so they can be added directly together:
G = 1/R = 1/100 = 0.01 S
BC = 1/XC = 1/–j100 = j0.01 S
admittances together:
Y = 0.014145° S (shown in Figure
4.22B)
Step 3 — Use rule 2 to convert the
admittance back to impedance:
Z = 1/Y = (1/0.0141) (0°–45°) = 71–45°
Ω
Step 4 — The phase angle is equal to the
angle of the impedance: θ = –45°
Example 4.6
Using the graph in Figure 4.21, which
point represents the impedance of a
series with a 38-pF capacitor at 14
MHz? [E5C10]
Step 1 — Calculate the capacitor’s
reactance:
(capacitive reactance is assigned a
negative value)
Z = 400 – j300 Ω
and –300 units on the Y (vertical) axis.
This is Point 4.
Example 4.7
Using the graph in Figure 4.21, which
point represents the impedance of a
series with a 19-pF capacitor at 21.200
MHz? [E5C12]
Step 1 — Calculate the capacitor’s
reactance:
(capacitive reactance is assigned a

negative value)
Z = 300 – j400 Ω
and –400 units on the Y (vertical) axis.
This is Point 1.
Example 4.8
What is the phase angle between
voltage and current in a series RLC
circuit if XC is 500 Ω, R is 1 kΩ, and XL
is 250 Ω? [E5B07]
Step 1 — Use rules 1 and 4 to add the
resistance and reactances together:
Z = 1000 + j250 – j500 = 1000 – j250 Ω
Step 2 — Convert Z to polar form:
θ = tan–1 (–250/1000) = –14°
Z = 1031–14° Ω
angle of the impedance: θ = –14°. Since
phase angle is from voltage to current,
the negative angle indicates that voltage
lags the current.
Example 4.9
circuit if XC is 100 Ω, R is 100 Ω, and
XL is 75 Ω? [E5B08]
Z = 100 + j75 – j100 = 100 – j25 Ω
θ = tan–1 (–25/100) = –14°

Z = 103–14° Ω
angle of the impedance: θ = –14°. Since
the negative angle indicates that voltage
lags the current.
Compare this to the previous example
and note that even though impedance
changed by a factor of 10, phase angle
was unchanged because the relative
amounts of resistance and reactance are
the same in both circuits.
Example 4.10
circuit if XC is 25 Ω, R is 100 Ω, and XL
is 50 Ω? [E5B11]
Z = 100 + j50 – j25 = 100 + j25 Ω
θ = tan–1 (25/100) = 14°
Z = 10314° Ω
angle of the impedance: θ = 14°. Since
the positive angle indicates that voltage
leads the current.
REACTIVE POWER AND POWER
FACTOR
E5D05 — What is the power factor of
an RL circuit having a 30-
degree phase angle between
the voltage and the current?
E5D07 — How many watts are
consumed in a circuit having
a power factor of 0.71 if the
apparent power is 500VA?
input is 200VAC at 5
amperes?
E5D09 — What happens to reactive
power in an AC circuit that
has both ideal inductors and
ideal capacitors?
E5D10 — How can the true power be
determined in an AC circuit
where the voltage and
current are out of phase?
input is 100 VAC at 4
amperes?
consumed in a circuit
resistor in series with a 100-
ohm inductive reactance
drawing 1 ampere?
E5D14 — What is reactive power?
Power is the rate of doing work or

using energy per unit of time. Going back
to our example at the beginning of this
chapter, if you did 10 foot-pounds of
work in 5 seconds, then you provided
power of 2 foot-pounds per second. If
you generate 550 foot-pounds per
second of power, you have generated 1
horsepower. So power is a way to
express not only how much work you are
doing (or how much energy is being
stored); it also tells you how fast you are
doing it. In the metric system, power is
expressed in terms of the watt (W) — 1
watt means energy is being stored or
work being done at the rate of 1 joule
per second.
You learned earlier that when current
increases through an inductor, energy is
stored in the inductor’s magnetic field.
Energy is stored in the electric field of a
capacitor when the voltage across it
increases. That energy is returned to the
circuit when the current through the
inductor decreases or when the voltage
across the capacitor decreases.
You also learned that the voltages
across and currents in these components
are 90° out of phase with each other. In
one half of the cycle some energy is
stored in the inductor or capacitor, and
the same amount of energy returned on
the next half cycle. A perfect capacitor
or inductor does not dissipate or
consume any energy, but current does
flow in the circuit when a voltage is
applied to it. If no energy is consumed in
a perfect capacitor or inductor, then no
work is done and no power is consumed.
Definition of Reactive Power

To pass the General class license
exam, you learned that electrical power
is equal to the RMS values of current
multiplied by voltage:
P=IE (Equation
4.7)
There are certainly voltage and current
present for the inductor and capacitor.
Why is no power consumed? There is
one catch in Equation 4.7 — it is only
true when the current and voltage are in
phase such as in a resistor where the
phase angle is zero. The larger the phase
angle, the smaller the amount of work
done by the power source supplying the
voltage and current. When the phase
angle reaches ±90°, no work is being
done at all and so the rate (or power) is
equal to zero!
In a circuit’s inductive or capacitive
reactance, energy may be stored in and
returned from the magnetic field in the
inductor or the electric field in the
capacitor but it will not be consumed as
power. Only the resistive part of the
circuit consumes and dissipates power
as heat. [E5D09]
An ammeter and a voltmeter connected
in an ac circuit to measure voltage
across and current through an inductor or
capacitor will both show non-zero
values but multiplying them together
does not give the true indication of the
power being dissipated in the
component. The meters do not account
for the phase difference between voltage
and current.
If you multiply the RMS values of
voltage and current from these meters,
you will get a quantity that is referred to
as apparent power — a clue that
multiplying RMS values of voltage and
current doesn’t always give the true
picture! Apparent power is expressed in
units of volt-amperes (VA) rather than
watts. The apparent power in an
inductor or capacitor is called reactive
power or nonproductive, wattless
power. [E5D14] Reactive power is
expressed in volt-amperes-reactive
(VAR). The apparent power in a resistor
is called real power because voltage
and current are in phase so that the
power is dissipated as heat or causes
work to be done.
Definition and Calculation of Power

Factor
You can account for reactive power in
a circuit by using phase angle to
calculate the power factor. Power factor
(abbreviated PF) relates the apparent
power in a circuit to the real power. You
can find the real power in a circuit
containing resistance from Equations 4.8
and 4.9.
For a series circuit:
(Equation
P = I2 R
4.8)
where I is the RMS current.

For a parallel circuit:
(Equation
P = E2 / R 4.9)
where E is the RMS voltage.

Both of these equations are easily
derived by using Ohm’s Law to solve for
either voltage or current, (E = I × R and
I = E / R) and replacing that term with
the Ohm’s Law equivalent.
One way to calculate power factor is
simply to divide the real power by the
apparent power:
(Equation
4.10)
If PF = 1, then the voltage and current

are in phase and all of the apparent
power is real power. If PF = 0, then the
voltage and current are 90° out of phase
and all of the apparent power is reactive
power.
Figure 4.23 shows a series circuit
containing a 75-Ω resistor and an
inductor with an inductive reactance of
100 Ω at the signal frequency. The
voltmeter reads 250 V RMS and the
ammeter indicates a current of 2 A RMS.
This is an apparent power of 250 V × 2
A = 500 VA. Use Equation 4.8 to
calculate the power dissipated in the
resistor:
PREAL = I2 R = (2 A)2 × 75 Ω = 4 A2 × 75
Ω = 300 W
Now by using Equation 4.10, calculate
power factor:
Another way to calculate the real
power, if you know power factor, is
given by:
(Equation
PREAL = PAPPARENT × PF
4.11)
In our example,
PREAL = 500 VA × 0.6 = 300 W [E5D10]
Phase angle can also be used to
calculate power factor and real power.
You learned how to calculate the phase
angle of either a series or a parallel
circuit in the previous section. The
power factor can be calculated from the
phase angle by taking the cosine of the
phase angle:
(Equation
Power factor = cos θ
4.12)
where θ is the phase angle between

voltage and current in the circuit. PF is
positive whether the phase angle is
positive or negative
You can see that for a circuit containing
only resistance, where the voltage and
current are in phase, the power factor is
1, and the real power is equal to the
apparent power. For a circuit containing
only capacitance or inductance in any
combination, the power factor is 0 so
there is no real power! For most
practical circuits, which contain
resistance, inductance and capacitance,
and the phase angle is some value
greater than or less than 0°, the power
factor will be something less than one. In
such a circuit, the real power will
always be something less than the
apparent power. This is an important
point to remember.
Let’s try some sample problems
assuming that you can find the phase
angle as described in the previous
section. (If you need review of the
cosine function, use the math supplement
on the Extra Class License Manual
website, www.arrl.org/extra-class-
license-manual.)
Example 4.11
What is the power factor for an R-L
circuit having a phase angle of 30°?
45°? 60°? Use Equation 4.12 to answer
this question: [E5D05, E5D11, E5D15]
PF for phase angle of 30° = cos 30° =
0.866
0.707
0.500
Example 4.12
Suppose you have a circuit that draws
4 amperes of current when 100 V ac is
applied. The power factor for this
circuit is 0.2. What is the real power
(how many watts are consumed) for this
circuit? [E5D12]
Start by calculating apparent power
using Equation 4.7.
PAPPARENT = 100 V × 4 A = 400 VA
Real power is then found using
Equation 4.11:
PREAL = 400 VA × 0.2 = 80 W
Example 4.13
How much power is consumed in a
series with a 100-Ω inductive reactance
and drawing 1 ampere of current?
[E5D13]
Because only the resistance consumes
power:
PREAL = I2 R = (1 A)2 × 100 Ω = 100 W
Example 4.14
How many watts are consumed in a
circuit having a power factor of 0.6 if
the input is 200 V ac at 5 amperes?
[E5D08]
First, find apparent power using
Equation 4.7:
PAPPARENT = I E = 5 A × 200 V = 1000
VA
Then multiply by the power factor as in
Equation 4.11:
PREAL = PAPPARENT × PF = 1000 × 0.6 =
600 W
Example 4.16
How many watts are consumed in a
circuit having a power factor of 0.71 if
the apparent power is 500 VA? [E5D07]
Use Equation 4.11 to find PREAL:
PREAL = PAPPARENT × PF = 500 × 0.71 =
355 W
RESONANT CIRCUITS
E5A01 — What can cause the voltage
across reactances in a series
RLC circuit to be higher
than the voltage applied to
the entire circuit?
E5A02 — What is resonance in an LC
or RLC circuit?
E5A03 — What is the magnitude of
the impedance of a series
RLC circuit at resonance?
the impedance of a parallel
the circulating current within
the components of a parallel
LC circuit at resonance?
the current at the input of a
parallel RLC circuit at
resonance?
E5A08 — What is the phase
relationship between the
current through and the
voltage across a series
resonant circuit at
resonance?
E5A14 — What is the resonant
frequency of an RLC circuit
if R is 22 ohms, L is 50
microhenries and C is 40
picofarads?
E5A16 — What is the resonant
frequency of an RLC circuit
if R is 33 ohms, L is 50
microhenries and C is 10
picofarads?
With all of the problems so far, we
have used inductor and capacitor values
that give different inductive and
capacitive reactances. Have you
wondered about what happens when
both reactances are equal?
In a series circuit with an inductor and
a capacitor, voltage leads the current by
90° in the inductor; in the capacitor,
voltage lags the current by 90°. Since
this is a series circuit the current through
all of the components is the same. That
means the voltages across the inductor
and capacitor are 180° out of phase.
Those voltages then cancel, leaving only
the voltage across the resistance of the
circuit which is in phase with the
current.
In a parallel circuit containing
inductance and capacitance, voltage is
the same across both but it is the currents
that are 180° out of phase. The current in
the inductor lags the applied voltage by
90° and the current in the capacitor leads
by 90°. The cancellation of the current
leaves a parallel resistance as the only
component in which current can flow
and the remaining current is in phase
with the voltage.
Whether the components are connected
in series or parallel, we say the circuit
is resonant or is at resonance when the
inductive reactance value is the same as
the capacitive reactance value. [E5A02]
Remember that inductive reactance
increases as frequency increases and that
capacitive reactance decreases as
frequency increases. The frequency at
which the two are equal is the circuit’s
resonant frequency.
Calculation of Resonant Frequency

Figure 4.24 shows the intersection of
two lines representing reactance vs
frequency: the curved line, decreasing to
the right, shows capacitive reactance XC
= 1/2π f C, and the straight line rising to
the right shows inductive reactance XL =
2pfL. At the frequency where the lines
cross, XC = XL and the circuit is
resonant. The two lines cross at only one
point — the resonant frequency of the
circuit using those two components.
Every combination of a capacitor and an
inductor will be resonant at some
frequency.
The scales of both axes in the figure
are linear which results in the curved
and straight lines. In most engineering
manuals and texts, however, reactances
are plotted on a graph with logarithmic
axis scales where both types of
reactance are plotted as straight lines.
This makes it a lot easier to see where
the resonant frequency is for a wide
range of capacitance, inductance, and
frequencies. You can see this kind of
chart in the Electrical Fundamentals
chapter of the ARRL Handbook or online
at
www.rfcafe.com/references/electrical/fr
reactance-nomograph.htm.
Since resonance occurs when the
reactances are equal, we can derive an
equation to calculate the resonant
frequency of any capacitor-inductor
pair:
Set XL = XC at resonance, so:
so
and
This leads to the formula for resonant

frequency:
(Equation
4.13)
Let’s try calculating a resonant

frequency. What frequency should the
signal generator in Figure 4.25 be tuned
to for resonance if the resistor is 22 Ω,
the coil is 50 µH, and the capacitor has a
value of 40 pF? Probably the biggest
stumbling block of these calculations
will be remembering to convert the
inductor value to henrys and the
capacitor value to farads. After you have
done that, use Equation 4.13 to calculate
the resonant frequency. [E5A14]
50 µH = 50 × 10–6 H
40 pF = 40 × 10–12 F
What would happen to fr if the resistor

value was changed to 47 Ω? Nothing!
The value of the circuit’s resistance does
not affect the resonant frequency. This is
because the resistor does not store
electrical or magnetic energy.
Calculating the resonant frequency of a
parallel circuit is exactly the same as for
a series circuit. It does not matter if the L
and C are in series or in parallel. For
example, what is the resonant frequency
of an RLC circuit if R is 33 Ω, L is 50
µH and C is 10 pF? [E5A16]
Using the same technique that we used

to derive Equation 4.13, we can easily
derive equations to calculate either the
inductance or capacitance to resonate
with a certain component at a specific
frequency, fr:
if we know the value of C

and
(E
if we know the value of L
Let’s try a couple of practical

examples:
What value capacitor is needed to
make a circuit that is resonant in the 80
meter band if you have a 20-µH
inductor? Choose a frequency in the 80
meter band to work with, such as 3.6
MHz. Then convert to fundamental units:
fr = 3.6 × 106 Hz and L = 20 × 10–6 H.
Use Equation 4.15, since that one is
written to find capacitance, the quantity
we are looking for:
You can use a 100-pF capacitor. If you
try solving this problem for both ends of
the 80 meter band, you will find that you
need a 103-pF capacitor at 3.5 MHz and
a 79-pF unit at 4 MHz. So any capacitor
value within this range will resonate in
the 80 meter band with the 20-µH
inductor.
Stored Energy in Resonant Circuits

Figure 4.25 shows a signal generator
connected to a series RLC circuit. The
signal generator produces a variable-
frequency current through the circuit,
which will cause a voltage to appear
across each component. As discussed
above, the voltages across the inductor
and capacitor are always 180° out of
phase.
When the signal generator produces an
output signal at the resonant frequency of
the circuit, the voltages across the
inductor and capacitor are equal as well
as out of phase. This means an equal
amount of energy is stored in each
component and is transferred between
them on alternate half-cycles.
If the components have low amounts of
resistive loss, the energy continually
supplied by the signal generator will
cause the voltages across the inductor
and capacitor to build to levels several
times larger than the voltage applied to
the circuit! Similarly, the currents that
flow back and forth between the inductor
and capacitor to exchange the stored
energy are maximum at resonance.
[E5A01] These currents are referred to
as circulating currents because they
flow back and forth as the energy
circulates between the two reactances.
(Storage of energy is also the reason
why tuned circuits are sometimes called
tank circuits.)
In analogy, consider pushing a
playground swing. Even though the
additional push on each swing is small,
if friction is low the pushes can cause
the amplitude of the swing’s travel to be
much larger than would be caused by
any single push.
Impedance of Resonant Circuits

Versus Frequency
With the voltages across the inductor
and capacitor canceling each other the
only impedance presented to the signal
generator is that of the resistance, R.
[E5A03] For perfect components and no
resistance in the circuit, there would be
nothing to restrict the current in the
circuit. An ideal series-resonant circuit,
then, “looks like” a short circuit to the
signal generator. There is always some
resistance in a circuit but if the total
resistance is small, the current will be
large according to Ohm’s Law. The
change in current with frequency is
shown in Figure 4.25B. It reaches a
maximum at the resonant frequency, fr.
In a parallel-resonant circuit there are
several current paths, but the same
voltage is applied to the components.
Figure 4.26 shows a parallel LC circuit
connected to a signal generator. The
applied voltage causes current to flow in
each of the three circuit branches. At
resonance the current through the
inductor will be 180° out of phase with
the current in the capacitor and again
they add up to zero.
As a result, the parallel resonant circuit
has a high impedance and can appear to
be an open circuit to the signal generator
because the current from the signal
generator is quite small. At resonance,
the magnitude of the impedance of a
circuit with a resistor, inductor and
capacitor all connected in parallel will
be approximately equal to the circuit
resistance. [E5A04, E5A07]
Figure 4.26B is a graph of the relative
generator current. The current at the
input of a parallel RLC circuit is a
minimum at resonance. It is a mistake to
assume, however, that because the
generator current is small the current
flowing through the capacitor and
inductor is also small. As in a series
resonant circuit, the energy being
exchanged between the inductor and
capacitor can build up to large values.
At resonance, the circulating currents
will be at maximum, limited only by
resistive losses in the components.
[E5A06] While the total current from the
generator is small at resonance, the
voltage measured across the tank
reaches a maximum value at resonance.
Figure 4.26C is a graph of the voltage
across the inductor and capacitor.
It is also interesting to consider the
phase relationship between the voltage
across a resonant circuit and the current
through that circuit. Because the
inductive reactance and the capacitive
reactance are equal but opposite their
effects cancel each other. The resulting
current and voltage in a resonant circuit
are in phase. This is true for both a
series resonant circuit and a parallel
resonant circuit. [E5A08]
Q OF COMPONENTS AND
CIRCUITS
E4B08 — Which of the following can
be used to measure the Q of
a series-tuned circuit?
E5A05 — What is the result of
increasing the Q of an
impedance-matching circuit?
E5A09 — How is the Q of an RLC
parallel resonant circuit
calculated?
E5A10 — How is the Q of an RLC
series resonant circuit
calculated?
E5A11 — What is the half-power
bandwidth of a resonant
circuit that has a resonant
frequency of 7.1 MHz and a
Q of 150?
E5A12 — What is the half-power
bandwidth of a resonant
circuit that has a resonant
frequency of 3.7 MHz and a
Q of 118?
E5A13 — What is an effect of
increasing Q in a series
resonant circuit?
increases Q for inductors
and capacitors?
We have talked about ideal resistors,

capacitors and inductors, and how they
behave in ac circuits. We have shown
that resistance in a circuit causes some
departure from a circuit of ideal
components by dissipating some of the
stored energy. But how can we
determine how close to the ideal a
certain component comes? Or how much
of an effect it will have on a designed
circuit? We can calculate a value for
inductors and capacitors that evaluates
the relative merits of that component —
the quality factor called Q. We can also
assign a Q value to an entire circuit as a
measure of how close to the ideal that
circuit performs — at least in terms of
its properties at resonance.
One definition of Q is the ratio of
reactance to resistance. This is, in effect,
the ratio of how much energy is stored to
how much energy is dissipated. The
lower the component’s resistive losses,
the higher the Q. [E5A15]
Figure 4.27 shows that a capacitor can
be thought of as an ideal capacitor in
series with a resistor and an inductor
can be considered as an ideal inductor in
series with a resistor. This parasitic
resistance can’t actually be separated
from the inductor or capacitor, of course,
but it acts just the same as if it were in
series with an ideal, lossless component.
The Q of a real inductor, L, is equal to
the inductive reactance divided by the
resistance and the Q of a real capacitor,
C, is equal to the capacitive reactance
divided by the resistance:
(Equation
4.16A)
If you want to know the Q of a circuit

containing both parasitic resistance and
actual resistors, both must be added
together to find the value of R used in the
equation. Since adding a resistor can
only raise the total resistance, the Q of
the circuit will always go down when
resistance is added in series with an
inductor or capacitor. There is no way to
raise the Q of an inductor or capacitor
except by building a component with
less parasitic resistance.
In a resonant RLC circuit, the effect of
resistance depends on whether the
circuit is a parallel or series circuit. For
a series circuit, increasing R represents
increasing losses and lowers Q. In a
parallel circuit, increasing R represents
lower losses and raises Q. For that
reason, the equations for Q in series and
parallel resonant circuits are
reciprocals:
With a little algebra and knowing that

XL = XC at resonance, Q can be
computed just knowing the reactance of
either the inductor or capacitor at the
resonant frequency [E5A09, E5A10]:
For example, in Figure 4.28A the Q of

the circuit is 10 calculated from the
1000 Ω of reactance divided by the loss
resistance of 100 Ω. In the parallel
circuit of Figure 4.28B, the Q = 20, from
100 kΩ of resistance divided by 5000 Ω
of reactance.
The relationship between Q of the
resonant circuit and the circuit’s internal
voltages and circulating currents is now
clear. The higher Q becomes, the higher
the voltages and currents. [E5A13] In
fact, for resonant circuits such as tuning
networks for amplifiers and impedance
matching, internal voltages and currents
can become high enough to arc across
tuning capacitors or melt soldered
connections, even at modest power
levels!
Another practical note, the internal
resistance of a capacitor is usually much
less than that for an inductor so we often
ignore the resistance of a capacitor and
consider only that associated with the
inductor when computing Q of a resonant
circuit. Stated another way, Q of the
inductor is usually the limiting factor on
Q of a resonant circuit.
Q and Resonant-Circuit Bandwidth

Bandwidth refers to the frequency
range over which the circuit response in
voltage or current is no more than 3 dB
below the peak response. The –3 dB
points are shown on Figure 4.29, and the
bandwidths are indicated. (If you are not
familiar with the use of decibels, see the
math supplement on this book’s web
page.) Since this 3-dB decrease in signal
represents the points where the circuit
power is one half of the resonant power,
the –3 dB points are also called half-
power points. At these points, the
voltage and current have been reduced to
0.707 times their peak values.
The frequencies at which the half-
power points occur are f1 and f2; Df is
the difference between these two
frequencies, and represents the half-
power (or 3-dB) bandwidth. A circuit
with a narrow bandwidth is said to be
“sharp” and one with a wider bandwidth
“broad.” It is possible to calculate the
bandwidth of a resonant circuit based on
the circuit Q and the resonant frequency:
(Equation
4.17)
where:
Df = the half-power bandwidth.
fr = the resonant frequency of the
circuit.
Q = the circuit Q
The higher the circuit Q, the smaller the
bandwidth of a resonant circuit will be,
whether it is a series or parallel circuit.
[E4B08] Figure 4.29 shows the relative
bandwidth of a circuit with two different
Q values.
Let’s calculate the half-power
bandwidth of a parallel circuit that has a
resonant frequency of 7.1 MHz and a Q
of 150. The half-power bandwidth is
found by Equation 4.17: [E5A11]
To find the upper and lower half-power
frequencies, subtract half the total
bandwidth from the center frequency to
get the lower half-power frequency and
add half the bandwidth to get the upper
half-power frequency. The response of
this circuit will be at least half of the
peak signal power for signals in the
range 7.07635 to 7.12365 MHz.
Repeat the calculations for the
following combination of resonant
frequency and Q:
fr = 3.7 MHz and Q = 118: Df = 31.4 kHz
[E5A12]
Impedance matching circuits that use
inductances and capacitances also use
circulating energy to transform one ratio
of voltage to current (which is the
definition of impedance) at the output to
another at the input. Q of the components
and of the circuit also affect how the
circuit performs. As Q of such an
impedance matching circuit increases,
the internal voltages and currents
increase and the bandwidth over which
the impedance is matched decreases, just
like that of a resonant circuit. [E5A05]
COMPONENTS AT RF AND
MICROWAVE FREQUENCIES
E5D01 — What is the result of skin
effect?
E5D02 — Why is it important to keep
lead lengths short for
components used in circuits
for VHF and above?
E5D04 — Why are short connections
used at microwave
frequencies?
E6D13 — What is the primary cause
of inductor self-resonance?
E6E02 — Which of the following
device packages is a
through-hole type?
component package types
would be most suitable for
use at frequencies above the
HF range?
E6E10 — What advantage does
surface-mount technology
offer at RF compared to
using through-hole
components?
E6E11 — What is a characteristic of
DIP packaging used for
integrated circuits?
E6E12 — Why are DIP through-hole
package ICs not typically
used at UHF and higher
frequencies?
Skin Effect and Q

As frequency increases, the electric
and magnetic fields of signals do not
penetrate as deeply into a conductor like
a wire. At dc, the entire cross-section of
the wire is used to carry currents. As the
frequency increases, the effective area
gets smaller and smaller as the current is
confined closer and closer to the surface
of the wire. [E5D01] This reduces the
volume available to carry the electron
flow and increases its effective
resistance.
In the HF range, all current flows in the
outer few thousandths of an inch of a
conductor. At VHF and UHF, the depth is
on the range of a few ten-thousandths of
an inch. (This is why many VHF and
UHF inductors are silver plated — to
provide a low-resistance path for
current.) In fact, at VHF and UHF,
conductors could be made of metal-
plated plastic without any ill effects!
Called skin effect, this is the major
cause of why the parasitic resistance of
inductors (due mainly to the resistance
of the wire used to wind them) increases
somewhat as the frequency increases.
Because of the increasing reactance,
inductor Q will increase with increasing
frequency up to a point but then the
parasitic resistance due to skin effect
becomes greater and Q degrades as
shown in Figure 4.30.
Self-Resonance
Because of parasitic inter-turn
capacitance — very small capacitances
that exist between the turns of an
inductor — as shown in Figure 4.31, the
inductor can become a self-resonant
circuit at some sufficiently high
frequency. [E6D13] Similar to a
resonant circuit made of discrete
components, the impedance of the
inductor will peak at the self-resonant
frequency and above the self-resonant
frequency an inductor will appear
capacitive! The amount of depends on
the inductor’s construction and there are
several techniques used to control it.
(Capacitors can also exhibit self-
resonance.)
Self-resonance becomes critically
important at VHF and UHF because the
self-resonant frequency of many common
components is at or below the frequency
where the component will be used. In
this case, special techniques can be used
to construct components to operate at
these frequencies by reducing the
parasitic effects, or else the idea of
lumped elements must be abandoned
altogether in favor of microwave
techniques such as stripline and
waveguides.
Effects of Component Packaging at

RF
A related effect is the parasitic
inductance of the leads used to make
contact to discrete components. Even
straight wire has some inductance and
while it is not a lot of inductance, it can
be significant. For example, the #24
AWG wire typically used for the leads
of discrete components has an
inductance of about 24 nH per inch of
length. In circuits operating at VHF and
higher frequencies, including high-speed
digital circuits, this inductive reactance
can become significant and increases
with frequency, making the circuit
behave in unexpected (and usually
unwanted) ways. Good design and
construction practice at these
frequencies is to minimize the effects of
lead inductance by using surface-mount
components or trimming the leads to be
as short as possible. [E5D02]
As wavelength becomes shorter, the
electrical length of component leads
(and any connecting wire) causes phase
shifts in the signal traveling along the
lead. This phase shift can be very
difficult to control and leads to
oscillation and uneven frequency
response at microwave frequencies.
[E5D04]
Integrated circuits were a great
advance in reducing lead length and
increasing operating frequency. The
popular DIP (dual in-line package) style
of IC rapidly became a standard for
analog and digital circuits, allowing
operation into the low UHF range. It
features two rows of pins spaced 0.1
inch apart, with the rows from 0.3 to 0.6
inch apart along the opposite sides of a
rectangular plastic or ceramic body.
[E6E11] Since the pins are inserted in
holes in the printed-circuit board and
extend through the board to be soldered
on one or both sides of the board, the
DIP package is an example of a through-
hole component. [E6E02] Components
such as resistors and capacitors with
wire leads are also through-hole parts.
As device complexity and operating
frequency increased, however, even the
leads of compact DIP packages became
too long. [E6E12] The solution was
found in surface-mount components that
don’t have leads at all, just terminals on
the side of the package. Surface-mount
or SMT components are placed directly
on a circuit board’s exposed pads that
are coated with solder paste. The entire
assembly is heated until the solder paste
melts and makes the permanent
connection, holding the component to the
board. SMT components can be as small
as 1 millimeter on a side, which means
the circuit can be constructed with
shorter circuit-board traces. Because
SMT components have less parasitic
inductance and capacitance, they are
usable well into the VHF, UHF, and
microwave range. [E6E09, E6E10]
MAGNETIC CORES
E6D01 — Why should core saturation
of an impedance matching
transformer be avoided?
E6D04 — Which materials are
commonly used as a core in
an inductor?
E6D05 — What is one reason for
using ferrite cores rather
than powdered iron in an
inductor?
E6D06 — What core material
property determines the
inductance of an inductor?
E6D07 — What is current in the
primary winding of a
transformer called if no load
is attached to the
secondary?
E6D08 — What is one reason for
using powdered-iron cores
rather than ferrite cores in
an inductor?
E6D09 — What devices are commonly
used as VHF and UHF
parasitic suppressors at the
input and output terminals of
a transistor HF amplifier?
E6D10 — What is a primary
advantage of using a toroidal
core instead of a solenoidal
core in an inductor?
E6D11 — Which type of core material
decreases inductance when
inserted into a coil?
E6D12 — What is inductor
saturation?
As you’ve seen, inductors store

magnetic energy, creating reactance.
Inductors are usually visualized as the
classic winding of wire from one end to
the other of a round form — this winding
shape is called solenoidal — giving rise
to the common term “coil.” An
inductor’s core is whatever material the
wire is wound around, even air. (An
inductor whose core consists of air is
called air-wound.)
Solenoidal coils make great figures in
books, but a winding of wire around a
hollow form filled with nothing but air is
a relatively inefficient way to store
magnetic energy. A form made of
magnetic material increases the storage
of energy because it focuses the
magnetic field created by the current in
the surrounding winding. The stronger
magnetic field increases the inductance
of the inductor.
Inductance is determined by the number
of turns of wire on the core and on the
core material’s permeability. [E6D06]
Permeability is a measure of a magnetic
field in the core compared to the strength
of the field with a core of air. Cores
with higher permeability have more
inductance for the same number of turns
on the core. In other words, if you make
two inductors with 10 turns around
different core materials, the core with a
higher permeability will have more
inductance.
Manufacturers offer a wide variety of
materials, or mixes, to provide cores
that will perform well over a desired
frequency range. Powdered-iron cores
combine fine iron particles with
magnetically-inert binding materials.
Combining materials such as nickel-zinc
and manganese-zinc compounds with the
iron produces ceramic ferrite cores. The
chemical names for iron compounds are
based on the Latin word for iron,
ferrum, so this is how these materials
get the name ferrite. Inductors with
magnetic material cores are also called
ferromagnetic inductors.
The choice of core materials for a
particular inductor presents a
compromise of features. Powdered-iron
cores generally have better temperature
stability and maintain their
characteristics at higher currents.
[E6D08] Ferrite cores generally have
higher permeability values, however, so
inductors made with ferrite cores
require fewer turns to produce a given
inductance value. [E6D05]
Some inductors are made to be
adjustable by winding them on a form
containing a movable, threaded core or
slug. The core is adjusted with a
screwdriver or tuning tool to move the
core in and out of the coil. Inserting the
core into the coil changes the coil’s
inductance. Ferrite cores, the most
common, have a high relative
permeability and increase inductance as
the core is inserted. The low relative
permeability of brass cores causes a
reduction in inductance. [E6D04,
E6D11]
Magnetic cores are also used for
transformers that couple power from a
primary winding to a secondary winding
through the core. When using
transformers of any sort, it is important
to avoid exceeding the core’s ability to
store magnetic energy, an effect called
saturation. When saturation occurs, the
output waveform becomes distorted,
generating harmonics and other
distortion products. [E6D01, E6D12] A
transformer’s core will contain some
magnetic energy from magnetizing
current in the primary winding even if
no load is connected to the secondary.
[E6D07]
Core Shape — Toroids and Beads

The shape of an inductor’s core also
affects how its magnetic field is
contained. For a solenoidal core, the
magnetic field exists not only in the core,
but in the space around the inductor. This
allows the magnetic field to interact
with, or couple to, other nearby
conductors. This coupling often creates
unwanted signal paths and interactions
between components so external shields
or other isolation methods must be used.
To reduce unwanted coupling, the
donut-shaped toroid core is used. When
wire is wound on such a core, a toroidal
inductor is produced. Nearly all of a
toroidal inductor’s magnetic field is
contained within the toroid core.
[E6D10] Toroidal inductors are one of
the most popular inductor types in RF
circuits because they can be located
close to each other on a circuit board
with almost no interaction. See Figure
4.32 for a photo of a variety of toroidal
inductors.
Toroid cores are very useful for
solving a variety of radio-frequency
interference (RFI) problems. For
example, you might select a type-43 mix
ferrite core and wind several turns of a
telephone wire or speaker leads through
the core to produce a common-mode
choke. Such a choke is designed to
suppress any RF energy flowing in
common on all of these wires. Audio
signals flow through the choke
unimpeded but the RF signals are
blocked.
A ferrite bead is a very small core
with a hole designed to slip over a
component lead. These are often used as
suppressors for VHF and UHF
oscillations at the input and output
terminals of HF and UHF amplifiers, for
example. [E6D09] The use of ferrite
beads as parasitic suppressors points out
another interesting property of these core
materials — their loss changes with
frequency. Each mix has a different set
of loss characteristics with frequency.
While we normally want to select an
inductor core material that will have
low loss at a particular frequency or
over a certain range, at times we want to
select a core material that will have high
loss to absorb or dissipate energy.
For More Information

Calculating the inductance of a
particular toroidal inductor is simple.
First, you must know the inductance
index value for the particular core you
will use. This value, known as AL, is
found in the manufacturer’s data. For
powdered-iron toroids, AL values are
given in microhenrys per 100 turns-
squared. See The ARRL Handbook for
more complete information about the
different types of cores and their
characteristics.
To calculate the inductance of a
powdered-iron toroidal inductor when
the number of turns and the core material
are known, use Equation 4.18.
where:
L = inductance in µH.
AL = inductance index, in µH per 100
turns-squared.
N = number of turns.
Often you want to know how many
turns to wind on the core to produce an
inductor with a specific value. In that
case, solve Equation 4.18 for N.
(Equation
4.19)
When winding wire on a toroid, keep

in mind that if the wire simply passes
through the center of the core, you have a
1-turn inductor as illustrated in Figure
4.33. Each time the wire passes through
the center of the core it counts as another
turn. A common error is to count one
complete wrap around the core ring as
one turn. That can produce a two-turn
inductor, however.
The calculations for ferrite toroids are

nearly identical but the AL values are
given in millihenrys per 1000 turns-
squared instead of microhenrys per 100
turns-squared because the permeability
of ferrite is higher. This requires a
change of the constant in Equation 4.18
from 10,000 to 1,000,000. Use Equation
4.20 to calculate the inductance of a
ferrite toroidal inductor.
where:
L = inductance in mH.
AL = inductance index, in mH per 1000
turns-squared.
N = number of turns.
• How semiconductor devices are
made
• Types of diodes and rectifiers
• Bipolar and field effect transistors
and RF integrated circuits
• Digital logic basics and families
• Optoelectronics such as solar cells
and optocouplers
The Extra class license exam presents

basic questions about electronic
components — diodes, transistors, ICs,
and other devices. These are contained
in question pool Subelement 6 (six
groups of questions) and Subelement 7
(eight groups of questions). You won’t
have to become a circuit designer to
answer the exam questions, but you’ll be
expected to know what types of devices
are used in radio circuits and their
important characteristics.
This chapter presents the fundamentals
of how the devices operate. We’ll start
with semiconductor materials and work
our way up to diodes, transistors, and
integrated circuits. As a comprehensive
explanation of these electronic building
blocks is well beyond the scope of this
book, turn to the ARRL Handbook or the
references on the Extra Class License
Manual website for more information.
5.1 Semiconductor
Devices
semiconductor materials
contains excess free
electrons?
E6A04 — What is the name given to
an impurity atom that adds
holes to a semiconductor
crystal structure?
Before you can understand the

operation of electronic circuits, you must
know some basic information about the
devices that make up those circuits. This
section presents the information about
semiconductors and other active devices
you need to know to pass your Extra
class license exam. You will find
descriptions of several types of diodes
and transistors, RF and digital integrated
circuits (ICs), and various types of
display and optoelectronic devices.
MATERIALS
Silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge) are
the materials normally used to make
semiconductor materials. (The element
silicon [SIL-i-kahn] is not the same as
the household lubricants and rubber-like
sealers called silicone [sil-i-CONE]).
Silicon has 14 protons and 14 electrons,
while germanium has 32 of each. Silicon
and germanium atoms both have four
shareable or valence electrons in their
outer layer of electrons. This
arrangement allows these four electrons
to be shared with other nearby atoms.
Atoms that arrange themselves into a
regular pattern by sharing electrons form
crystals. Figure 5.1 shows silicon and
germanium crystals. (Different kinds of
atoms might arrange themselves into
other patterns.) The crystals made by
silicon or germanium atoms do not make
good electrical conductors or insulators.
That’s why they are called
semiconductors. Under the right
conditions they can act as either
conductors or insulators. Semiconductor
materials also exhibit properties of both
metallic and nonmetallic substances.
Semiconductors are solid crystals. They
are strong and not easily damaged by
vibration or rough handling. We refer to
electronic parts made with
semiconductor materials as solid-state
devices.
To control the electrical characteristics
of semiconductor material,
manufacturers add other atoms to these
crystals through a carefully controlled
process called doping. The atoms added
in this way produce a material that is no
longer pure silicon or pure germanium.
We call the added atoms impurities. The
impurities are generally chosen for their
ability to alter the way in which
electrons are shared within the crystal.
As an example, the manufacturer might
add some atoms of arsenic (As) or
antimony (Sb) to the silicon or
germanium while making the crystals.
Arsenic and antimony atoms each have
five electrons to share — an extra
shareable electron compared to the
crystal of pure silicon. Figure 5.2 shows
how an atom with five electrons in its
outer layer fits into the crystal structure.
In such a case, there is an extra or free
electron in the crystal and we call the
semiconductor material made in this way
N-type material. (This name comes from
the extra free electrons in the crystal
structure.) [E6A02]
The impurity atoms are electrically
neutral, just as the silicon or germanium
atoms are. The extra electrons are
considered “free” because they are not
so strongly shared with adjacent atoms
and are freer to move within the crystal
structure. Impurity atoms that create
(donate) free electrons to the crystal
structure are called donor impurities.
Now let’s suppose the manufacturer
adds some gallium or indium atoms
instead of arsenic or antimony. Gallium
(Ga) and indium (In) atoms only have
three electrons that they can share with
other nearby atoms. When there are
gallium or indium atoms in the crystal
there is an extra space where an electron
could fit into the structure.
crystal structure with spaces where an
electron could be present. We call this
space for an electron a hole. The
semiconductor material produced in this
way is P-type material. Impurity atoms
that produce extra holes for electrons in
the crystal structure are called acceptor
impurities. [E6A04]
JUNCTION DIODES
E6A03 — Why does a PN-junction
diode not conduct current
when reverse biased?
E6B07 — What is the failure
mechanism when a junction
diode fails due to excessive
current?
The junction diode, also called the

PN-junction diode, is made from two
layers of semiconductor material joined
together. One layer is made from P-type
(positive) material. The other layer is
made from N-type (negative) material.
The name PN junction comes from the
way the P and N layers are joined to
form a semiconductor diode. Figure 5.4
illustrates the basic concept of a junction
diode.
When no voltage is applied to a diode,

the junction between the P-type and N-
type material acts as a barrier that
prevents carriers from flowing between
the layers. This happens because the
majority carriers (the electrons and
holes) combine where the two types of
material are in contact, leaving no
carriers to support current flow unless a
voltage is applied from an external
source. This barrier to current flow is
called the depletion region.
The P-type side of the diode is called
the anode. The N-type side is called the
cathode. When voltage is applied to a
junction diode as shown at A in Figure
5.5, charge carriers flow across the
barrier and the diode conducts. With the
anode positive with respect to the
cathode, electrons are attracted across
the junction from the N-type material,
through the P-type material, and on
through the circuit to the positive battery
terminal. Holes are attracted in the
opposite direction by the negative
voltage from the battery. Electrons are
supplied to the cathode and removed
from the anode by the wires connected to
the battery. When the diode is connected
in this manner it is said to be forward
biased. Conventional current (which
flows from positive to negative) in a
diode flows from the anode to the
cathode. The electrons flow in the
opposite direction.
Figure 5.5B shows the schematic
symbol for a diode, drawn as it would
be used in the circuit instead of as the
pictorial of semiconductor blocks used
in part A. The arrow on the schematic
symbol points in the direction of
conventional current instead of
electronic current which is the flow of
the actual electrons.
If the battery polarity is reversed, as
shown in Figure 5.5C, the excess
electrons in the N-type material are
attracted away from the junction toward
the positive battery terminal. Similarly,
the holes in the P-type material are
attracted away from the junction toward
the negative battery terminal. When this
happens, electrons do not flow across
the junction to the P-type material and
the diode does not conduct. When the
anode is connected to a negative voltage
source and the cathode is connected to a
positive voltage source, the device is
said to be reverse biased. [E6A03]
The voltage required for carriers to
move across the PN junction results in a
forward voltage across the diode when
it is conducting. For silicon diodes,
forward voltage is approximately 0.6 to
0.7 V; it is 0.2 to 0.3 V for germanium
diodes.
Junction diodes are used as rectifiers
to allow current in one direction only.
When an ac signal is applied to a diode,
it will be forward biased and conduct
during one half of the cycle, allowing
current to flow to the load. During the
other half of the cycle, the diode is
reverse biased and current does not
flow. The ac current becomes pulses of
dc, always flowing in the same
direction.
The maximum average forward current
is the highest average current that can
flow through the diode in the forward
direction for a specified maximum
allowable junction temperature. If
allowed to get too hot, the diode will be
damaged or destroyed. [E6B07]
Diodes designed to safely handle
forward currents in excess of a few
amps are packaged so they may be
mounted on a heat sink. The heat sink
helps the diode package dissipate heat
more rapidly, keeping the diode junction
temperature at a safe level. The metal
case or tab of a power diode is usually
electrically connected to one of the
diode’s layers so it must usually be
insulated from ground.
Figure 5.6 shows some of the more
common diode-case styles, as well as
the general schematic symbol for a
diode. The line, or spot, on a diode case
indicates the cathode lead. Check the
case or the manufacturer’s data sheet for
the correct connections.
SCHOTTKY BARRIER DIODES
E6B02 — What is an important
characteristic of a Schottky
diode as compared to an
ordinary silicon diode when
used as a power supply
rectifier?
E6B06 — Which of the following is a
common use of a Schottky
diode?
Schottky barrier diode?
E6B09 — What is a common use for
point-contact diodes?
If a PN-junction’s P-type material is

replaced with a metal layer as in Figure
5.7A a Schottky barrier is created
which has similar rectifying properties
but with a lower forward voltage than an
all-semiconductor junction. [E6B08]
(Schottky was the physicist who
developed this structure.) For example,
the Schottky barrier diode’s forward
voltage is 0.2 to 0.5 V, compared to the
0.6 to 0.7 V for silicon PN-junction
diodes. [E6B02] The lower forward
voltage results in lower power
dissipation than PN-junction diodes for
the same amount of current, so Schottky
diode rectifiers are widely used in
power supply circuits. Figure 5.7B
shows the schematic symbol for a
Schottky diode.
Point-Contact Diodes
In a junction diode, the P and N layers
are separated only by the junction,
forming a capacitor: two charged plates
separated by a thin dielectric. Although
the internal capacitance of a PN-junction
diode may be only a few picofarads, this
capacitance can cause problems in RF
circuits, especially at VHF and above.
Junction diodes may be used from dc to
the microwave region, but the point-
contact diode has low internal
capacitance that is specially designed
for RF applications.
Figure 5.8 illustrates the internal
structure of a point-contact diode. The
point-contact diode has a much smaller
surface area at the junction than does a
PN-junction diode. When a point-contact
diode is manufactured, the main portion
of the device is made from N-type
material and a thin aluminum wire, often
called a whisker, is placed in contact
with the semiconductor surface forming
a Schottky barrier. The result is a diode
that exhibits much less internal
capacitance than PN-junction diodes,
typically 1 pF or less. This means point-
contact Schottky diodes are better suited
for VHF and UHF applications than are
PN-junction diodes. Point-contact
Schottky diodes are generally used as
UHF mixers and as RF detectors at VHF
and below. [E6B06, E6B09]
Hot-Carrier Diodes
Another type of Schottky barrier diode
with low internal capacitance and good
high-frequency characteristics is the hot-
carrier diode. (“Hot” refers to the
diode’s higher electron velocities
compared to a PN-junction diode.) This
device is very similar in construction to
the point-contact diode but with an
important difference depicted in Figure
5.9.
The whisker in a hot-carrier diode is
physically attached to a metal dot
deposited on the element. The hot-
carrier diode is mechanically and
electrically superior to the point-contact
diode. Some of the advantages of the
hot-carrier type are improved power-
handling characteristics, lower contact
resistance and improved immunity to
burnout caused by transient noise pulses.
Hot-carrier diodes are often used in
mixers and detectors at VHF and UHF.
[E6B06] In this application, hot-carrier
diodes are superior to point-contact
diodes because they exhibit greater
conversion efficiency and generate less
noise.
ZENER DIODES
E6B01 — What is the most useful
characteristic of a Zener
diode?
Zener diodes (named for their inventor)

are a special class of PN-junction diode
used as voltage references and voltage
regulators. As discussed earlier, leakage
current rises as reverse voltage is
applied to a diode. At first, this leakage
current is very small and changes very
little with increasing reverse voltage.
There is a point, however, at which the
leakage current rises suddenly. Beyond
this point, the current increases very
rapidly for a small increase in voltage;
this is called the avalanche point. The
Zener voltage is the voltage necessary
to cause avalanche. Normal junction
diodes would be destroyed if they were
operated in this region, but Zener diodes
are specially manufactured to safely
withstand the avalanche current.
Since the current in the avalanche
region can change over a wide range
while the voltage stays practically
constant, this kind of diode can be used
as a voltage regulator. [E6B01] The
voltage at which avalanche occurs can
be controlled precisely in the
manufacturing process. Zener diodes are
calibrated in terms of avalanche voltage.
Zener diode voltage regulators, shown
in Figure 5.10, provide a nearly constant
dc output voltage, even though there may
be large changes in load resistance or
input voltage. As voltage references,
they exhibit a stable voltage that remains
constant over a wide temperature range.
Zener diodes are currently available

with voltage ratings between 1.8 and
200 V. Their power ratings range from
250 mW to 50 W. They are packaged in
the same case styles as junction diodes.
Usually, Zener diodes rated for 10 W
dissipation or more are made in stud- or
tab-mount cases.
VARACTOR DIODES
E6B04 — What type of semiconductor
device is designed for use as
a voltage-controlled
capacitor?
As mentioned above, junction diodes

exhibit an appreciable internal
capacitance. It is possible to change the
internal capacitance of a diode by
varying the amount of reverse bias
applied to it, changing the separation of
the carriers outside the depletion region.
Variable-capacitance diodes and
varactor diodes (variable reactance
diodes) are designed to take advantage
of this property, creating voltage-
controlled capacitors. [E6B04] Varicap
is a trade name for these diodes.
Varactors provide various capacitance
ranges from a few picofarads to more
than 100 pF. Each style has a specific
minimum and maximum capacitance. The
higher the maximum capacitance, the
greater will be the minimum
capacitance. A typical varactor can
provide capacitance changes over a 10:1
range with bias voltages in the 0- to
100-V range.
Common schematic symbols for a
varactor diode are given in Figure 5.11.
These devices are used in frequency
multipliers at power levels as great as
25 W, in remotely tuned circuits and in
frequency modulator circuits.
PIN DIODES
E6B05 — What characteristic of a
PIN diode makes it useful as
an RF switch?
E6B11 — What is used to control the
attenuation of RF signals by
a PIN diode?
A PIN (positive/intrinsic/negative)
diode is formed by diffusing P-type and
N-type layers onto opposite sides of an
almost pure silicon layer, called the I
region because conduction is carried out
by the electrons intrinsic to a normal
silicon crystal. Figure 5.12 shows the
three layers of the PIN diode. This layer
is not “doped” with P-type or N-type
charge carriers, as are the other layers.
Any charge carriers found in this layer
are a result of the natural properties of
the pure semiconductor material. In the
case of silicon, there are relatively few
free charge carriers. PIN-diode
characteristics are determined primarily
by the thickness and area of the I region.
The outside layers are designated P+
and N+ to indicate heavier than normal
doping of these layers. PIN diodes are
represented by the same schematic
symbol as a PN-junction diode.
PIN diodes respond to RF in three
different ways depending on how they
are biased:
• With reverse bias, the charge carriers
move very slowly. Their slow response
time causes the PIN diode to look like a
resistor to RF currents, effectively
blocking them so the PIN diode is cut-off
and acts like an open circuit to RF.
• With zero bias, there are essentially
no free charge carriers available to
conduct so the PIN junction acts like a
very small capacitor, often small enough
that the diode can be considered an open
circuit.
• With forward bias, the PIN diode acts
like a resistance that decreases with
increasing bias current. Thus, the amount
of resistance that a PIN diode exhibits to
RF can be controlled by changing the
amount of forward bias applied.
These characteristics allow the PIN
diode to act as a switch or attenuator.
[E6B05, E6B11] PIN diodes are faster,
smaller, more rugged, and more reliable
than relays or other electromechanical
switching devices.
Figure 5.13 shows a circuit in which
PIN diodes are used to build an RF
switch. This diagram shows a
transmit/receive switch for use between
a 2 meter transceiver and a UHF or
microwave transverter. With no bias, or
with reverse bias applied to the diode,
the PIN diode exhibits a high resistance
to RF, so no signal will flow from the
generator to the load. When forward
bias is applied, the diode resistance will
decrease, allowing the RF signal to
pass. The amount of insertion loss
(resistance to RF current) is determined
primarily by the amount of forward bias
applied; the greater the forward bias
current, the lower the RF resistance.
LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES
E6B03 — What type of bias is
required for an LED to emit
light?
E6B10 — In Figure E6-2, what is the
schematic symbol for a light-
emitting diode?
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are

designed to emit light when they are
forward biased so that current passes
through their PN junctions. [E6B03] As
a free electron combines with a hole, it
gives off light of a specific wavelength
or color. LEDs are very efficient light
sources.
The color of the LED depends on the
material or combination of materials
used for the junction. LEDs are
available in many colors. By controlling
the energy difference between electrons
and holes, LED color can also be
controlled. The intensity of the light
given off is proportional to the amount of
current. Red, green, and yellow LEDs
are typically made from gallium
arsenide, gallium phosphide, or a
combination of these two materials. Blue
LEDs use materials such as silicon
carbide or zinc selenide. A white LED is
really a blue LED with a yellowish
phosphor coating on the inside of the
package that glows when struck by blue
light from the LED. The combination of
blue light given off by the LED and
yellow light from the phosphor appears
white to the human eye.
LEDs are packaged in plastic cases or
in metal cases with a transparent end.
LEDs are useful as replacements for
incandescent panel and indicator lamps.
In this application they offer long life,
low current drain, and small size. One of
their most important electronic
applications is as numeric displays in
which arrays of tiny LEDs are arranged
to provide illuminated segments that
form numbers. The schematic symbol
and a typical case style for the LED are
shown in Figure 5.14. [E6B10]
A typical red LED has a forward
voltage of 1.6 V. Yellow and green LEDs
have higher forward voltages (2 V for
yellow and 4 V for green). The forward-
bias current for a typical LED ranges
between 10 and 20 mA for maximum
brilliance. High-intensity LEDs used for
lighting use much higher currents. As
with other diodes, the current through an
LED can be varied with series resistors.
Varying the current through an LED will
affect its intensity; the voltage across the
LED, however, will remain fairly
constant.
BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS
E6A06 — What is the beta of a
bipolar junction transistor?
indicates that a silicon NPN
junction transistor is biased
on?
E6A08 — What term indicates the
frequency at which the
grounded-base current gain
of a transistor has decreased
to 0.7 of the gain obtainable
at 1 kHz?
The bipolar junction transistor (BJT)

is a type of three-terminal, PN-junction
device able to use a small current to
control a large current — in other
words, amplify current. It is made of two
layers of N- or P-type material
sandwiching a thin layer of the opposite
type of material between them as
illustrated in Figure 5.15. If the outer
layers are P-type material and the
middle layer is N-type material, the
device is called a PNP transistor
because of the layer arrangement. If the
outer layers are N-type material, the
device is called an NPN transistor. A
transistor is, in effect, two PN-junction
diodes back-to-back. Figure 5.16 shows
the schematic symbols for PNP and NPN
bipolar transistors. The three layers of
the transistor sandwich are called the
emitter, base, and collector. A diagram
of the construction of a typical PNP
transistor is given in Figure 5.15.
In an actual bipolar transistor, the base
layer (in this case, N-type material) is
much thinner than the outer layers. Just
as in the PN-junction diode described in
the previous section, a depletion region
forms at each junction between the P-
and N-type material. These depletion
regions form a barrier to current flow
until forward bias is applied across the
junction between the base and emitter
layers.
Forward-bias voltage across the
emitter-base section of the sandwich
causes electrons to flow through it from
the base to the emitter. As the free
electrons from the N-type material flow
into the P-type material, holes from the
P-type material flow the other way into
the base. Some of the holes will
combine with free electrons in the base,
but because the base layer is so thin,
most will move right on through into the
P-type material of the collector.
As shown, the collector is connected to
a negative voltage with respect to the
base. Normally, reverse bias would
prevent current from flowing across the
base-collector junction. The collector,
however, now contains an excess of
holes because of those from the emitter
that overshot the base. Since the voltage
source connected to the collector
produces a negative voltage, the holes
from the emitter will be attracted to that
power supply connection, creating
current flow from the emitter to the
collector.
A BJT is “biased on” when a forward
voltage drop is present across the
emitter-base junction and the collector-
base junction is reverse-biased. For
silicon transistors, the emitter-to-base
“on” voltage is 0.6 to 0.7 V from the
base-to-emitter for NPN and from the
emitter-to-base for PNP transistors.
[E6A07]
Bipolar junction transistors are used in
a wide variety of applications, including
amplifiers (from very low level to very
high power), switches, oscillators, and
power supplies. They are used at all
frequency ranges from dc through the
UHF and microwave range. Transistors
are packaged in a wide variety of case
styles. Some of the more common case
styles are depicted in Figure 5.17.
Transistor Characteristics
Because of the transistor’s
construction, the current through the
collector will be considerably larger
than that flowing through the base. When
a transistor’s base-emitter junction is
forward biased, collector current
increases in proportion to the amount of
bias current applied. The ratio of
collector current to base current is
called the current gain, or beta. Beta is
expressed by the Greek symbol β.
[E6A06] It is calculated from the
equation:
β = Ic/Ib (Equation 5.1)
where:
Ic = collector current
Ib = base current
For example, if a 1-mA base current
results in a collector current of 100 mA
the beta is 100. Typical betas for
junction transistors range from as low as
10 to as high as several hundred.
Manufacturers’ data sheets specify a
range of values for β. Individual
transistors of a given type can have
widely varying betas.
Another important transistor
characteristic is alpha, expressed by the
Greek letter α. Alpha is the ratio of
collector current to emitter current,
given by the equation:
α = Ic/Ie (Equation 5.2)
where:
Ic = collector current
Ie = emitter current
The smaller the base current, the closer
the collector current comes to being
equal to that of the emitter and the closer
alpha comes to being 1. For a junction
transistor, alpha is usually between 0.92
and 0.98.
The transistor is saturated when
further increases in base-emitter current
do not increase the collector current, and
the transistor is said to be fully on when
the transistor is saturated. At the other
end of the scale, when the transistor is
reverse-biased, there is no current from
the emitter to the collector and the
transistor is at cutoff. When used to
amplify a signal, a transistor operates
between these two extremes. By
operating at either cutoff or saturation,
the transistor can be used as a switch.
Transistors have important frequency
characteristics. The alpha cutoff
frequency is the frequency at which the
current gain of a transistor decreases to
0.707 times its gain at 1 kHz. Alpha
cutoff frequency is considered to be the
practical upper frequency limit of a
transistor configured as a common-base
amplifier. [E6A08]
Beta cutoff frequency is similar to
alpha cutoff frequency, but it applies to
transistors connected as common-emitter
amplifiers. Beta cutoff frequency is the
frequency at which the current gain of a
transistor in the common-emitter
configuration decreases to 0.707 times
its gain at 1 kHz. (These amplifier
configurations are explained in the
Radio Circuits and Systems chapter’s
section on amplifier circuits.)
FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS

E6A05 — How does DC input
impedance at the gate of a
field-effect transistor
compare with the DC input
impedance of a bipolar
transistor?
E6A09 — What is a depletion-mode
FET?
E6A10 — In Figure E6-1, what is the
schematic symbol for an N-
channel dual-gate
MOSFET?
E6A11 — In Figure E6-1, what is the
schematic symbol for a P-
channel junction FET?
E6A12 — Why do many MOSFET
devices have internally
connected Zener diodes on
the gates?
Field-effect transistors (FETs) are

given that name because the current
through them is controlled by the effect
of an electric field or voltage, as
opposed to current as for the bipolar
junction transistor. There are two types
of field-effect transistors in common use
today: the junction FET (JFET) and the
metal-oxide semiconductor FET
(MOSFET). The basic characteristic of
both FET types is a very high input
impedance — typically 1 megohm or
greater. This is considerably higher than
the input impedance of a bipolar
transistor. FETs are made in the same
types of packages as bipolar transistors.
Some different case styles are shown in
Figure 5.18.
JFETs
The basic JFET construction is shown
in Figure 5.19. The JFET can be thought
of simply as a bar of semiconductor
material that acts like a variable
resistance. The terminal into which the
charge carriers enter is called the
source. The opposite terminal is called
the drain. The terminals that control the
resistance between source and drain are
called gates. The material connecting
the source and drain is called the
channel. There are two types of JFET,
named N-channel and P-channel for the
type of material that forms the channel.
The schematic symbols for the two JFET
types are illustrated in Figure 5.20.
[E6A11]
Two gate regions, made of the opposite
type of semiconductor material used for
the channel, are created on opposite
sides of the JFET channel and connected
together. When a reverse-bias voltage is
applied from the top and bottom gate-
channel junctions to the source, an
electric field is set up across the
channel. The electric field controls the
normal electron flow through the
channel. As the gate voltage changes, the
electric field varies and that varies
source-to-drain current. The gate
terminal is always reverse biased, so
very little current flows in the gate
terminal and the JFET has very high
input impedance — unlike the bipolar
transistor which has much lower input
impedance. [E6A05]
Because channel current is controlled
by voltage on the gate, the gain of a FET
is measured as transconductance (gm),
the ratio of output current to input
voltage. Transconductance is measured
in siemens (S), the inverse of ohms.
MOSFETs
The construction of a metal-oxide
semiconductor field-effect transistor
(MOSFET), sometimes called an
insulated gate field-effect transistor
(IGFET), and its schematic symbol are
illustrated in Figure 5.21. In the
MOSFET, the gate is insulated from the
source/drain channel by a thin dielectric
layer. Since there is very little current
through this dielectric the input
impedance is even higher than in the
JFET — typically 10 megohms or
greater. The schematic symbols for N-
channel and P-channel dual-gate
MOSFETs are shown in Figure 5.22.
[E6A10] Some types of MOSFETs have
two gates to which different voltages can
be applied for special applications, such
as mixers.
Nearly all the MOSFETs manufactured
today have built-in gate-protective Zener
diodes. Without this provision the gate
insulation can be punctured easily by
small static discharges. [E6A12] The
protective diodes are connected between
the gate (or gates) and the source lead of
the FET. The diodes are generally not
shown on the schematic symbol.
Enhancement and Depletion-Mode

FETs
There are two types of field-effect
transistors: enhancement mode and
depletion mode. A depletion-mode
device corresponds to Figure 5.19,
where a channel exists without gate
voltage applied. [E6A09] The gate of a
depletion-mode device is reverse biased
in operation. When the reverse bias is
applied between the gate and source the
channel is depleted of charge carriers
and current decreases.
Enhancement-mode devices are
constructed so there is no channel
without voltage applied to the gate. The
channel conducts current only when a
gate-to-source voltage is applied that
causes the channel to be able to conduct
current. When the gate of an
enhancement-mode device is forward
biased, current begins to flow through
the source/drain channel. The higher the
forward bias on the gate the more
current through the channel. JFETs
cannot be used as enhancement-mode
devices because if the gate is forward
biased it will conduct like a forward-
biased diode.
The gates of MOSFETs are insulated
from the channel region, so they may be
used as enhancement-mode devices.
Both polarities may be applied to the
gate without the gate becoming forward
biased and conducting. Some MOSFETs
are designed to be used without bias on
the gate. The MOSFET operates in the
enhancement mode when the gate is
forward biased, and in the depletion
mode when the gate is reverse biased.
RF INTEGRATED DEVICES
E5D03 — What is microstrip?
E6A01 — In what application is
gallium arsenide used as a
semiconductor material?
E6E01 — Why is gallium arsenide
(GaAs) useful for
semiconductor devices
operating at UHF and higher
frequencies?
materials is likely to provide
the highest frequency of
operation when used in
MMICs?
E6E04 — Which is the most common
input and output impedance
of circuits that use MMICs?
E6E05 — Which of the following noise
figure values is typical of a
low-noise UHF preamplifier?
E6E06 — What characteristics of the
MMIC make it a popular
choice for VHF through
microwave circuits?
E6E07 — What type of transmission
line is used for connections
to MMICs?
E6E08 — How is power supplied to
the most common type of
MMIC?
Integrated circuits (ICs) make up most

of the internal circuitry of modern
electronics. If you open up a new
transceiver or a computer you may be
hard-pressed to find very many discrete
transistors! One of the last types of
electronics to convert to ICs has been
VHF, UHF, and microwave circuits.
Even though transistors in an IC are able
to handle the high-speed signals, making
an IC that would work properly in many
different circuits is a tough challenge.
Advances in circuit design have finally
made it possible to use ICs at these high
frequencies just as for lower
frequencies. In fact, mobile telephones
would be impossible to build without
ICs that include UHF and microwave
functions!
The most common RF IC used by
amateurs is a monolithic microwave
integrated circuit (MMIC). It’s quite
unlike most other ICs you’ve seen. Most
MMICs are quite small, often called
“pill packages” because they look like a
small pill with four leads coming out of
the device at 90° to each other. The most
common MMIC has an input lead, an
output lead, and two ground leads.
Wait a minute! Two ground leads?
Where’s the power lead? Many MMICs
don’t have a separate power lead — dc
power to the internal electronics and the
RF output from the MMIC both use the
same lead! Power is supplied through a
resistor and/or RF choke to the output
lead. [E6E08] The typical dc operating
voltage for an MMIC amplifier is 12 V.
A small series blocking capacitor keeps
the dc voltage from getting to any other
circuits as shown in the schematic of
Figure 5.23. MMICs use this method
because of its simplicity and the extra
ground lead helps ensure that the
amplifier circuit operates properly over
the entire frequency range.
MMIC devices have well-controlled
operating characteristics such as gain,
noise figure and input/output impedance,
requiring only a few external
components for proper operation.
[E6E06] As “building blocks,” MMICs
can greatly simplify an amplifier design
for circuits at UHF and microwave
frequencies because the circuits and the
IC input and output impedances are all
close to 50 Ω. [E6E04]
As a design example, a MAR-6 MMIC
could be used to build a receive
preamplifier for a 1296 MHz receiver
with just a few external resistors and
capacitors. This device provides 16 dB
of gain for signals up to 2 GHz, with a
noise figure around 3 dB. Many MMIC
amplifier devices have noise figures in
the range of about 3.5 to 6 dB. A high-
performance, low-noise UHF
preamplifier can have a noise figure of 2
dB or less. [E6E05]
Above the VHF and low-UHF
spectrum, the gain of silicon and
germanium devices falls rapidly because
the charge carriers don’t move through
those materials fast enough. Materials
with higher carrier mobility are
required. RF transistors and MMICs can
operate well into the microwave range
by using gallium arsenide (GaAs) and
gallium nitride (GaN). [E6A01, E6E01,
E6E03]
Circuits built using MMICs generally
employ microstrip construction
techniques. Figure 5.24 is an example
of microstrip techniques used to build an
amplifier based on the schematic in
Figure 5.23. Double-sided circuit board
material is used, with one side forming a
ground plane. Precisely sized traces
over the ground plane form a 50-Ω
transmission line. [E5D03, E6E07]
MMICs and other components are
soldered directly to these feed line
sections. The amplifier module in Figure
5.24 includes just three MMICs, three
resistors, four chip (surface-mount)
capacitors and a feed-through capacitor
to bring the supply voltage into the
enclosure.
5.2 Optoelectronics
E6F01 — What absorbs the energy
from light falling on a
photovoltaic cell?
E6F02 — What happens to the
conductivity of a
photoconductive material
when light shines on it?
E6F03 — What is the most common
configuration of an
optoisolator or optocoupler?
E6F04 — What is the photovoltaic
effect?
E6F05 — Which describes an optical
shaft encoder?
E6F06 — Which of these materials is
most commonly used to
create photoconductive
devices?
E6F07 — What is a solid-state relay?
E6F08 — Why are optoisolators often
used in conjunction with
solid-state circuits when
switching 120 VAC?
E6F09 — What is the efficiency of a
photovoltaic cell?
E6F10 — What is the most common
type of photovoltaic cell
used for electrical power
generation?
E6F11 — What is the approximate
open-circuit voltage
produced by a fully
illuminated silicon
photovoltaic cell?
Optics may not seem to have a lot to do

with radio, but there are many
components that are hybrids of optical
and electronic functions. These are
called optoelectronics and they make
use of the optical properties of
semiconductors to perform useful
functions. The most commonly utilized
optical properties are
photoconductivity, in which light
interacts with a semiconductor to change
its conductivity and the photovoltaic
effect, in which light causes current to
flow.
PHOTOCONDUCTIVITY
To understand photoconductivity, we
must start with the photoelectric effect.
In simple terms, this refers to electrons
being knocked loose from the atoms of a
material when light shines on it. While a
complete explanation of light’s
interaction with semiconductor material
is beyond the scope of this book, we
will simply describe some of the basic
principles behind photoelectricity.
Let’s revisit the basic structure of an
atom as shown in Figure 5.25. The
nucleus contains protons (positively
charged particles) and neutrons (with no
electrical charge). The number of
protons in the nucleus determines the
atom’s element. Carbon has six protons,
oxygen has eight and copper has 29, for
example. The nucleus of the atom is
surrounded by the same number of
negatively charged electrons as there are
protons in the nucleus so that an atom
has zero net electrical charge.
The electrons surrounding the nucleus
are found in specific energy levels, as
shown in Figure 5.25. The increasing
energy levels are shown as larger and
larger spheres surrounding the nucleus.
(While this picture is not really accurate,
it will help you get the idea of the atomic
structure.) For an electron to move to a
different energy level, it must either gain
or lose a certain amount of energy. One
way that an electron can gain the
required energy is by absorbing
electromagnetic energy in the form of a
photon of light. The electron absorbs the
energy from the photon and jumps to a
new energy level. An electron that has
absorbed energy and jumped to a higher
energy level is called excited.
If the light photon has enough energy,
the electron can be freed completely
from the atom. In a metallic conductor
this free electron can now flow as an
electric current. The current can then
flow through a circuit connected to the
material illuminated by the photons. This
is the basis of the photoelectric effect.
The Photoconductive Effect

With this simple model of the atom in
mind, it is easy to see that an electric
current through a wire or other material
depends on electrons being pulled away
or knocked free from atoms. The rate of
electrons moving past a certain point in
the wire specifies the current. Every
material presents some opposition to this
flow of electrons, and that opposition is
the resistivity of the material. If you
include the length and cross-sectional
area of a specific object or piece of
wire, then you know the resistance of the
object:
R = rl/A (Equation 5.3)
where:
ρ is the lower case Greek letter rho,
representing the resistivity of the
material.
l is the length of the object.
A is the cross-sectional area of the
object.
R is the resistance.
Conductivity is the reciprocal of
resistivity, and conductance is the
reciprocal of resistance:
σ = 1/ρ (Equation 5.4)
where σ is the lower case Greek letter

sigma, which represents conductivity
and
G = 1/R (Equation 5.5)
where G is the conductance.

You just learned that according to the
photoelectric effect electrons can be
knocked loose from atoms when light
strikes the surface of the material. With
this principle in mind, you can see that
those free electrons will make it easier
for a current to flow through the
material. But even if electrons are not
knocked completely free of the atom,
excited electrons in the higher-energy-
level regions are more easily passed
from one atom to another.
All of this discussion leads us to one
simple fact: it is easier to produce a
current when some of the electrons
associated with an atom are excited. The
conductivity of the material is increased
and the resistivity is decreased. [E6F02]
The total conductance of a piece of wire
may increase and the resistance decrease
when light shines on the surface. That is
the nature of the photoconductive effect.
Materials that respond to the
photoconductive effect are said to
exhibit photoconductivity.
The photoconductive effect is more
pronounced and more important in
crystalline semiconductor materials than
in ordinary metal conductors. [E6F06]
With a piece of copper wire, for
example, the conductance is normally
high so any slight increase because of
light striking the wire surface will be
almost unnoticeable. The conductivity of
semiconductor crystals such as
germanium, silicon, cadmium sulfide,
cadmium selenide, gallium arsenide,
lead sulfide and others is low when not
illuminated but the increase in
conductivity is significant when light
shines on their surfaces. (This also
means that the resistance decreases.)
Each material shows its biggest change
in conductivity over a different range of
light frequencies. For example, lead
sulfide responds best to frequencies in
the infrared region while cadmium
sulfide and cadmium selenide are both
commonly used in visible light
detectors, such as are found in cameras.
OPTOELECTRONIC
COMPONENTS
Most semiconductor devices are sealed
in plastic or metal cases so that no light
will reach the semiconductor junction.
Light will not affect the conductivity and
hence the operating characteristics of
such a transistor or diode. But if the case
is made with a window to allow light to
pass through and reach the junction, then
the device characteristics will depend
on how much light is shining on it. Such
specially made devices have a number
of important applications in amateur
radio.
A phototransistor is a special device
designed to allow light to reach the
transistor junction. Light, then, acts as
the control element for the transistor. In
fact, in some phototransistors there is no
base lead at all. In others, a base lead is
provided, so you can control the output
signal in the absence of light. You can
also use the base lead to bias the
transistor to respond to different light
intensities. In general, the gain of the
transistor is directly proportional to the
amount of light shining on the transistor.
A phototransistor can be used as a
photodetector — a device that detects
the presence of light.
Optocouplers and Optoisolators

An optocoupler or optoisolator is an
LED and a phototransistor sharing a
single IC package. [E6F03] Applying
current to the LED causes it to emit light
and the light from the LED causes the
phototransistor to turn on. Because they
use light instead of a direct electrical
connection, optoisolators provide one of
the safest ways to transfer signals
between circuits using widely differing
voltages.
Optoisolators have a very high
impedance between the light source
(input) and the phototransistor (output).
There is no current between the input
and output terminals.
The LEDs in most optocouplers are
infrared emitters, although some operate
in the visible-light portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum. For this
reason, they are often used when 120 V
ac circuits are to be switched under the
control of low-power digital signals.
[E6F08]
Figure 5.26A shows the schematic
diagram of a typical optocoupler. In this
example, the phototransistor base lead is
brought outside the package. The ratio of
the output current to input current is
called the current transfer ratio (CTR).
As shown at B, a Darlington
phototransistor can be used to improve
the CTR of the device.
In an IC optoisolator, the light is
transmitted from the LED to the
phototransistor detector by means of a
plastic light pipe or small gap between
the two sections.
By combining an optocoupler with
power transistors, the functions of an
electromechanical relay can be
implemented by solid-state components.
The resulting solid-state relay (SSR)
can operate much faster than an
electromechanical relay and can be
controlled directly by digital circuits.
[E6F07]
A separate LED or infrared emitter and
matching phototransistor detector can be
separated by some small distance to use
a reflective path or other external gap. In
this case, changing the path length or
blocking the light will change the
transistor output. This can be used to
detect an object passing between the
detector and light source, for example.
The Optical Shaft Encoder

An optoelectronic device widely used
in radio equipment is an optical shaft
encoder. It consists of an array of
emitters and detectors. A plastic disc
with a pattern of alternating clear and
opaque radial bands rotates through a
gap between the emitters and detectors
as illustrated in Figure 5.27. By using an
array of emitters and two detectors, a
microprocessor can detect the rotation
direction and speed of the wheel.
[E6F05] Modern transceivers use a
system like this to control the frequency
of a synthesized VFO. To the operator,
the tuning knob may feel like it is
mechanically tuning the VFO, but there
is no tuning capacitor or other
mechanical linkage connected to the
knob and light-chopping wheel.
Inexpensive shaft encoders are often
used for switches and selector controls,
as well.
PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS
The photoelectric effect can also be put
to use to generate electrical energy as
well as to change or control electrical
properties. At a PN junction, such as in a
diode, charge carriers create a depletion
region as described earlier in this
chapter. For charge carriers to cross the
junction, voltage must be applied.
If a PN junction is exposed to light,
photons will be absorbed by the
electrons in the semiconductor material.
[E6F01] If the photons have the correct
energy, free electrons in the N-type
material can be excited sufficiently to
move across the depletion region into
the P-type material. Effectively, this is
the same as a hole moving the other way.
As long as the junction is illuminated,
electrons and holes can be made to flow
across the junction, creating a voltage
difference from one side of the junction
to the other.
If a circuit is provided between the two
sides of the junction, the voltage caused
by the photons being absorbed by the
electrons will cause a current to flow.
This current represents the conversion of
light energy from the photons to
electrical energy carried by the electrons
in the circuit. This is the photovoltaic
effect. [E6F04] A PN-junction designed
to absorb photons and create electrical
energy is called a photovoltaic or PV
cell. The cross section of a photovoltaic
cell is shown in Figure 5.28.
The voltage developed by a
photovoltaic cell depends on the
material from which it is made. For
example, a fully-illuminated cell made
of silicon, the most common material
used for PV cells, develops an open-
circuit voltage of approximately 0.5 V.
[E6F10, E6F11] The amount of current
such a cell can produce is determined by
the degree of illumination and the
conversion efficiency of the material —
the relative fraction of light energy that
is converted to electrical energy in the
form of current. [E6F09] Almost any
semiconductor material can be made into
a photovoltaic cell, but the highest
efficiency in cells made from a single
material is currently found in cells made
from gallium arsenide (GaAs).
Photovoltaic energy is a commercially
viable option to generate electrical
energy in large quantities. The
photovoltaic or solar cell shown in
Figure 5.28 is made from semiconductor
material but other types of optically-
active material such as mixtures of metal
and semiconductor material, organic
molecules, and nanomaterials may be
used.
5.3 Digital Logic

E6C03 — What is tri-state logic?
E6C08 — In Figure E6-3, what is the
schematic symbol for a
NAND gate?
schematic symbol for a NOR
gate?
schematic symbol for the
NOT operation (inverter)?
E7A07 — What logical operation does
a NAND gate perform?
E7A08 — What logical operation does
an OR gate perform?
E7A09 — What logical operation is
performed by an exclusive
NOR gate?
E7A10 — What is a truth table?
E7A11 — What type of logic defines
“1” as a high voltage?
Digital electronics is an important

aspect of amateur radio. Everything from
simple digital circuits to sophisticated
microcomputer systems are used in
modern amateur radio. Even simple
equipment often includes a
microprocessor. Applications in the
radio realm include digital
communications, code conversion,
signal processing, station control,
frequency synthesis, satellite telemetry,
message handling, and other
information-handling operations.
You’ve already been exposed to digital
logic functions in your General license
studies. For the Extra exam, we’ll
examine the fundamentals of digital logic
and digital electronics. You’ll be
introduced to synchronous logic circuits
and their applications. Are you ready —
1 or 0? I’ll take that as a 1!
LOGIC BASICS
Boolean Algebra
The fundamental principle of digital
electronics is that a signal can have only
a finite number of discrete values or
states. In binary digital systems signals
may have two states, represented in
base-2 arithmetic by the numerals 0 and
1. The binary states described as 0 and 1
may represent an OFF and ON condition
or as space and mark in a
communications transmission such as
CW or RTTY. Figure 5.29 illustrates a
typical binary signal.
The simplest digital devices are
switches and relays. Electronic digital
systems, however, are created using
digital ICs — integrated circuits that
generate, detect, or in some way process
digital signals. Whether switches or
microprocessors, though, all digital
systems use common mathematical
principles known as logic. We’ll start
with the rules for combining different
digital signals, called combinational
logic. These rules are derived from the
mathematics of binary numbers, called
Boolean algebra, after its creator,
George Boole.
In binary digital logic circuits each
combination of inputs results in a
specific output or combination of
outputs. Except during transitions of the
input and output signals (called
switching transitions), the state of the
output is determined by the simultaneous
state(s) of the input signal(s). A
combinational logic function has one and
only one output state corresponding to
each combination of input states. The
output of a combinational logic circuit is
determined entirely by the information at
the circuit’s inputs.
The individual circuits that perform the
simplest mathematical functions are
called elements. Combinational logic
elements may perform arithmetic or
logical operations. Regardless of their
purpose, these operations are usually
expressed in arithmetic terms. Digital
circuits add, subtract, multiply, and
divide but normally do it in binary form
using two states that we represent with
the numerals 0 and 1.
Binary digital circuit functions are
represented by equations using Boolean
algebra. The symbols and laws of
Boolean algebra are somewhat different
from those of ordinary algebra. The
symbol for each logical function is
shown here in the descriptions of the
individual logical elements.
The logical function of a particular
element may be described by listing all
possible combinations of input and
output values in a truth table. Such a list
of all input combinations and their
corresponding outputs characterize, or
describe, the function of any digital
device. [E7A10]
One-Input Elements
There are two logic elements that have
only one input and one output: the
noninverting buffer and the inverter or
NOT circuit (Figure 5.30). [E6C11]
The noninverting buffer simply passes
the same state (0 or 1) from its input to
its output. In an inverter or NOT circuit,
a 1 at the input produces a 0 at the
output, and vice versa. NOT indicates
inversion, negation or complementation.
Notice that the only difference between
symbols for the noninverting buffer and
the inverter is the small circle or triangle
on the output lead. This is used to
indicate inversion on any digital-logic
circuit symbol. The Boolean algebra
notation for NOT is a bar over the
variable or expression.
The AND Operation
A gate is defined as a combinational
logic element with two or more inputs
and one output state that depends on the
state of the inputs. Gates perform simple
logical operations and can be combined
to form complex switching functions. So
as we talk about the logical operations
used in Boolean algebra, you should
keep in mind that each function is
implemented by using a gate with the
same name. For example, an AND gate
implements the AND operation.
The AND operation results in a 1 only
when all inputs or operands are 1. That
is, if the inputs are called A and B, the
output is 1 only if A and B are both 1. In
Boolean notation, the logical operator
AND is usually represented by a dot
between the variables (•). The AND
function may also be signified by no
space between the variables. Both forms
are shown in Figure 5.31, along with the
schematic symbol for an AND gate.
The OR Operation
The OR operation results in a 1 at the
output if any or all inputs are 1. In
Boolean notation, the + symbol is used
to indicate the OR function. The OR gate
shown in Figure 5.32 is sometimes
called an INCLUSIVE OR. Study the
truth table for the OR function in Figure
5.32. You should notice that the OR gate
will have a 0 output only when all inputs
are 0. [E7A08]
The NAND Operation
The NAND operation means NOT
AND. A NAND gate (Figure 5.33) is an
AND gate with an inverted output. A
NAND gate produces a 0 at its output
only when all inputs are 1. In Boolean
notation, NAND is usually represented
by a dot between the variables and a bar
over the combination, as shown in
Figure 5.33. [E6C08, E7A07]
The NOR Operation

The NOR operation means NOT OR.
The truth table in Figure 5.34 show that
a NOR gate produces a 1 output only
when all of the inputs are 0. [E6C10] In
Boolean notation, the variables have a +
symbol between them and a bar over the
entire expression to indicate the NOR
function.
The EXCLUSIVE NOR Operation
The EXCLUSIVE OR (XOR) operation
results in an output of 1 only when one
of the inputs is 1. If both inputs are 1
then the output is 0. The Boolean
expression represents the EXCLUSIVE
OR function. Inverting the XOR function
results in the EXCLUSIVE NOR
(XNOR) operation. Figure 5.35 shows
the schematic symbol for an
EXCLUSIVE NOR gate and its truth
table. [E7A09]
Positive- and Negative-True Logic
Logic systems can be designed to use
two types of logic polarity. Positive or
positive-true logic uses the highest
voltage level (HIGH) to represent binary
1 and the lowest level (LOW) to
represent 0. If the opposite
representation is used (HIGH = 0 and
LOW = 1), that is negative or negative-
true logic. In the element descriptions to
follow, positive logic will be used.
[E7A11]
Positive and negative logic symbols
are compared in Figure 5.36. Small
circles (state indicators) on the input
side of a gate signify negative logic. The
use of negative logic sometimes
simplifies the Boolean algebra
associated with logic circuits.
Consider a circuit having two inputs
and one output, and suppose you desire a
HIGH output only when both inputs are
LOW. A search through the truth tables
shows the NOR gate has the proper
characteristics. The way the problem is
posed (the words “only” and “both”)
suggests the AND (or NAND) function,
however. A negative-logic NAND is
functionally equivalent to a positive-
logic NOR gate. The NAND symbol
better expresses the circuit function in
the application just described. Figure
5.37 shows the implementation of a
simple function as a NOR or NAND
gate, depending on the logic convention
chosen. Notice that the truth tables prove
the circuits perform identical functions.
You should verify this to be true by
comparing the lists of input and output
conditions.
Tri-State Logic
In digital circuits it is common for
many ICs to be connected in parallel on
a data bus or address bus to share data
and addressing information. In this
configuration, only one IC output may
control the signals on the bus at a time
and all other IC outputs must “stand by”
by changing their outputs to act as a high
impedance without attempting to drive
the bus connection to a HIGH or LOW
state. ICs with this ability are referred to
as tri-state logic in which an output can
be HIGH, LOW, or high-impedance.
[E6C03]
SEQUENTIAL AND
SYNCHRONOUS LOGIC
E7A01 — Which circuit is bistable?
E7A02 — What is the function of a
decade counter?
E7A03 — Which of the following can
divide the frequency of a
pulse train by 2?
E7A04 — How many flip-flops are
required to divide a signal
frequency by 4?
E7A05 — Which of the following is a
circuit that continuously
alternates between two
states without an external
clock?
E7A06 — What is a characteristic of a
monostable multivibrator?
The output state of a sequential-logic

circuit is determined by both its present
inputs and previous output states. The
dependence on previous output states
implies that the circuit must have some
type of memory.
Flip-Flops
A flip-flop (also known as a bistable
multivibrator) is a binary sequential-
logic element with two stable states: the
set state (1 state) and the reset state (0
state). The term bistable means that the
circuit has two stable states and it can
stay in either of them indefinitely.
[E7A01] Thus, a flip-flop can store one
bit of information. A flip-flop used to
store information is sometimes called a
latch. The schematic symbol for a flip-
flop is a rectangle containing the letters
FF, as shown in Figure 5.38. (These
letters may be omitted if the function is
obvious.)
Flip-flop inputs and outputs are
normally identified by one or two
letters. For example, the flip-flop in
Figure 5.38 is an R-S type. The state
table of Figure 5.38 shows that if S and
R are both zero, the states of the Q and Q
outputs are unchanged. The state table
also shows that you can’t be sure what
the outputs (Q and Q) will be if both
inputs are high at the same time. There
are normally two output signals that are
complements of each other, designated Q
and Q (read as Q NOT). If Q = 1 then Q
= 0 and vice versa. See Table 5.1 for a
summary of the flip-flop output signal
behavior.
Synchronous and Asynchronous Flip-
Flops
The terms synchronous and
asynchronous are used to characterize a
flip-flop or individual inputs to an IC. In
synchronous flip-flops (also called
clocked, clock-driven or gated flip-
flops), the output follows the input only
at prescribed times determined by the
clock input. Asynchronous flip-flops are
sometimes called unclocked or data-
driven flip-flops because the output can
change whenever the inputs change.
Asynchronous inputs are those that can
affect the output state independently of
the clock. Synchronous inputs affect the
output state under control of the clock
input.
Dynamic versus Static Inputs

Dynamic (edge-triggered) inputs can
affect the outputs only when the clock
changes state. This type of input is
indicated on logic symbols by a small
triangle (called a dynamic indicator) on
the symbol where the input line is
attached. Unless there is an inversion or
negation indicator (a small circle or
triangle outside the symbol), the 0-to-1
transition is the recognized transition.
This is called positive-edge triggering.
The negation indicator means that the
input is negative-edge triggered and
responds to 1-to-0 transitions.
Static (level-triggered) inputs are
recognizable by the absence of the
dynamic indicator on the logic symbol.
Input states (1 or 0) of static inputs are
what causes the flip-flop to act.
The timing diagram of Figure 5.39
shows a flip-flop output changing state
with each positive clock pulse. So if the
output is 0 initially, it will change to a 1
on the leading edge of the first positive
clock pulse and it will change back to 0
on the leading edge of the next positive
clock pulse. All types of flip-flops can
be configured or connected to work this
way.
The flip-flop thus provides one

complete output pulse for every two
input pulses, dividing the input signal’s
frequency by two. [E7A03] Two such
flip-flops could be connected
sequentially to divide the input signal by
four, and so on. [E7A04] (There is more
about digital frequency divider circuits
later in this section.)
One-Shot or Monostable
Multivibrator
A monostable multivibrator (or one-
shot) has one stable state and an
unstable (or quasi-stable) state. The
circuit can stay in the unstable state for a
time determined by RC circuit
components connected to the one-shot.
When triggered, it switches to the
unstable state and then returns after a set
time to its original, stable state until
triggered again. [E7A06] When the time
constant has expired the one-shot reverts
to its stable state until retriggered. Thus,
the one-shot outputs a single pulse when
triggered.
In Figure 5.40, the popular 555 timer
IC is shown connected as a one-shot
multivibrator. The action is started by a
negative-going trigger pulse applied
between the trigger input and ground.
The trigger pulse causes the output (Q)
to go positive until capacitor C charges
to two-thirds of VCC through resistor R.
At the end of the timing period, the
capacitor is quickly discharged to
ground. The output remains at logic 1 for
a time determined by:
T = 1.1 RC (Equation 5.6)
where:
R is resistance in ohms.
T is time in seconds.
Astable Multivibrator
An astable or free-running
multivibrator is a circuit that
continuously switches between two
unstable states. [E7A05]
An astable multivibrator circuit using
the 555 timer IC is shown in Figure
5.41. Capacitor C1 repeatedly charges to
two-thirds VCC through R1 and R2, and
discharges to one-third VCC through R2.
The ratio (R1:R2) sets the duty cycle. The
frequency is determined by:
(Equation
5.7)
where:
R is resistance in ohms.
Dividers and Counters

A counter, divider, or divide-by-n
counter is a circuit composed of multiple
flip-flops that produces an output pulse
after a specified number (n) of input
pulses have occurred. In a counter
consisting of flip-flops connected in
series, when the first stage changes state
it affects the second stage and so on.
Each input pulse toggles the counter
circuit to the next state. The outputs from
all of the flip-flops can form a
composite output that forms a binary
number representing the total pulse
count.
A ripple, ripple-carry, or
asynchronous counter passes the count
from stage to stage; each stage is
clocked by the preceding stage so that
the change in the circuit’s state “ripples”
through the stages. In a synchronous
counter, each stage is controlled by a
common clock so that the outputs of all
stages change at the same time.
Most counters have the ability to clear
the count to 0. Some counters can also
be preset to a desired count. Some
counters may count up (increment) and
some count down (decrement). Up/down
counter ICs are able to count in either
direction, depending on the status of a
control input.
Internally, a decade counter IC has 10
output states. Some counters have a
separate output pin for each of these 10
states while others have only one output
connected to the last bit of the counter.
The last flip-flop stage produces one
output pulse for every 10 input pulses.
[E7A02]
LOGIC FAMILIES
E6C04 — Which of the following is an
advantage of BiCMOS
logic?
E6C05 — What is an advantage of
CMOS logic devices over
TTL devices?
E6C06 — Why do CMOS digital
integrated circuits have high
immunity to noise on the
input signal or power supply?
E6C07 — What best describes a pull-
up or pull-down resistor?
E6C09 — What is a Programmable
Logic Device (PLD)?
While there may be just one symbol for

a NAND gate or a decade counter, there
are lots of different types of digital
circuits and components that can perform
the necessary functions. Digital logic
device manufacturers strive for
consistency across their product line,
creating a whole series of logic ICs with
similar characteristics optimized for
certain types of applications, such as
low power consumption or high
switching speed. All of the logic
elements are available within that
technology so that the circuit’s signals
are compatible with other similar ICs.
These groups of similar ICs are called
families. Within a logic family, all of the
devices will have similar input and
output signal constraints and will switch
at approximately the same speed.
TTL Characteristics
Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) is
one of the oldest bipolar logic families,
so called because the gates are made
entirely of bipolar transistors. Most TTL
ICs are identified by 7400/5400 series
numbers. For example, the 7490 is a
decade counter IC. More modern
families have much higher performance
but the organization of logic functions
and part numbering are very similar to
TTL.
All of the logic elements described
earlier in this section have TTL IC
implementations. Some examples are the
7400 quad NAND gate, the 7432 quad
OR gate and the 7408 quad AND gate.
(The quad in these names refers to the
fact that there are four individual gate
circuits on the single IC chip.) Other
examples of 7400 series ICs are the
7404 hex inverter, and the 7476 dual
flip-flop. (Hex refers to the six inverters
on a single IC.) The 7404 contains six
separate inverters, each with one input
and one output, in a single 14-pin
package. A diagram of the 7404 is
shown in Figure 5.42. The 7476
includes two J-K flip-flops on one IC.
TTL ICs require a +5-V power supply.
The supply voltage can vary between 4.7
and 5.3 V, but 5 V is optimum. There are
also limits on the input-signal voltages.
To ensure proper logic operation, a
HIGH, or 1 input must be between 2 V
and 5 V and a LOW, or 0 input must be
no greater than 0.8 V. To prevent
permanent damage to a TTL IC, HIGH
inputs must be no greater than 5.5 V, and
LOW inputs no more negative than –0.6
V. TTL HI outputs will fall somewhere
between 2.4 V and 5.0 V, depending on
the individual chip and load current.
TTL LOW outputs will range from 0 V
to 0.4 V. The ranges of input and output
levels are shown in Figure 5.43. Note
that the guaranteed output levels fall
conveniently within the input limits. This
ensures reliable operation when TTL
ICs are interconnected.
TTL inputs that are left open, or
allowed to “float,” will cause the
internal circuitry to assume a HIGH or 1
state, but operation may be unreliable. If
an input should be HIGH, it is better to
tie the input to the positive supply
through a pull-up resistor (usually a 1 to
10-kΩ resistor). If an input must be kept
LOW, it may be connected directly to the
power supply return or common or a
pull-down resistor may be used. In
either case, the resistors ensure that the
input is kept at a known logic level.
Pull-up resistors are also used for open-
collector outputs that depend on the
external resistor to power the output
transistor. [E6C07]
There are several variants of the TTL
family that provide different
characteristics and are identified by
letters following the “74” in the part
number. For example, a logic device
number beginning with “74LS” is from
the Low-power Schottky TTL family and
a part number beginning with “74HC” is
from the High-speed CMOS version of
TTL logic. Within a family, it is almost
always the case that parts with the same
logic function will have the same pin
connections. For example, all the
inverters in the 7404, 74LS04, 74H04,
74S04, 74HC04, and so on families will
have the same pin connections or
pinouts as in Figure 5.42.
CMOS Characteristics
Complementary metal-oxide
semiconductor (CMOS) devices are
composed of N-channel and P-channel
FETs combined on the same substrate.
Because both N and P-channel FETs can
be combined on the same substrate, the
circuitry can be placed in a smaller-
sized area. This also helps reduce the
cost of these ICs. CMOS logic has
become the most widely used form of
digital logic in the world because of its
high switching speed, small size of the
individual gates and other elements, and
far lower power consumption than TTL.
When a CMOS gate is not switching, it
draws very little power, for example.
[E6C05]
One of the most popular CMOS
families is the parts carrying 4000-
series part numbers. For example, a
4001 IC is a quad, two-input NOR gate.
The 4001 contains four separate NOR
gates, each with two inputs and one
output. Some other examples are the
4011 quad NAND gate, the 4081 quad
AND gate, and the 4069 hex inverter.
Mentioned previously, the 74HC00-
series of part numbers are pin-
compatible with the 7400 TTL family,
offering equivalent switching speed at
much lower power. If you come across a
device whose part number begins 74C
or 74HC, you should be aware that a C
in the part number probably indicates
that it is a CMOS device.
The 4000-series of CMOS ICs (model
numbers between 4000 and 4999) will
operate over a much larger power-
supply range than TTL ICs. The power-
supply voltage can vary from 3 V to as
much as 18 V. CMOS output voltages
depend on the power-supply voltage. A
HIGH output is generally within 0.1 V of
the positive supply connection, and a
LOW output is within 0.1 V of the
negative supply connection (ground in
most applications). For example, if you
are operating CMOS gates from a 9 V
battery, a logic 1 output will be
somewhere between 8.9 and 9 V, and a
logic 0 output will be between 0 and 0.1
V.
The switching threshold for CMOS
inputs is approximately half the supply
voltage. Figure 5.44 shows these input
and output voltage characteristics. The
wide range of input voltages gives the
CMOS family great immunity to noise,
since noise spikes will generally not
cause a transition in the input state. Even
the TTL-compatible CMOS families
have a slightly higher noise immunity
because of their wider HIGH and LOW
signal ranges. [E6C06]
All CMOS ICs require special
handling because of the thin layer of
insulation between the gate and substrate
of the MOS transistors. Even small static
charges can cause this insulation to be
punctured, destroying the gate. CMOS
ICs should be stored with their pins
pressed into special conductive foam.
They should be installed in a socket, or
else a soldering iron with a grounded tip
should be used to solder them on a
circuit board. Wear a grounded wrist
strap when handling CMOS ICs to
ensure that your body is at ground
potential. Any static electricity
discharge to or through the IC before it
installed in a circuit may destroy it.
BiCMOS Logic
Because both bipolar and CMOS
technology each have certain
performance advantages, combining
them in a single IC creates devices that
can operate with the speed and low
output impedance of bipolar transistors
and the high input impedance and
reduced power consumption typical of
CMOS. This is referred to as BiCMOS
technology. [E6C04] This allows ICs to
combine analog functions, such as
amplifiers and oscillators, with digital
functions such as control and switching
circuits.
Programmable Logic
Instead of creating complex logic
functions from individual ICs, it is far
more practical to use programmable
logic devices or PLDs. PLDs are single
ICs that consist of thousands of logic
gates, sequential logic, switches,
registers, and other complex functions up
to and including microprocessors.
[E6C09] Some PLDs are composed
primarily of logic gates and are known
as programmable gate arrays or PGAs.
The desired circuit is designed by
special software and a programmer
device transfers the circuit design into
the PLD where it is stored. The PLD is
then dedicated to perform the functions
programmed into it. Whether a PLD or
PGA is used, it is possible to create
extremely complex functions in the
single IC that operates at very high
speed. In fact, many software-defined
radios (SDR) use PLDs to implement all
filtering, modulation, and demodulation
functions.
• Amplifier characteristics and
design
• Oscillators and frequency synthesis
• Mixers and modulators
• Detectors and demodulators
• Digital signal processing (DSP) and
software defined radio (SDR)
• Filter types and characteristics
• Impedance matching
• Power supplies
You have studied dc and ac electronics

principles and the basic properties of
some modern solid-state components.
Now you are ready for the subject of this
chapter, how they are used in amateur
radio. The circuits include amplifiers
(both low- and high-power), signal
processing (such as oscillators and
modulators), filters, impedance matching
circuits, and power supplies.
We can’t provide a complete treatment
of every subject, but the material will
help you understand the circuits
sufficiently to pass your Extra class
exam. If you need more background or
are interested in the details of the topic,
consult the references listed on the Extra
Class License Manual (ECLM) website
(www.arrl.org/extra-class-license-
manual) or the ARRL Technical
Information Service web pages at
www.arrl.org/technical-information-
service. The ARRL Handbook covers all
of these topics in depth, as well.
The topics of each exam question are
explained, along with example
calculations. Make sure you can answer
the questions before going on. Ready for
some circuits?
6.1 Amplifiers
When amateurs talk about amplifiers,
the subject is often the piece of
equipment that amplifies the output of a
transceiver to several hundred watts or
more. Far more numerous, however, are
the much smaller amplifier circuits that
increase the power of small signals in
our radios and test instruments. Yet all of
them have much in common.
In a piece of equipment where several
amplifier circuits work together, each
separate amplifier circuit is called a
stage, just as a rocket has stages. A stage
whose output signal is the input to
another amplifier, particularly in a
transmitter, is called a driver. The last
amplifier in a piece of transmitting
equipment is called the final amplifier,
or simply the final. The circuit to which
an amplifier delivers its output power is
called a load. A load may be anything
from another circuit to a dummy load to
an antenna. Attaching a load to the output
of an amplifier is called loading.
Amplifier Gain
The gain of an amplifier is the ratio of
the output signal to the input signal. An
amplifier’s voltage gain is the ratio of
its output and input voltages. Current
gain is the ratio of output and input
current, and power gain is the ratio of
output and input power levels.
We often state the gain of a stage as a
“voltage gain of 16” or a “power gain of
25,” both simple ratios. But for very
large ratios, such as an IF amplifier gain
of 90 dB (1,000,000,000), it is easier to
express and work with decibels.
Decibels have been part of your license
studies since the Technician exam and
won’t be covered again in this manual,
but a primer on the dB is available on
the ECLM website.
Input and Output Impedance

An amplifier’s input impedance is the
equivalent impedance that it presents to
the preceding or driving stage. There is
no single component that creates the
input impedance. It is a combined effect
of the components making up the circuit
and the way the circuit is designed. Input
impedance is measured as the ratio of
input voltage to input current at the
amplifier’s input terminals. Input
impedance almost always changes with
frequency and may also change with the
circuit’s operating characteristics.
Output impedance is a bit more
difficult to define. It is the equivalent
impedance of a signal source
representing the amplifier output. Low
output impedance implies that the source
can maintain a constant voltage over
wide ranges of current. High output
impedance sources maintain constant
current while voltage may vary.
Amplifiers that are intended to deliver
significant output power generally have
low output impedances, such as 50 Ω.
DISCRETE DEVICE AMPLIFIERS

purpose of R1 and R2?
purpose of R3?
E7B12 — What type of amplifier
circuit is shown in Figure E7-
1?
describes an emitter
follower (or common
collector) amplifier?
E7B15 — What is one way to prevent
thermal runaway in a bipolar
transistor amplifier?
E7B18 — What is a characteristic of a
grounded-grid amplifier?
The discussion in this section will be

limited to amplifier circuits using
bipolar transistors. The general
techniques also apply to FETs and
vacuum tubes and some topics
associated with tube circuits are
discussed later in this chapter. You will
eventually want to learn about amplifiers
using FETs and tubes, but for the
purpose of helping you pass your Extra
class exam we will concentrate on
bipolar transistor circuits. To learn more
about how FET and tube-type amplifiers
function, we recommend that you turn to
appropriate sections of The ARRL
Handbook.
Basic Circuits
Amplifier circuits used with bipolar
junction transistors (BJT) fall into one of
three types, known as the common-
emitter, common-base and common-
collector circuits. “Common” means that
the referenced transistor electrode —
base, emitter, collector — serves as a
reference terminal for both the input and
output connections. The common
terminal is usually circuit ground, as
shown in the following circuits.
A bipolar transistor amplifier is
essentially a current amplifier. Current
in the base-emitter circuit controls larger
currents in the collector-emitter circuit.
To use the transistor as a voltage
amplifier, the amplifier’s output current
flows through a resistive load and the
resulting voltage, or change in voltage,
is the amplifier’s voltage signal output.
Bipolar transistor base-emitter
junctions must be forward biased and the
base-collector junctions reverse biased
(see the Components and Building
Blocks chapter) in order to act as current
amplifiers. (Forward bias will be
assumed when the word bias is used
unless stated otherwise.) In circuits
using an NPN transistor, the collector
and base must be positive with respect
to the emitter. Conversely, when using a
PNP transistor, the base and collector
must be negative with respect to the
emitter. The required bias is provided
by a power source that supplies the
collector-to-emitter voltage and emitter-
to-base voltage. These bias voltages
cause two currents to flow: collector-
emitter current and base-emitter current.
The direction of current flow depends on
the type of transistor used.
Either type of transistor, PNP or NPN,
can be used with a negative- or positive-
ground power supply. Correct bias must
still be maintained, however. The
combination of bias and collector-
emitter current is called the circuit’s
operating point. The operating point
with no input signal present is called the
circuit’s quiescent or Q-point. Field-
effect transistor (FET) circuits have
many similarities to BJT circuits but are
not covered by the exam. See the ARRL
Handbook for more information on FET
circuit operation and design.
Common-Emitter and Common-

Collector Circuits
Common-emitter amplifiers are the
type of amplifier most often used, so
we’ll use that as our example of
amplifier circuit operation as shown in
Figure 6.1. You can recognize the
common-emitter circuit by the value for
resistance in the emitter circuit (R3 in
Figure 6.1) being much smaller (or even
absent) than that in the collector circuit
(R4), or the emitter resistor being
bypassed with a capacitor (C3 in Figure
6.1). [E7B12]
In bipolar transistors, the emitter
current is in phase with the base current.
As input voltage increases, so does
base-emitter current which causes
collector-emitter curent to increase. As
more collector current flows, the voltage
drop across R4 increases, lowering the
voltage at the circuit’s output. Thus, the
input and output signals are out of phase
as shown in Figure 6.1.
R1 and R2 form a voltage divider to
create a bias voltage. This fixed dc
voltage on the transistor base creates a
stable operating point for the transistor.
[E7B10] Determining the operating
point is a compromise between
amplifier circuit gain and transistor
power dissipation.
As bias is increased, the collector
current is higher but so is the
temperature of the transistor’s internal
junctions. As junction temperature
increases so does the gain of a BJT,
causing collector-emitter current to
increase even more. Even if the base-
emitter bias is kept steady by R1 and R2,
for large enough emitter currents or if the
transistor gets hot enough, the mutually
reinforcing conditions of increasing
temperature and gain can result in
thermal runaway in which the transistor
junctions are overheated and destroyed.
Some kind of negative feedback or bias
stabilization is required to prevent this
from happening.
One solution is to add resistance in the
emitter circuit (R3) to create
degenerative emitter feedback or self-
bias. [E7B11] Here’s how it works: As
emitter current increases, so does the dc
voltage across R3. This increasing
voltage reduces the base-emitter
forward bias established by R1 and R2,
also reducing emitter current. The
resulting balancing act stabilizes the
transistor’s operating point and prevents
thermal runaway. [E7B15]
For a given load, the voltage gain of
the common-emitter circuit is controlled
by the ratio of R4 to R3. The values of
R4 and R3 also set the value of collector
current for a given bias voltage.
A variation of the common-emitter
circuit leaves both R4 and R3 in place
but connects C2 to ground meaning this
circuit is a common-collector amplifier.
The output signal is taken from the
emitter. The emitter voltage is in-phase
with or “follows” the base input voltage
so this circuit is called an emitter
follower. Since R3 is usually a low
value, the output impedance of the
emitter follower is also low, making it a
good choice for driving low-impedance
loads like coaxial cables. [E7B13]
These circuits are discussed in more
detail in the following section “For
More Information.”
Similarities of Vacuum Tube Circuits
Each of the bipolar transistor’s or
FET’s electrodes — emitter or source;
base or gate; collector or drain — has a
comparable vacuum tube electrode. The
analog of the emitter and source is the
tube’s cathode. The base and gate
correspond to a tube’s grid and the
collector and drain correspond to the
tube’s anode or plate. Thus, each of the
three transistor amplifier circuits
discussed here has a corresponding
vacuum tube amplifier circuit. Figure
6.2 shows the three tube amplifier
configurations. Like the transistor
amplifiers, tube circuits have unique
characteristics:
• Common-cathode: Input signal
applied to the grid, relatively high input
impedance and power gain, often
requires neutralization at VHF, output
isin-phase with the input signal.
• Grounded-grid: Input signal applied
to the cathode, no current gain, low input
impedance matches well to 50-Ω feed
line, grounded grid reduces need for
neutralization. [E7B18]
• Common-anode (cathode follower):
Input signal applied to the grid, high
input impedance, no voltage gain, output
is in-phase with the input signal.
The low reactance of C3 at audio
frequencies bypasses R3 for ac signals
which increases ac signal gain as
explained below. C1 and C2 are
coupling capacitors which allow the
desired ac signals to pass into and out of
the amplifier, while blocking the dc bias
voltages. Their values are chosen to
provide a low reactance at the signal
frequency.
The input impedance of the common-
emitter amplifier is fairly high —
several kΩ is typical. The output
impedance depends largely on the
collector circuit resistance (R4). The
common-emitter circuit has a lower
cutoff frequency (the frequency at which
current gain is reduced by half, or 3 dB)
than does the common-base circuit, but it
can provide the highest power gain of
the three amplifier circuit configurations.
The common emitter amplifier’s
voltage gain (the letter A represents gain
and AV is voltage gain) is determined by
the following ratio. The numerator is the
parallel combination of an external load,
RL, connected between the output
terminals and the sum of R3 and R4.
(“//” means “the parallel combination
of”) The second resistance is the sum of
R3 and the transistor’s internal emitter
resistance (26 mV/Ie) in the denominator.
where:
Ie is the emitter current in milliamperes
RL is the output load.
The minus sign indicates that the input
and output signals are out of phase — an
increasing input voltage results in a
decreasing output voltage. The quantity
26/Ie is also called the dynamic emitter
resistance and is abbreviated re
Equation 6.1 tells us that as R3 gets
larger, AV gets smaller. Wouldn’t it be
nice if we could get rid of R3 and have
higher gain, but retain its stabilizing
effect on bias? That is the function of C3
— at dc, R3 provides bias stabilization,
while for ac signals, the low reactance
of C3 bypasses R3 and changes the
equation for voltage gain to:
Thus, the common emitter circuit has a

different value of gain at dc than for ac.
For example, if in the circuit of Figure
6.1 the emitter current is 1.3 mA and RL
is omitted:
and
That’s quite a difference in gain! To

express this voltage-gain ratio in
decibels, take the logarithm of 235 (the
minus sign is ignored), and multiply by
20:
AV (in dB) = 20 log (235) = 20 × 2.37 =
47.4 dB
In a more complete analysis of the
circuit, the effects of C1 and C2 cannot
be ignored at low frequencies. The
increasing reactance of the coupling
capacitors reduces gain at low
frequencies until, at dc, input and output
signals are completely blocked. The
increasing reactance of C3 as frequency
decreases also causes it to be less
effective as a bypass so gain eventually
drops to the dc value. As frequency
increases, the transistor’s current gain
also decreases, reducing gain at high
frequencies. For this reason, this value
of AV is said to be mid-band gain.
In Figure 6.3, the common-collector or
emitter-follower circuit’s input and
output signals are in phase. C2 is a
collector bypass capacitor. This
amplifier also uses input- and output-
coupling capacitors, C1 and C3. R3 acts
to stabilize the circuit bias. The circuit’s
ac load consists of R3//RL. The
common-collector circuit can be
recognized by the output voltage being
taken from the emitter and the collector
being kept at ac ground with a bypass
capacitor.
Common-collector amplifiers are often
used as buffer amplifiers that isolate
low-power or sensitive stages from a
heavy or varying output load. The circuit
also performs impedance conversion. It
has high input impedance and low output
impedance. The input impedance is
approximately equal to the load
impedance connected to the output
terminals, RL, divided by (1 – α). Since
α, the ratio of collector to emitter
current, is close to 1, that means (1 – α)
is a small number making the input
impedance quite large. Having input
impedance depend on load impedance is
a disadvantage of this type of amplifier,
especially if the load impedance varies
with frequency.
Figure 6.4 shows the common-base
amplifier circuit. It can be recognized as
the common-emitter “on its side,” with
the input signal applied to the emitter
instead of the base. When viewed from
this perspective, the bias resistors, R1
and R2, have much the same
configuration as in the common-emitter
circuit, and that input and output
coupling capacitors are also used. C3
bypasses the base to ground so that a
steady dc forward bias current flows in
the base-emitter circuit.
By using the transistor in this way the
circuit has no current gain because the
collector output current is equal to the
emitter current less the small base
current. This also means that the input
and output signals are in-phase. The
output impedance of the circuit is high so
the collector current is almost
independent of whatever RL is connected
to the output terminals. As a result, the
common-base amplifier can have fairly
large voltage gains:
(Equation 6.3)
Common-base amplifiers are used as

an impedance converter when signals
from a low-impedance source (such as a
50-Ω feed line) must drive a higher
impedance load (such as another
amplifier circuit’s input). Common-base
amplifiers are frequently used as
receiver preamplifiers because of their
high voltage gain.
OP AMP AMPLIFIERS
E7G01 — What is the typical output
impedance of an op-amp?
E7G03 — What is the typical input
impedance of an op-amp?
E7G04 — What is meant by the term
“op-amp input offset
voltage”?
E7G06 — What is the gain-bandwidth
of an operational amplifier?
E7G07 — What magnitude of voltage
gain can be expected from
the circuit in Figure E7-3
when R1 is 10 ohms and RF
is 470 ohms?
E7G08 — How does the gain of an
ideal operational amplifier
vary with frequency?
E7G09 — What will be the output
voltage of the circuit shown
in Figure E7-3 if R1 is 1000
ohms, RF is 10,000 ohms, and
0.23 volts DC is applied to
the input?
E7G10 — What absolute voltage gain
can be expected from the
circuit in Figure E7-3 when
R1 is 1800 ohms and RF is 68
kilohms?
E7G11 — What absolute voltage gain
can be expected from the
circuit in Figure E7-3 when
R1 is 3300 ohms and RF is 47
kilohms?
E7G12 — What is an operational
amplifier?
The operational amplifier or op amp

is a high-gain, direct-coupled,
differential amplifier that amplifies dc
signals as well as ac signals. [E7G12]
Direct-coupling means that the circuit’s
internal components and stages are
connected directly together without
blocking, coupling, or bypass
capacitors, so that it works with dc and
ac signals in exactly the same way. The
input to a differential amplifier is the
difference between two input signals.
Op amps were originally used in analog
computers for performing mathematical
operations such as multiplying numbers
and extracting square roots; hence the
name operational amplifier.
Operational amplifiers have two
inputs, one inverting and one non-
inverting, as shown in Figure 6.5.
Signals connected to the inverting
(labeled –) and non-inverting (labeled
+) inputs result in out-of-phase and in-
phase output signals, respectively.
Because it is a differential amplifier, the
op amp amplifies the difference between
the signals at its two inputs, regardless
of the absolute voltage level at either
input — it is only the difference that
matters.
Op Amp Characteristics
A theoretically perfect (ideal) op amp
would have the following
characteristics: infinite input impedance,
zero output impedance, infinite voltage
gain that does not vary with frequency,
and zero output when the input is zero.
[E7G01, E7G03, E7G08] Because of
this, the characteristics of op amp
circuits are controlled by components
external to the op amp itself. These
criteria can be approached in a practical
op amp as described in the following
paragraphs.
The voltage gain of a practical op amp
without feedback (open-loop gain) is
often as high as 120 dB (1,000,000). Op
amps are rarely used as amplifiers in the
open-loop configuration, however.
Usually, some of the output is fed back to
the inverting input, where it acts to
reduce and stabilize the circuit gain. The
more negative feedback that is applied,
the more stable the amplifier circuit will
be.
The open loop gain of a practical op
amp decreases linearly with increasing
frequency. The gain-bandwidth of an op
amp is the frequency range over which
the open-loop voltage gain is equal to or
greater than 1 (0 dB). [E7G06]
The gain of the circuit with negative
feedback is called the closed-loop gain.
The higher the open-loop gain, the more
negative feedback that can be used and
still have a useful amount of closed-loop
gain. By connecting the op amp in a
closed-loop circuit as shown in Figure
6.6, circuit gain remains constant over a
wide frequency range.
If the input terminals of an op amp are

shorted together, the output voltage
should be zero. With most op amps there
will be a small output voltage, however.
This voltage offset results from
imbalances between the op amp’s input
transistors. The op amp’s input-offset
voltage specifies the voltage between
the amplifier inputs that will produce a
zero output voltage, assuming the
amplifier is in an open-loop circuit.
[E7G04] Offset-voltages range from
millivolts in consumer-grade devices
down to nanovolts or microvolts in
premium op amps.
Basic Amplifier Circuits

Op amps make excellent, low-
distortion amplifiers. They can be used
to make oscillators that generate sine,
square, and even sawtooth waves. Used
with negative feedback, their high input
impedance and linear characteristics
make them ideal for use as
instrumentation amplifiers that amplify
signals for precise measurements. There
are many books, such as IC Op-Amp
Cookbook by Walter Jung, that describe
useful op-amp circuits.
The op amp’s high gain amplifies the
difference between the voltages between
its inputs. Applying negative feedback
causes the op amp to attempt to drive the
input difference voltage to zero. The op
amp’s high input impedance allows
current into or out of the inputs to be
ignored. The usefulness of these two
negative feedback concepts — input
difference voltage driven to zero and no
input current — will become apparent as
we derive the gain for the simple
inverting op amp circuit in Figure 6.7.
(The circuit is inverting because the
input and output signals are out of
phase.)
The op amp’s high gain forces the
voltages at the inverting and non-
inverting terminals to be approximately
equal. Since the non-inverting input is
connected to ground, the voltage at the
inverting input will be forced to ground
potential, no matter what the value of the
circuit input and output voltages (as long
as they are within the power supply
range). Maintaining one input at ground
potential without a direct ground
connection is called a virtual ground.
Voltage gain for the inverting op-amp
circuit in Figure 6.7 is determined solely
by R1 (the input resistor) and RF (the
feedback resistor). In order to maintain
the inverting input at ground potential,
any input current IIN = VIN / R1 must be
balanced by an equal and opposite
feedback current IF = –VOUT / RF, or:
so
(Equation
6.4)
Op amp circuit gain is generally stated

as a magnitude (|AV|) and either as
inverting or non-inverting. This
dependence only on external components
makes computing circuit gain easy as
shown in the following examples:
Example 6.1
What is the voltage gain of the circuit
in Figure 6.7 if R1 = 1800 Ω and RF =
68 kΩ? [E7G10]
Example 6.2
in Figure 6.7 if R1 = 10 Ω and RF = 470
Ω? [E7G07]
Example 6.3
in Figure 6.7 if R1 = 3300 Ω and RF =
47 kΩ? [E7G11]
Example 6.4
What will be the output voltage of the
circuit in Figure 6.7 if R1 = 1000 Ω and
RF = 10 kΩ and the input voltage = 0.23
V? [E7G09]
The circuit is inverting, so VOUT = –AV
VIN = –10 (0.23) = –2.3 V
COMPARATORS
E6C01 — What is the function of
hysteresis in a comparator?
E6C02 — What happens when the
level of a comparator’s input
signal crosses the threshold?
A voltage comparator is another

special form of op amp circuit, shown in
Figure 6.8. It has two analog signals as
its inputs and its output is either high or
low depending on whether the
noninverting or inverting signal voltage
is higher, respectively. Thus, it
“compares” the input voltages.
A standard operational amplifier can

act as a comparator by connecting the
two input voltages to the noninverting
and inverting inputs with no input or
feedback resistors. If the voltage of the
noninverting input is higher than that of
the inverting input, the output voltage
will be driven to the positive limit. If the
inverting input is at a higher potential
than the noninverting input, the output
voltage will be driven to the negative
limit. External resistors generate a
reference voltage, VSP, called the
setpoint or threshold to which the input
signal is compared. Thus the comparator
changes its output state depending on
whether the unknown voltage is above or
below the threshold. [E6C02]
Comparator circuits use hysteresis to
prevent “chatter” — the output of the
comparator switching rapidly back and
forth when noise causes the input voltage
to cross the setpoint threshold
repeatedly. The unstable output can be
confusing to the circuits acting on the
comparator output. [E6C01]
Hysteresis is a form of positive
feedback that “moves” the setpoint by a
few millivolts in the direction opposite
to that in which the input signal crossed
the setpoint threshold. The output of the
comparator is fed back to the positive
input through resistor R3, adding or
subtracting a small amount of current
from the divider and shifting the
setpoint.
CLASSES OF OPERATION
E7B01 — For what portion of the
signal cycle does each active
element in a push-pull Class
AB amplifier conduct?
E7B02 — What is a Class D
amplifier?
components form the output
of a class D amplifier
circuit?
E7B04 — Where on the load line of a
Class A common emitter
amplifier would bias
normally be set?
amplifier types reduces
even-order harmonics?
likely result when a Class C
amplifier is used to amplify a
single-sideband phone
signal?
E7B14 — Why are switching
amplifiers more efficient
than linear amplifiers?
Figure 6.9 is a graph showing a typical

amplifier circuit’s output versus input.
As more input signal is applied, the
output increases because of the
amplifier’s gain. When an amplifier
transistor’s collector or drain current
becomes very small (cutoff) or very
large (saturation), changes in the input
signal cause less and less change in the
current, creating distortion in the output
signal.
The amplifier’s operating point is
controlled by the amount of bias. By
changing the operating point the
amplifier can be configured to operate
closer to saturation or cutoff or
somewhere in between. The effect of the
operating point on the amplifier’s
linearity is called the amplifier’s
operating class.
The three basic operating classes for
analog amplifier circuits are Class A,
Class B, and Class C. The class of
operation with characteristics
intermediate between the A and B
classes is called Class AB operation.
Each class has advantages and
disadvantages. Figure 6.10 shows the
output signal from amplifiers operating
in Class A, B, AB and C.
Class A
In Class A operation, bias is adjusted
so that the amplifier’s operating point is
halfway between saturation and cutoff
regions as shown in Figure 6.10A.
[E7B04] This keeps the amplifier in the
linear region on the graph at all times.
As long as the input signal is not too
large, the output signal is a linear
reproduction of the input with a minimal
amount of distortion. The efficiency of a
Class A amplifier is low (typically 25-
30%) because there is always a
significant amount of current being
drawn from the power supply, even with
no input signal.
Class B
Class B operation sets the bias at the
cutoff level as shown in Figure 6.10B. In
this case, the output signal only appears
during one-half of the input sine wave.
The advantage is increased efficiency
with practical amplifiers often attaining
60% efficiency.
Class B amplifiers are often used at
audio frequencies by connecting two
tubes or transistors in a push-pull
circuit as in Figure 6.11. This circuit is
popular in RF power amplifiers. While
one transistor is cut off, the other is
conducting, so both halves of the signal
waveform are present in the output. This
reduces the amount of distortion in the
output and will reduce even-order
harmonics. [E7B06]
Class AB
For a Class AB amplifier, the drive
level and bias are adjusted so that the
operating point allows the amplifier to
enter the cutoff region on signal peaks.
Figure 6.10C shows the output signal for
a Class AB amplifier. It operates for
between 180 and 360 degrees of the
signal cycle. This class of operation is
often used for voice signals when a
small amount of distortion is acceptable
as the price of improved efficiency
which is often more than 50%. [E7B01]
Harmonics and other distortion products
are reduced by using filters at the
amplifier output.
Class C
For Class C amplification the bias is
adjusted so that the operating point is in
the cutoff region. The amplifier only
conducts current during part of a half-
cycle of the input signal, creating pulses
at the signal frequency, as shown in
Figure 6.10D. The result is that the
operating efficiency can be quite high —
up to 80% with proper design. Linearity
is very poor so Class C amplifiers can
only be used for CW and FM signals
which do not require linear
amplification. Using a Class C amplifier
for SSB or digital signals would result
in too much distortion and the output
signal would occupy excessive
bandwidth [E7B07] A tuned filter is
required at the output of a Class C
amplifier to reduce harmonics and other
distortion products.
Switching or Switchmode Classes

Switching or switchmode operation
goes beyond Class C with the transistor
acting entirely as a switch — either
completely saturated or completely
cutoff nearly all of the time. This results
in very low power dissipation by the
transistor and efficiencies of more than
90% which is significantly higher than
for linear amplifier classes. [E7B14]
There are many classes of switchmode
amplifiers but all employ same the basic
mechanism. For example, Class D
amplifiers are used to amplify audio
signals with the switching taking place at
many times the highest audio frequency
to be amplified. The switching action
creates an output waveform that is a
series of squared-off pulses very rich in
harmonics. A low-pass filter at the
amplifier output removes the harmonics
while leaving signals in the desired
range of frequencies unattenuated.
[E7B02, E7B03]
DISTORTION AND
INTERMODULATION
E7B16 — What is the effect of
intermodulation products in
a linear power amplifier?
E7B17 — Why are odd-order rather
than even-order
intermodulation distortion
products of concern in linear
power amplifiers?
The linearity of the amplifier stage is

important because it describes how
faithfully the input signal will be
reproduced at the output. Any
nonlinearity results in a distorted output.
The Class A amplifier will have the
least amount of distortion, while a Class
C amplifier produces a severely
distorted output. The tradeoff is of non-
linearity for efficiency.
A consequence of nonlinearity is that
the output waveform will contain
harmonics of the input signal. Distortion
causes a pure sine wave input signal to
become a complex combination of sine
waves at the output. To remove
harmonics, RF amplifiers use a tuned
output or tank circuit. The tank circuit
gets its name from storing energy in the
inductance and capacitance. Like a
mechanical flywheel, the tank circuit
smooths the pulses that occur from
turning the amplifying device off for
parts of each cycle, reducing harmonics.
This is especially useful if you are
amplifying a pure sine-wave signal, such
as for CW, and want to take advantage of
the increased efficiency offered by a
Class C amplifier. The tuned circuit will
reduce the unwanted harmonics
generated by a nonlinear amplifier stage.
If the input signal consists of sine
waves of more than one frequency, such
as a voice signal, the nonlinearity of the
amplifier will also create
intermodulation products or intermod.
Intermodulation products are created at
the sum and difference of all of the
harmonics of the input signals and so
would be considered spurious signals if
transmitted.
The severity of intermodulation
distortion depends on the order of the
products that are created, even or odd.
(Intermodulation in receivers is
explained in detail in the Radio Signals
and Measurements chapter.) Even-order
products result in spurious signals near
harmonics of the input signal and odd-
order products result in spurious signals
near the frequencies of the input signals.
[E7B16] The higher the harmonics that
are combined, the weaker the product.
This means that the lower odd-order
intermodulation products, specifically
third-order, are more likely to cause
interference to signals near the desired
transmit frequency. [E7B17]
6.2 Signal Processing

In this section, we begin to study basic
that are useful in radio: oscillators,
modulators and demodulators, detectors,
mixers, phase-locked loops, and
frequency synthesis. These generate or
manipulate signals in support of getting
information from one point to another
via radio. The general name for these
functions is signal processing. These
functions can be performed by circuits
or software. It is easiest to understand
them as circuits first, however, and much
equipment is circuit-based, so that will
be our focus in this section. We begin
with the source of nearly all signals —
the oscillator.
OSCILLATOR CIRCUITS AND

CHARACTERISTICS
To create an oscillator, we need three
things: an amplifier with gain at the
desired frequency, a circuit that provides
positive feedback from the output of the
amplifier to its input, and a filter that
restricts the feedback to the desired
frequency. These are connected in a
feedback loop as shown in a block
diagram by Figure 6.12.
The feedback loop is designed so that
at the frequency of interest, the product
of amplifier gain, AV, and feedback
ratio, β, is equal to or greater than 1.
AVβ is also known as loop gain, the
total gain experienced by a signal all the
way through the amplifier, the feedback
circuit (the LC circuit in Figure 6.12),
and back to the input. (The feedback
ratio, β, is different than the current gain,
β, of transistors.)
Signals of the right frequency will be
amplified, a portion fed back to the
amplifier input, amplified again, and so
on, becoming self-sustaining and
creating a steady output signal. If the
phase difference is not exactly right,
however, then the returned portion of the
output signal becomes progressively
farther and farther out of phase on each
trip and won’t build up a sustained
signal.
The resonator serves two purposes. It
provides the necessary phase shift at the
desired frequency, and it acts as a filter
for signals in the amplifier loop so that
only the desired signals are amplified.
(The dc power and bias connections are
omitted for clarity.) .
INSTABILITY AND PARASITIC

OSCILLATION
E7B05 — What can be done to
prevent unwanted
oscillations in an RF power
amplifier?
E7B08 — How can an RF power
amplifier be neutralized?
The combination of positive feedback,

gain, and filtering can cause any
amplifier to become unstable whether
the amplifier is a small circuit or a large
RF power amplifier. The amplifier can
oscillate steadily, in bursts, or generate
noise. Even low-power amplifiers can
experience instability resulting in noisy
outputs, generating spurious signals, and
interference to other services if
oscillations are coupled back to an
antenna.
Negative feedback can stabilize an RF
amplifier as described in the following
sections on neutralization and parasitic
suppression. [E7B05] Care in
terminating the amplifier input and
output, attention to proper circuit layout,
bonding of enclosures, and proper
shielding of the input from the output can
also prevent oscillation.
Neutralization
As we saw from the basic oscillator
circuit, oscillation can occur when some
of the output signal is fed back in phase
with the input signal as positive
feedback. As the output voltage
increases so will the feedback signal.
The re-amplified signal can then build
up to the point where it is self-sustaining
and the amplifier is now an oscillator.
To prevent the unwanted oscillations, it
is necessary to cancel the positive
feedback. This is done by providing an
alternate path back to the input for a
portion of the output signal. The out-of-
phase signal then cancels the in-phase
signal and prevents oscillation. [E7B08]
One neutralization technique for
vacuum-tube RF power amplifiers is
shown in Figure 6.13. In this circuit the
neutralization capacitor, C1, is adjusted
to have the same value of reactance as
the plate-to-grid interelectrode
capacitance that is providing the
feedback path causing the oscillation. By
connecting C1 to the tuned input circuit,
the phase shift results in the feedback
signal having the opposite phase of the
unwanted plate-to-grid feedback signal,
canceling it.
Parasitic Oscillations
Oscillations can also occur in an
amplifier on frequencies that have no
relation to those intended to be
amplified. Oscillations of this sort are
called parasitics because they absorb
power from the circuits in which they
occur. Parasitics occur because of
resonances that exist in the input or
output circuits, enabling positive
feedback to occur.
Parasitics are most likely to occur
above the operating frequency as a result
of stray capacitance and lead inductance
along with interelectrode capacitance. In
some cases it is possible to eliminate
parasitics by changing lead lengths or
the position of leads so as to change
their capacitance and inductance and
thus the resonant frequency.
An effective method of suppressing
parasitics in HF vacuum tube amplifiers
is to insert a parallel combination of a
small inductor and resistor in series with
the grid or plate lead. Such a parasitic
suppressor is labeled Z1 in Figure 6.13.
The coil’s reactance is high enough at
VHF/UHF that those signals must pass
through the resistor while HF signals
pass easily through the coil. The resistor
value is chosen to load the VHF/UHF
feedback path heavily enough to prevent
oscillation. Values for the coil and
resistor are usually found experimentally
as different layouts require different
suppressor values.
RF OSCILLATORS
E7H01 — What are three oscillator
circuits used in amateur
radio equipment?
E7H03 — How is positive feedback
supplied in a Hartley
oscillator?
supplied in a Colpitts
oscillator?
supplied in a Pierce
oscillator?
E7H06 — Which of the following
oscillator circuits are
commonly used in VFOs?
E7H13 — Which of the following is a
technique for providing
highly accurate and stable
oscillators needed for
microwave transmission and
reception?
Back in the 1920s, radio engineers

Hartley and Colpitts came up with the
two circuits of Figure 6.14A and 6.14B
that became popular in radio designs. In
each, feedback is created by routing part
of the emitter circuit through a voltage
divider created by two reactances. The
connection to the voltage divider is
called a tap and such a circuit or
component is said to be tapped. If the
reactive divider is a pair of capacitors,
it’s a Colpitts oscillator. [E7H04] If the
reactive divider is a pair of inductors or,
more frequently, a single tapped
inductor, the circuit is a Hartley
oscillator. [E7H03] These same circuits
are in wide use today at nearly 100
years of age! (You can remember which
is which by thinking, “C is for
capacitors and Colpitts” and “H is for
henrys and Hartley.”)
The Hartley and Colpitts oscillator
circuits are very similar in behavior but
their differences influence the designer’s
preferred choice. For example, the
Hartley has a wider tuning range than the
Colpitts and fewer components. The
Colpitts, however, avoids the tapped
inductor and has several popular
variants with good stability — a Hartley
oscillator is less stable than the Colpitts.
Both circuits are LC oscillators,
meaning their operating frequency is
controlled by inductors (L) and
capacitors (C).
If a quartz crystal is inserted in the
feedback path to control the frequency of
feedback, the result is a Pierce crystal
oscillator as shown in Figure 6.14C.
[E7H05] The Pierce oscillator is the
most stable of the three major oscillator
circuits — the Colpitts, Hartley, and
Pierce. [E7H01]
Even crystals aren’t stable enough,
however, for direct use at microwave
frequencies where more advanced
technology is required. The most easily
available stable frequency reference is
signals from the Global Positioning
System (GPS) satellites. Each satellite
contains a high-accuracy atomic
frequency reference on board and many
GPS receivers supply a frequency
reference output synchronized to the
GPS signal. A GPS disciplined
oscillator is synchronized with the GPS
signal. Other sources of high-accuracy
frequencies are rubidium oscillators and
temperature-stabilized high-Q dielectric
resonators such as those found in
laboratory test equipment. [E7H13]
Variable-Frequency Oscillators
While the quartz crystal oscillator has
excellent frequency stability, amateurs
need to be able to tune their radios over
a frequency range. This requires a
variable-frequency oscillator (VFO).
VFOs are created by using a variable
component in the oscillator’s resonant
circuit. The tradeoff is that the resulting
frequency is not as stable as that of a
crystal-controlled oscillator. Both
Hartley and Colpitts oscillators can be
used as VFOs. [E7H06] The usual
technique for adjustable LC oscillators
is to use a Colpitts oscillator in which
an adjustable tuning capacitor is placed
in parallel with the inductor. Numerous
variations on this scheme can be found
in the technical references on this book’s
website.
CRYSTALS FOR OSCILLATORS

E6D02 — What is the equivalent
circuit of a quartz crystal?
E6D03 — Which of the following is an
aspect of the piezoelectric
effect?
E7H12 — Which of the following must
be done to ensure that a
crystal oscillator provides
the frequency specified by
the crystal manufacturer?
Quartz is a natural piezoelectric

material with the ability to change
mechanical energy (such as pressure or
deformation) into an electrical potential
(voltage) and vice versa. This property
is known as the piezoelectric effect.
[E6D03]
Quartz crystals can be sliced into
plates with resonant vibration
frequencies ranging from a few thousand
hertz to tens of megahertz depending on
the dimensions of the plate. What makes
the crystal resonator valuable is that it
has an extremely high Q, ranging from a
minimum of about 20,000 to as high as
1,000,000. The high Q means that the
frequency of vibration is very stable and
precise. That makes quartz an excellent
material to be used at radio frequencies
because of its excellent temperature
stability and its mechanical ruggedness.
The mechanical properties of a quartz
crystal resonator, or simply crystal, are
very similar to the electrical properties
of a tuned circuit. We therefore have an
equivalent circuit for the crystal. The
electrical coupling to the crystal is
through holder plates or electrodes that
sandwich the crystal between them. A
small capacitor is formed by the two
plates with the crystal plate as then
dielectric between them. The crystal
itself is equivalent to a series-resonant
circuit and, together with the capacitance
of the holder, forms the equivalent
circuit shown in Figure 6.15. [E6D02]
The major advantage of a crystal used
in an oscillator circuit is its frequency
stability. In an LC oscillator, the spacing
of coil turns can change with vibration
and the plates of a variable capacitor
can move. On the other hand, the
frequency of a crystal is much less apt to
change with thermal or mechanical
changes. By controlling the angle at
which the crystal plate is cut across the
plane of the quartz structure,
manufacturers are able to control the
crystal’s temperature coefficient and
other parameters. If better frequency
stability is required, the crystal can also
be placed in a crystal oven that
maintains a constant temperature.
Another way to affect the frequency at
which a crystal oscillator operates is by
adding capacitance in parallel with the
crystal. This changes the resonant
frequency of the tuned circuit formed by
the crystal and its associated
components. In fact, crystals are quite
sensitive to the effects of external
capacitance. The crystal manufacturer
will specify what capacitance must be
placed in parallel with the crystal in
order for it to resonate at the intended
frequency. [E7H12]
MICROPHONICS AND THERMAL

DRIFT
E7H02 — What is a microphonic?
E7H07 — How can an oscillator’s
microphonic responses be
reduced?
E7H08 — Which of the following
components can be used to
reduce thermal drift in
crystal oscillators?
The stability of an oscillator depends

not only on the electronic circuit but the
environment in which the oscillator
operates. Any physical change in the
oscillator will also change the feedback
path, including the frequency at which
the phase shift is just right to sustain
oscillation. There are two primary
sources of change — mechanical
vibration and changes in temperature.
Mechanical vibration can affect an
oscillator in many ways. The most
obvious is that it moves or vibrates the
components, changing the stray
capacitance between them or even
changing their electrical value a small
amount. For a crystal oscillator relying
on the crystal’s piezoelectric properties,
mechanical vibration can affect the
crystal, too.
The oscillator can be surprisingly
sensitive to vibrations. For example, if
you tune in the signal from an oscillator
and tap on its enclosure, you’ll likely
hear the frequency change a little bit.
This response to mechanical vibration is
called a microphonic response because
the oscillator is acting as a kind of
microphone, converting sound waves
(the vibrations) into an electrical signal
(the change in frequency). [E7H02]
Microphonics can be quite annoying and
radio designers take great pains to
mechanically isolate oscillators from
vibration by padding, shock absorbers,
and careful component selection and
layout. [E7H07]
The other challenge all oscillators face
is thermal drift. Unless all of the
oscillator’s components — including
internal semiconductor junctions — can
be maintained at a constant temperature,
the oscillator’s frequency will shift with
the temperature as component values
change. As with microphonics,
oscillator designers take care to
minimize the oscillator’s sensitivity to
changing temperatures. One way to do
this is by using components such as
capacitors with NP0 (negative-positive
zero) temperature coefficients. [E7H08]
Another way is to heat the oscillator
circuit and insulate it from the
surrounding environment. Crystal ovens
can be used to maintain a crystal at a
constant temperature, as well.
FREQUENCY SYNTHESIS
Modern radios do not use continuously
tunable oscillator circuits to control
signal frequency. Instead, a technique
called frequency synthesis is used to
create signals with precisely controlled
frequencies that vary in small steps of
100 Hz or less. The primary method of
frequency synthesis used in commercial
HF radios is direct digital synthesizers
(DDS). Phase-locked loop (PLL)
synthesizers were once universal in
commercial radio equipment but have
been largely replaced by DDS which
requires less analog circuitry and are
easier to integrate into digital ICs.
DIRECT DIGITAL SYNTHESIZERS

(DDS)
E7H09 — What type of frequency
synthesizer circuit uses a
phase accumulator, lookup
table, digital to analog
converter, and a low-pass
anti-alias filter?
E7H10 — What information is
contained in the lookup table
of a direct digital frequency
synthesizer?
E7H11 — What are the major
spectral impurity
components of direct digital
synthesizers?
Figure 6.16 shows the block diagram

of a direct digital synthesizer. This type
of synthesizer is based on the concept
that we can define a sine wave by
specifying a series of amplitude values
spaced at equal phase angles. The
frequency of the sine wave is then
determined by the sampling rate at
which the synthesizer steps through
successive values.
The crystal oscillator sets the sampling
rate for the amplitude values. The phase
increment input to the adder block sets
the number of samples for one cycle.
The oscillator clock signal tells the
phase accumulator to read the data from
the adder and then increment the adder
value by the phase increment. The phase
accumulator value varies between 0 and
360, corresponding to one complete
cycle of the output waveform. [E7H09]
The ROM lookup table contains the
waveform’s amplitude values at each
angle represented by the phase
accumulator. A digital-to-analog
converter (DAC) changes the digital
values from the lookup table to an
analog output voltage creating the
waveform. [E7H10]
The major spectral impurity
components produced by a direct digital
synthesizer are spurs (unwanted
spurious signals) at specific discrete
frequencies determined by the clock
signal frequency and other digital
components of the DDS synthesizer.
Careful design can place those spurs
outside of the amateur bands. [E7H11]
In a DDS, the larger the phase
increment at each step, the higher the
frequency of the output signal will be.
For example, suppose our synthesizer
uses a 10-kHz crystal oscillator. This
means there will be one sample every
0.1 ms. If the phase increment is set to
36°, there will be 10 samples in each
cycle: 0°, 36°, 72°, 108°, 144°, 180°,
216°, 252°, 288° and 324°. The next
sample, at 360° starts the second cycle.
The total time for these 10 samples is 1
ms, which means the sine wave defined
by these samples has a frequency of 1
kHz. Figure 6.16B shows a
representation of the sine values found in
the lookup table for these phase angles.
If the phase increment is changed to 72°
there will be five samples per cycle.
Each cycle will take 0.5 ms, so the
frequency of this new signal is 2 kHz.
PHASE-LOCKED LOOPS (PLL)

E7H14 — What is a phase-locked loop
circuit?
E7H15 — Which of these functions can
be performed by a phase-
locked loop?
In a phase-locked loop, the frequency

of a variable oscillator is continuously
compared to the phase of a stable, fixed-
frequency reference oscillator. If the
variable oscillator’s frequency is too
high, its phase will begin to lead that of
the reference. This phase difference is
used to decrease the frequency of the
variable oscillator until it is back in
phase with the reference oscillator. Too
low a frequency causes an increasing
phase lag, which is used to increase the
frequency of the oscillator. In this way,
the variable oscillator is phase-locked
to the reference so that their frequencies
are kept exactly equal.
To be used as a tunable oscillator,
however, the frequency of the variable
oscillator must be able to change yet still
remain under control of the reference.
Figure 6.17 shows how a PLL works.
The phase detector outputs a voltage
corresponding to the phase difference
between the oscillators. This voltage is
passed through a low-pass loop filter,
amplified by a loop amplifier, and used
to control the frequency of a voltage-
controlled oscillator (VCO). The
combination of phase-detector, filter and
VCO create an electronic “servo” loop.
Using the reference oscillator as the
frequency input to the servo loop creates
a phase-locked loop. [E7H14]
If the loop is “in lock,” meaning that

the frequency of the VCO is under
control, the amount of frequency
variation over which the loop can
maintain control of the VCO is called the
loop’s lock range. If the loop is not in
lock and the divided-down frequencies
of the VCO and reference are gradually
brought closer to each other the loop
will “capture” the VCO at some point.
The difference between the maximum
and minimum frequencies for which this
occurs is the loop’s capture range. The
characteristics of the loop filter and
amplifier determine the stability and
tuning speed of the PLL. The PLL is
continuously adjusting the output signal
frequency with respect to the reference
oscillator, creating variations in the
phase of the signal. These variations
create a broadband phase noise that is
the main spectral impurity produced by
PLLs and a primary reason why PLLs
have been replaced by DDS oscillators.
Along with frequency synthesis, a PLL
can also be used to perform both FM
modulation and demodulation. [E7H15]
If the modulating signal is added to the
VCO control signal, the output is a direct
FM signal. If a divided-down FM signal
is input to the phase detector instead of a
VCO output, the output of the phase
detector will be a replica of the
modulating signal.
MIXERS
E7E08 — What are the principal
frequencies that appear at
the output of a mixer
circuit?
E7E09 — What occurs when an
excessive amount of signal
energy reaches a mixer
circuit?
Mixer circuits are used to change the

frequency of a signal. In a
superheterodyne receiver, this means
converting the received signal to the
intermediate frequency (IF) so it can be
amplified and filtered more efficiently.
In this way, the receiver can be
optimized for the best signal-handling
characteristics such as linearity and
selectivity without the need to retune
many circuit elements every time you
change the received frequency. Figure
6.18 shows the symbol for a mixer.
Mixers are also used to change the

frequency of a signal as it progresses
through a transmitter. The principles of
operation are much the same for mixers,
detectors, and modulators, so the
discussion of how mixers work will
prepare you to better understand the
remaining topics.
If the mixing process is performed by
devices that can amplify the signals, then
the circuit is called an active mixer. If
the mixer uses passive components that
cannot amplify a signal to perform the
mixing function, it is called a passive
mixer. This also results in conversion
loss caused by losses in the passive
components. Figure 6.19 shows the
schematic of a passive, double-
balanced mixer (DBM) that uses four
diodes in a ring (similar to, but different
from a full-wave rectifier) to multiply
the RF and LO signals together.
When two sine waves are combined in

a nonlinear circuit (one whose output is
not a scaled replica of its input) such as
a mixer, the output signal is a complex
waveform that has principal components
at the frequencies of the two original
signals and two product signals. The
product signals are sine waves whose
frequencies are the sum and difference
of the frequencies of the two original
signals. [E7E08] Also included are
higher orders of combinations of the
harmonics from the input signals,
although these are usually weaker than
the primary sum and difference
frequencies and are ignored in this
discussion. The signal of varying
frequency (in a receiver, the desired
input signal) is usually referred to as the
RF signal. The signal generated in the
radio to mix with the RF signal is called
the local oscillator (LO), and the
resulting output signal is called the IF
signal. In a superheterodyne receiver,
the LO frequency is varied so that one of
the mixer IF output products is at the
frequency for which the IF circuits are
designed.
One of the products can be selected
from the output combination by using a
filter. Of course, the better the filter, the
lower the level of the unwanted products
or the two input signals in the resulting
output signal. By using balanced mixer
techniques the mixer circuit provides
isolation of the various signal
connections or ports so that the RF, LO,
and IF signals will not appear at any
other port. This prevents the two input
signals (RF and LO) from reaching the
output. In that case the filter needs to
remove only the unwanted mixer output
products.
The mixer stages in a high-performance
receiver must be given careful
consideration because they have a great
impact on the ability of the receiver to
perform properly in the presence of
strong signals. (See the section Receiver
Performance in the chapter on Radio
Signals and Measurements.) The RF
signal should be amplified only enough
to overcome mixer losses. Otherwise,
strong signals will overload the mixer
circuit. This causes desensitization and
the higher order combinations of
frequencies will appear as highly
undesirable spurious signals or
intermodulation distortion (IMD)
products at or near the IF frequency,
interfering with the desired signal.
[E7E09] A mixer should be able to
handle strong signals, called strong-
signal performance, without generating
spurious signals.
MODULATORS
E7E07 — What is meant by the term
“baseband” in radio
communications?
Modulation is the process of adding

information to an unmodulated radio-
frequency (RF) signal, also known as a
carrier. The modulating voice or data is
called the baseband signal or baseband
information. Baseband is the term for
the frequency range occupied by a
message signal prior to modulation.
[E7E07] The baseband or message
signal can be audio for voice modes or it
can be a data signal for digital modes.
Circuits that perform the modulation
process are called modulators.
Any aspect of the carrier signal can be
varied to add the information. Varying
the amplitude of the signal is amplitude
modulation (AM). Varying the phase or
frequency of the carrier are both forms
of angle modulation, referring to the
phase angle of the signal. The two main
types of angle modulation are phase
modulation (PM) and frequency
modulation (FM).
AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND

SINGLE SIDEBAND
An AM signal is actually a composite
signal containing three individual RF
signals. Along with the RF carrier, the
remaining two signals are the sidebands:
one at a frequency that is the sum of the
carrier and message signal frequencies
(the upper sideband or USB), the other
at their difference (the lower sideband
or LSB). Figure 6.20 shows the
spectrum of an AM signal generated by
modulating a 10 MHz carrier with a 1
kHz sine wave audio signal.
SSB: The Filter Method
E7E04 — What is one way a single-
sideband phone signal can be
generated?
In an AM signal, both sidebands

contain essentially the same information
— the amplitude and frequencies of the
modulating signal. Only one sideband
needs to be transmitted to reconstruct the
original information, and so the
unwanted sideband can be discarded
along with the carrier which carries no
information.
The first step of generating SSB by the
filter method is to combine the baseband
signal with an RF carrier in a balanced
modulator. A balanced modulator is a
type of mixer with output products that
are the sum and difference of the
message and carrier frequencies — the
sidebands — and the carrier signal is
canceled. The resulting signal consists
only of the USB and LSB signals and is
called double-sideband, suppressed-
carrier or DSB-SC. Finally, a narrow
bandpass filter is used to remove one of
the sidebands along with any remaining
carrier signal. [E7E04] This leaves only
the single sideband signal as shown in
Figure 6.21.
of a basic SSB transmitter. Once the
SSB signal has been generated, a mixer
can shift its frequency to whatever
amateur band we want. It is then
amplified by the linear amplifier to
useful power levels.

We can also create the SSB signal
directly by manipulating the phase of the
message and RF signals. This is called
the quadrature method and the block
diagram of such a system is shown in
Figure 6.23. The quadrature method is
examined in this chapter's section on
DSP and SDR.
The audio and carrier signals are each

split into equal components with a 90°
phase difference (called quadrature)
and applied to individual balanced
modulators. When the DSB-SC outputs
of the modulators are added together in
the RF combiner, one sideband is
reinforced and the other is canceled. The
desired sideband, USB or LSB, can be
selected by either switching the message
inputs to the balanced modulators (as
shown) or by switching the RF inputs to
the balanced modulators.
FREQUENCY AND PHASE

MODULATION
E7E01 — Which of the following can
be used to generate FM
phone emissions?
E7E02 — What is the function of a
reactance modulator?
Most methods of producing FM fall

into two general categories: direct FM
and indirect FM. As you might expect,
each has its advantages and
disadvantages. Let’s look at the direct
FM method first.
The only way to produce a true FM
signal with no phase modulation is with
a reactance modulator acting on an
oscillator as in Figure 6.24. [E7E01] If
the modulating signal controls the
variable reactance, the result is a direct
FM signal.
Varying phase also varies a signal’s
frequency, so from a practical view,
indirect FM is the same as PM. The
same type of reactance modulator circuit
can be used as a phase modulator to
vary reactance in a tuned RF amplifier
circuit and thus vary the phase of the
current. This produces phase
modulation (PM).
reactance modulator creating direct FM
as described below. The audio input
signal causes the capacitance of the
varactor diode to change and in turn, that
changes the LC ratio of the oscillator’s
resonant circuit and its frequency. The
modulator’s sensitivity (measured in
Hz/V) depends on the varactor diode’s
change of capacitance per volt of input
signal. A variable inductance could also
be used but is a less practical choice.
[E7E02]
For practical reactance modulators, the
modulated oscillator is usually operated
on a relatively low frequency so the
carrier frequency is very stable.
Frequency multipliers then increase the
signal’s frequency to the final desired
output frequency as in Figure 6.25. It is
important to note that when the frequency
is multiplied so is the frequency
deviation. The amount of deviation
produced by the modulator must be
adjusted carefully to give the proper
deviation at the final output frequency.
PRE-EMPHASIS AND DE-
EMPHASIS
E7E05 — What circuit is added to an
FM transmitter to boost the
higher audio frequencies?
E7E06 — Why is de-emphasis
commonly used in FM
communications receivers?
Frequency deviation increases with the

modulating audio frequency in PM.
(Higher audio frequencies produce
greater frequency deviation.) Therefore,
it is necessary to use a low-pass filter on
the modulating audio to attenuate
frequencies above 3000 Hz before
modulation takes place. This prevents
the generation of unwanted sidebands far
from the carrier frequency that cause
interference on nearby channels.
In a direct FM system, frequency
deviation does not increase with
modulating audio frequency so no low-
pass filter is needed. However, the
lower energy of higher-frequency speech
components means that the recovered
signal is susceptible to high-frequency
noise. To reduce hiss and high-frequency
noise in the receiver, an audio circuit
called a pre-emphasis network is added
to a direct FM modulator. Pre-emphasis
applied to an FM transmitter gives the
deviation characteristics of PM.
[E7E05]
The reverse process of applying a low-
pass filter, called de-emphasis, is used
at the receiver to restore the audio
spectrum to its original relative
proportions and reduce high-frequency
noise. A transmitter that uses PM does
not need a pre-emphasis network. Thus,
an FM receiver with a de-emphasis
network is compatible with both PM
signals and FM signals using pre-
emphasis. [E7E06]
DETECTORS AND
DEMODULATORS
E7E03 — What is a frequency
discriminator stage in a FM
receiver?
E7E10 — How does a diode envelope
detector function?
E7E11 — Which type of detector
circuit is used for
demodulating SSB signals?
Detectors and demodulators have

much the same job — to recover the
modulating information from a
modulated RF signal. A detector circuit
extracts the information directly from the
signal. A demodulator reverses the
modulation process to recover the
information. Detectors tend to be
simpler circuits than demodulators, but
the recovered signal is generally not as
accurate a replica of the original
modulating signal as when a
demodulator is used. Each has a place in
radio communications.
Detectors
The simplest type of detector, used in
the very first radio receivers, is the
diode detector. It works by rectifying,
then filtering, the received RF signal.
[E7E10] A complete, simple receiver is
shown in Figure 6.26. This circuit only
works for strong AM signals so it is not
used very much today except for
experimentation. It does serve as a good
starting point to understand detector
operation, however. In early crystal
radio sets, a steel “cat’s whisker”
pressing on a lead crystal created a
diode (an early type of Schottky barrier
diode) to rectify the signal. Sensitive
headphones then recovered the audio
signal.
Product Detectors
A product detector is a type of mixer
that follows the IF stages in a
superheterodyne receiver. It combines
the IF output signal with the output from
a beat-frequency oscillator (BFO). The
BFO frequency is chosen so that one of
the sum-and-difference output products
is at audio frequencies. Product
detectors are used for SSB, CW, and
RTTY reception. [E7E11] The BFO is
named for the audio frequency difference
or “beat” between its output and the IF
output.
For example, if the receiver’s IF is 455
kHz and the operator prefers listening to
a CW signal with a 700 Hz tone, the
BFO could be set to 455.7 kHz, creating
sum-and-difference products at 700 Hz
and 910.7 kHz. An audio filter then
removes the higher frequency
component. The BFO frequency could
also be set to 454.3 kHz, achieving the
same result. The same process can also
be used on SSB and RTTY signals.
Detecting FM Signals
The most common FM detector is the
frequency-discriminator circuit of
Figure 6.27. It uses a transformer tuned
to the receiver’s IF to detect FM signals.
[E7E03] The primary signal is
introduced to the secondary winding’s
center tap through a capacitor. For an
unmodulated input signal, the resulting
voltages on either side of the
secondary’s center tap will cancel. But
when the signal frequency changes, there
is a phase shift in the two output
voltages that varies at the audio
frequency of the modulating signal. The
two voltages are rectified by a pair of
diodes, and the resulting difference in
output voltage becomes the audio signal.
6.3 Digital Signal

Processing (DSP) and
Software Defined
Radio (SDR)
Digital signal processing (DSP) is an
integral part of modern electronics,
revolutionizing the industry just as the
transistor and microprocessor did. The
capabilities of DSP have improved so
dramatically that nearly all of the
functions once implemented in a
transceiver by analog circuits are now
performed as mathematical functions
inside a digital processor. This new kind
of radio is a software defined radio
(SDR). All of an SDR-type radio’s
primary functions are controlled by
software that can be changed to suit the
needs of the radio’s user. SDR has
become the dominant technology in
amateur radio transceivers, but there
will always be analog radios and
circuits.
To explain the basics of DSP and SDR
for reference in subsequent sections of
this book, we now present edited
portions of material originally written
for the ARRL Handbook. If you are
interested in learning more about DSP
and SDR, it is strongly suggested that
you read the full Handbook chapter or
study one of the numerous books and
articles on the subject.
DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING
(DSP)
Sequential Sampling
DSP is about rapidly measuring analog
signals, recording the measurements as a
series of numbers, processing those
numbers, then converting the new
sequence back to analog signals. How
we process the numbers depends on
which of many possible functions we are
performing.
The process of generating a sequence
of numbers that represent periodic
measurements of a continuous analog
waveform is called sequential
sampling. Each number in the sequence
is a single measurement of the
instantaneous amplitude of the waveform
at a sampling time. When we make the
measurements continually at regular
intervals, the result is a sequence of
numbers representing the amplitude of
the signal at evenly spaced times. This
process is illustrated in Figure 6.28
showing how an analog signal is
converted to digital form.
Note that the frequency of the sine
wave being sampled is much lower than
the sampling frequency, fs . In other
words, we are taking many samples
during each cycle of the sine wave. The
sampled waveform does not contain
information about what the analog signal
did between samples, but it still roughly
resembles the sine wave. Were we to
feed the analog sine wave into a
spectrum analyzer, we would see a
single signal component at the sine
wave’s frequency. Obviously, the
spectrum of the sampled waveform is
not the same, since it is a stepwise
representation consisting of discrete
steps at each value before jumping to the
next value.
The sampled signal’s spectrum can be
predicted and interpreted as shown in
Figure 6.29. The analog sine wave’s
spectrum is shown in Figure 6.29A,
above the spectrum of the sampling
function in Figure 6.29B. The sampled
signal is just the product of the two
signals as shown in Figure 6.29C.
The sampling process is equivalent to a
mixing process — both perform a
multiplication of the two input signals.
Note that the sampled spectrum repeats
at intervals of fs . These repetitions are
called aliases and are as real as the
fundamental in the sampled signal data.
Each contains all the information
necessary to fully describe the original
signal. In general, we are only interested
in the fundamental, but let’s see what
happens when the sampling frequency is
less than that of the analog input.
Sine Wave, Alias Sine Wave

E7F05 — How frequently must an
analog signal be sampled by
an analog-to-digital
converter so that the signal
can be accurately
reproduced?
Take the case where the sampling
frequency is less than that of the analog
sine wave as shown in Figure 6.30A.
The sampled output in Figure 6.30B no
longer matches the input waveform.
Notice that the sampled signal retains the
general shape of a sine wave, but at a
frequency lower than that of the input.
This is an alias of the sampled signal
and from the perspective of the sampled
data, the alias is just as real as the input
signal and cannot be filtered out.
To avoid creating aliases by
undersampling, the sampling frequency,
fs . must be at least twice the highest
frequency component of the signal.
[E7F05] This requirement is known as
the Nyquist sampling theorem.
To avoid creating aliased signals we
must limit the bandwidth of the input
signal with an anti-aliasing low-pass
filter that removes any signal
components with frequencies higher than
one-half the sampling frequency, fs .
DATA CONVERTERS
E7F06 — What is the minimum
number of bits required for
an analog-to-digital
converter to sample a signal
with a range of 1 volt at a
resolution of 1 millivolt?
E7F11 — What sets the minimum
detectable signal level for a
direct-sampling SDR
receiver in the absence of
atmospheric or thermal
noise?
E8A04 — What is “dither” with
respect to analog-to-digital
converters?
E8A09 — How many different input
levels can an analog-to-
digital converter with 8-bit
resolution?
E8A10 — What is the purpose of a
low-pass filter used in
conjunction with a digital-to-
analog converter?
measure of the quality of an
analog-to-digital converter?
The device used to perform sampling is

called an analog-to-digital converter
(ADC). For each sample, an ADC
produces a binary number that is directly
proportional to the input voltage. The
number of bits in the binary numbers
limits the number of discrete voltage
levels that can be represented. An 8-bit
ADC, for example, can produce one of
28 = 256 values. [E8A09] This means
the amplitude reported is not the exact
amplitude of the input, but only the
closest value from those available. The
ADC’s measurement can be improved
over time by “dither,” adding small
amounts of noise to the input signal. This
causes the ADC’s average output value
to be more precise over time. [E8A04]
The resolution of the ADC is
determined by the reference voltage
corresponding to the maximum digitized
value and the number of bits
representing each sample. As another
example, if a 10-bit ADC has a
reference voltage of 1 V, the resolution
is 1 V / 210 = 1 / 1024 = 0.976 mV ≈ 1
mV. [E7F06] Assuming atmospheric or
thermal noise are not higher, the
resolution of the ADC determines the
minimum detectable signal level for an
SDR. [E7F11]
The process of converting the input
signal to digital form results in data that
may be very close to the original analog
signal but is not an exact copy. Other
effects on the digitization process
include the bandwidth and slew rate of
the converter input circuits. The result is
a small amount of distortion of the signal
that is measured as total harmonic
distortion or THD which is a measure of
converter quality. [E8A11]
A digital-to-analog converter (DAC)
performs the conversion of binary
numbers back into analog voltages —
the reverse operation of an ADC. The
structure of a DAC allows it to operate
at very high speed but it digitizes the
signal output levels, just as an ADC can
only output a fixed number of digital
values. If a sine wave is created by a
DAC, it will have a “stairstep”
appearance as each successive voltage
level is created. The steps between
values create unwanted harmonics that
are removed with a low-pass filter also
called a reconstruction filter. [E8A10]
FOURIER TRANSFORMS
E7F07 — What function is performed
by a Fast Fourier
Transform?
The Fourier transform is the software
equivalent of a hardware spectrum
analyzer which is described in the
chapter on Radio Signals and
Measurements. It takes in a signal in the
time domain of amplitude versus time
and outputs the signal translated to the
frequency domain of amplitude versus
frequency. This shows the spectral
content of the input signal. The Fourier
transform is performed on a digitized
signal by a DSP algorithm, producing
output data that represents the spectrum
of the input signal. (An inverse Fourier
transform reverses the process, turning
a frequency domain signal back into a
time domain signal.)
Calculating the Fourier transform
requires a large number of calculations.
The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is a
special algorithm that reduces the
number of calculations required for a
1024-sample data set by a factor of more
than 100 compared to the original
methods. The FFT is key to translating
signals from the time domain to the
frequency domain. [E7F07]
DECIMATION AND
INTERPOLATION
E7F08 — What is the function of
decimation?
E7F09 — Why is an anti-aliasing
digital filter required in a
digital decimator?
DSP processing can also perform

functions on a signal that are impossible
to do effectively in analog systems. For
example, changing the effective sample
rate shifts the frequency of the digital
signals. The process of decimation,
removes every nth sample, reducing the
effective sample rate by the same factor.
[E7F08] In order to prevent generating
aliases due to the new, lower sample
rate, a digital low-pass anti-aliasing
filter must be applied before decimation.
[E7F09]
A similar process called interpolation
inserts new samples between existing
samples to increase the effective sample
rate. No anti-aliasing filter is required in
this case because the effective sampling
rate is increased, not decreased.
Software-Defined Radio (SDR)

Systems
What is a software-defined radio? To
be as comprehensive as possible, we
can state that a software radio is a radio:
1. Whose hardware is able to handle
almost any modulation format, signal
bandwidth, and frequency desired.
2. Whose functionality may be altered
at will by downloading new software.
3. That performs radio signal
processing and functions with DSP.
What is important to understand about
DSP and SDR systems is that they can
perform any mathematically defined
signal processing function if hardware is
available to adequately sample the
signal and perform the required math
operations quickly enough. That includes
modulation, demodulation, filtering,
speech processing and so on.
Some SDRs use a PC to do the
computational heavy lifting and external
hardware to convert the transmitted and
received RF signals to lower-frequency
signals that the computer’s sound card
can digitize. Some SDRs avoid the use
of the sound card by including their own
audio codec and transferring the data to
the PC via a USB port. The can also run
logging programs and other software
while simultaneously doing the signal
processing required by the SDR.
Self-contained SDRs look more like
conventional radios with everything
contained in one enclosure, which makes
for a neater, more compact installation.
The signal processing is done with one
or more embedded DSP ICs. These
compact radios have dedicated controls
for specific functions, just like their
traditional counterparts, and don’t
require a separate PC to display a
virtual front panel or and control the
radio’s functions
Either method offers all the most-
important advantages of applying DSP
techniques to signal processing. Once
the signal is in the digital domain
sophisticated DSP algorithms can be
applied such as automatic notch filters,
adaptive channel equalization, noise
reduction, noise blanking, and feed-
forward automatic gain control.
Correcting bugs, improving performance
or adding new features is as simple as
downloading new software.
SDR HARDWARE
E7F01 — What is meant by direct
digital conversion as applied
to software defined radios?
E7F10 — What aspect of receiver
analog-to-digital conversion
determines the maximum
receive bandwidth of a
Direct Digital Conversion
SDR?
type of analog-to-digital
conversion?
E8A08 — Why would a direct or flash
conversion analog-to-digital
converter be useful for a
software defined radio?
The transition between analog and

digital signals can occur at any of
several places in the signal chain
between the antenna and the human
interface. With the wide variety of
affordable equipment available today,
the choice is largely one of convenience.
For example, many popular digital
communication software packages use
the sound card of a PC connected to the
audio input and output of a transceiver.
The digital signals are received and
transmitted over the air using the same
process as regular microphone audio.
All RF signals are processed within the
transceiver, whether it is an analog
superheterodyne or a state-of-the-art
SDR.
In some software defined radios, the
analog-to-digital transition is made at an
IF stage where an ADC samples receive
signals and a DAC creates the transmit
signal. These digital signals can be
processed by DSP in the transceiver or
sent to a PC where software performs
modulation and demodulation.
The current state-of-the-art SDR
architecture is to make the transition
between the analog and digital domains
right at the frequency to be transmitted or
received with no mixer converting the
frequency of received or transmitted
signals. This is called direct digital
conversion (DDC) and the block
diagram of a typical DDC transceiver is
shown in Figure 6.31. [E7F01] DDC
requires the ADC and DAC to operate at
very high sample rates — at least twice
the bandwidth of the transceiver using a
direct conversion or flash conversion
ADC. [E8A08] Other types of
converters, such as pipeline
architectures, are also popular. For
digitizing baseband audio or data
signals, a much slower converter can be
used such as a successive
approximation or sigma-delta ADC.
[E8A02] Technology is moving very
rapidly in this area.
In the DDS transceiver, the only
remaining analog components in the
signal chain are wide-band anti-aliasing
and reconstruction filters, an amplifier to
improve the noise figure of the ADC,
and power amplifiers for the transmitted
signal. The local oscillator, mixer, IF
filters, AGC, modulators, demodulators,
and other circuitry except audio output
and power supply components are all
replaced by digital hardware and
software.
Regardless of whether the digitization
is performed directly on the RF signal or
on an IF signal, the receive and transmit
bandwidths are limited by the sample
rate of the ADC and DAC, respectively.
[E7F10]
DSP Modulation
A sinusoidal wave of any arbitrary
amplitude and phase may be represented
by the weighted sum of a sine and cosine
wave:
x(t) = I cos(wt) + Q sin(wt)
For mathematical convenience, the I
and Q values are combined in a single
complex number, x = I + jQ. I and Q are
the baseband message information
streams that are applied to the two RF
carrier signals of the same frequency
(wt) but 90° out of phase. This creates
the modulated signal:
In this equation, the cos(wt) – jsin(wt)
portion represents two RF carriers and
the I + jQ part represents the baseband
message. I and Q can be digital data bits
(1 or 0) that turn the carriers on and off
or they can be analog signals. The
process of recovering I and Q from the
modulated signal is the same for both.
I/Q MODULATION AND

DEMODULATION
E7F03 — What type of digital signal
processing filter is used to
generate an SSB signal?
E7F04 — What is a common method
of generating an SSB signal
using digital signal
processing?
An I/Q modulator controls the

amplitude and phase of an RF signal
directly from the I and Q components.
See Figure 6.32 for block diagrams of
an I/Q modulator and demodulator. The I
and Q signals are two separate baseband
streams of data. The I/Q demodulator in
Figure 6.32B is basically the same
circuit as the modulator, but in reverse.
It recovers the I and Q signals that
represent the in-phase and quadrature
components of the incoming RF signal.
Assuming the demodulator’s local
oscillator is on the same frequency and
is in phase with the carrier of the signal
being received, the I/Q output of the
receiver’s demodulator is theoretically
identical to the I/Q input at the
transmitter end.
In a digital I/Q modulator, the I/Q

inputs to the modulator are streams of
digital bits from ADCs at the top of the
DSP block in Figure 6.31. The mixers,
oscillator, phase-shift network and
summer are all digital functions in the
digital upconverter (DUC) block and
converted to RF by the DAC. The
resulting digital output signal has perfect
unwanted sideband rejection, no carrier
feedthrough and no distortion within the
dynamic range afforded by the number of
bits in the data words.
A similar process applies to a digital
demodulator. If the incoming RF signal
is first digitized with an ADC, then the
demodulation can be done digitally
without any artifacts caused by
imperfections in analog circuitry. The
first step is to recover the I and Q
signals in the block labeled DDC in
Figure 6.31 as time-domain signals.
After filtering, the next step in the DSP
block is to apply an FFT to the digitized
I and Q signals, changing them to the
frequency domain. Demodulation
functions can then be performed on the I
and Q spectra to recover the baseband
signals.
The level of precision required for
acceptable 90° audio phase shifting is
difficult to obtain with analog circuits.
With DSP, however, producing a 90°
phase shift over a wide frequency range
is easily accomplished using a special
combination of filters called the Hilbert
transform. [E7F03] A DSP system using
the Hilbert transform as in Figure 6.33
creates a special combination of filters
that produces the necessary signals —
phase-shifted message and RF carriers
— then performs the balanced modulator
function by multiplying the sampled
signals together as numbers. The SSB
signal is generated by adding the two
multiplied sets of data together and using
a DAC to turn the numbers back into an
analog waveform. This technique makes
the quadrature technique a popular
method of SSB generation in DSP
systems. [E7F04]
6.4 Filters and
Impedance Matching
FILTER FAMILIES AND RESPONSE
TYPES
Filters are used to block, pass, or
otherwise modify signals within some
defined range of frequencies. While the
resonant circuits discussed previously
also do this and can be considered a
simple filter, the term “filter” generally
refers to circuits that act over broader
ranges of frequencies with well-defined
characteristics.
PASSIVE AND ACTIVE FILTERS

filters would be the best
choice for use in a 2 meter
band repeater duplexer?
In this section you will learn about

passive filters and active filters. Passive
filters are made with unpowered
components (R, C, or L) and always
result in some loss of signal strength.
This is called insertion loss. Active
filters include a powered amplifying
device to overcome the filter insertion
loss and sometimes even provide signal
gain. Some types of filters can only be
built using active components.
Passive filters constructed using
inductors and capacitors are LC filters.
There are other types of passive filters,
however. For example, mechanical
filters using internal elements such as
disks and rods that vibrate at the
frequencies of interest are used as
receiver IF filters. Cavity filters use the
resonant characteristics of a conducting
tube or box to act as a filter and are used
in repeater duplexers because of their
extremely low loss and sharp tuning
characteristics. [E7C10]
Filter Classification
Filters are classified into the general
groups shown in Figure 6.34. A low-
pass filter is one in which all
frequencies below the cutoff frequency,
fco, (at which the output signal power is
one-half that of the input) are passed
with little or no attenuation. Above the
cutoff frequency, the attenuation
generally increases with frequency. A
high-pass filter is just the opposite;
signals are passed above the cutoff
frequency, and attenuated below. The
range of frequencies that is passed is the
passband and the range that is
attenuated, the stopband.
A band-pass filter has both an upper
and a lower cutoff frequency. Signals
between the cutoff frequencies are
passed, while those outside the passband
are attenuated. The opposite of a band-
pass filter is a band-stop filter. It
attenuates signals at frequencies between
the cutoff frequencies. If the stopband is
very narrow, that is a notch filter.
FILTER DESIGN
E7C05 — Which filter type is
described as having ripple in
the passband and a sharp
cutoff?
E7C06 — What are the distinguishing
features of an elliptical
filter?
describes a receiving filter’s
ability to reject signals
occupying an adjacent
channel?
Filter designs use techniques based on

certain types of mathematical equations
that describe the filter characteristics.
You may have heard of filters referred to
as Butterworth, or Chebyshev, or
elliptical and these names refer to the
family of equations used to design that
type of filter. Each type of equation
results in filters with different
characteristics as described below.
These three types of filters are the most
common that are used in amateur
equipment, but there are many others.
Using these equations, it is possible to
build an entire catalog of filters with
different characteristics. Tables
summarizing these computations can be
found in The ARRL Handbook and other
reference books. From the tables,
component values can be determined and
the filter constructed with confidence
that it will perform as expected. A
version of Tonnesoft’s filter design
program ELSIE is provided on the ARRL
Handbook’s web page,
www.arrl.org/arrl-handbook-
reference.
Before discussing the different types of
filters, we should define the terms we
use to describe their behavior. Figure
6.35 shows response curves showing the
filter’s effect on signal amplitude with
frequency. The vertical axis has units of
dB representing the ratio of output to
input signal, so smaller response values
correspond to more attenuation of the
signal. Frequency increases from left to
right, so all of the filter responses in the
figure are low-pass filters, attenuating
frequencies above the cutoff frequency
where the filter response is –3 dB.
Two additional characteristics
describe the response curve: cutoff
transition and ripple. Cutoff refers to
the steepness with which the response
curve moves from the passband to the
stopband through the transition region.
A filter with a steep response curve in
the transition region is referred to as
“sharp.” Ripple refers to variations in
the response within the passband and the
stopband. A “flat” filter response has
small amounts of ripple.
A filter’s phase response describes
variations in signal phase from input to
output at different frequencies. Typically,
as signal attenuation increases, so does
the amount by which the signal’s phase
is delayed as it passes through the filter.
A linear phase response indicates that
the change in phase is smooth and does
not exhibit ripple at different
frequencies. Ripple in either the
passband or stopband means that the
phase response is nonlinear. This can
cause distortion of signals passing
through the filter.
The three types of filters have
characteristics that complement each
other.
• Butterworth: The passband and
stopband are both as flat as possible
(maximally flat) with no ripple at all.
The cutoff transition is smooth, but not
steep. Butterworth filters are used when
smoothly varying phase response is
important to minimize signal distortion.
• Chebyshev: The passband has
variable amounts of ripple, trading
flatness of the passband for a sharper
cutoff transition. Chebyshev filters are
used when a sharp filter with consistent
attenuation in the stopband is more
important than maintaining signal phase
in the passband. [E7C05]
• Elliptical: Cutoff is the steepest of all
three filter types at the expense of ripple
in both the passband and stopband.
Elliptical filters are used when the most
important characteristic is the sharpness
of the filter cutoff. Notches in the
stopband are positioned at specific
frequencies to make cutoff as sharp as
possible. [E7C06]
Band-pass, band-stop and notch filters
are also characterized by their
bandwidth, the frequency difference
between the filter’s cutoff frequencies or
other frequencies with specific amounts
of attenuation. When selecting a filter for
a specific signal type it is important to
match the filter and signal bandwidths.
The notch filter, used to remove a
single frequency (more accurately, a
narrow range of frequencies) and band-
stop filters are specified to have a
response depth in dB, with higher
numbers indicating more rejection at the
notch frequency.
Filters also have a shape factor that
compares the frequency bandwidth at
two levels of attenuation. In amateur
equipment, the shape factor is the ratio
of the filter’s response at the –6 dB and
–60 dB points. For example, a filter that
has a –6 dB bandwidth of 1.8 kHz and a
–60 dB bandwidth of 5.4 kHz has a –6 to
–60 dB shape factor of 1.8/5.4 = 3.0 to
1. The portions of a band-pass filter’s
response curve outside the passband are
called the filter’s skirts. The closer a
filter’s shape factor is to 1.0, the sharper
its cutoff and the steeper its skirts.
Smaller shape factor values mean the
filter has higher rejection of unwanted
signals outside its passband, such as on
an adjacent channel. [E7C11]
CRYSTAL FILTERS
factors has the greatest
effect on the bandwidth and
response shape of a crystal
ladder filter?
E7C09 — What is a crystal lattice
filter?
The IF section of an analog

superheterodyne receiver requires very
good band-pass filters to provide the
narrow bandwidth needed to separate
one signal from the many on the band.
These filters cannot be built using
individual inductors and capacitors.
Filters using piezoelectric quartz
crystals (discussed previously in the
section on oscillators) can provide the
high-Q, narrow-bandwidth
characteristics required. A hybrid
analog-DSP receiver may use band-pass
roofing filters to keep strong signals
outside the desired band from degrading
receiver performance.
Although single crystals can be used as
filtering devices, the normal practice is
to connect two or more together in
various configurations to create the
desired response. Crystal-lattice or
crystal-ladder filters can provide
narrow-bandwidth filtering at the
frequencies above 500 kHz encountered
in a transceiver’s signal processing
circuits. For example, analog SSB
transmitters use crystal-ladder filters
after the balanced modulator to attenuate
only the unwanted sideband from the
closely-spaced sideband pair.
Figure 6.36 depicts a filter with
crystals in a configuration known as the
half-lattice. In this arrangement, crystals
Y1 and Y2 are on different frequencies.
The overall bandwidth of the crystal
half-lattice filter is equal to
approximately 1 to 1.5 times the
frequency separation of the crystals. The
closer the crystal frequencies, the
narrower the bandwidth of the filter.
In general, a crystal filter has narrow
bandwidth and steep response skirts, as
shown in Figure 6.36B. [E7C09] The
bandwidth and response shape of crystal
filters depend on the relative frequencies
of the crystals. [E7C08]
The typical bandwidth for a crystal
filter used for single-sideband (SSB)
signals is 2.4 kHz at the –6 dB points.
For CW use, crystal filters typically
have 250- to 500-Hz bandwidths.
ACTIVE FILTERS
E7G02 — What is ringing in a filter?
E7G05 — How can unwanted ringing
and audio instability be
prevented in an op-amp RC
audio filter circuit?
An active filter is one that uses an

amplifier to create its frequency
response. In general, passive LC filters
that contain inductive and capacitive
elements have a fixed frequency
response and exhibit insertion loss. LC
filters are usually physically larger and
heavier than their active counterparts.
Active filters have a number of
advantages over LC filters at audio
frequencies. They provide gain and good
frequency-selection characteristics.
They do not require the use of inductors,
and they can be accurately tuned to a
specific design frequency using a
potentiometer.
Op amps are often used to build an
active filter because the gain and
frequency response of the filter can be
controlled by a few resistors and
capacitors connected externally to the op
amp. There are a few disadvantages to
using active filters beyond requiring a
source of power. Low-cost op amps
limit the useful upper frequency to a few
hundred kilohertz. Their output voltage
swing must be less than the dc supply
voltage. Strong out-of-band input signals
may overload the op amp and distort the
output signal. The op amp may add some
noise to the signals, resulting in a lower
signal-to-noise ratio than you would
have with an LC filter.
Active Audio Filters

Figure 6.37 shows a simple RC active
filter. The component values and circuit
configuration are for a band-pass filter
suitable for CW use. Active filters are
only useable with low-power signals in
the audio and very low RF range. Their
principal use in amateur radio is as
receiver audio filters to provide
additional selectivity. Not only does a
well-designed RC filter help to reduce
QRM but it also improves the signal-to-
noise ratio by reducing unwanted high-
and low-frequency noise.
The filter circuit in Figure 6.37 is a
single-section band-pass filter. (A
section refers to one circuit that
performs a specific filtering function.)
Individual filter sections can be
cascaded (connected in series) for
greater selectivity. One or two sections
may be used as band-pass or low-pass
filters for improving the audio-channel
passband characteristics during SSB or
AM reception. Up to four filter sections
are frequently cascaded to obtain
selectivity for CW or RTTY reception.
The greater the number of filter sections,
up to a practical limit, the steeper the
filter skirts will be.
To select the component values for a
specific filter, you must first determine
the band-pass characteristics: desired
filter Q (the ratio of center frequency to
bandwidth), voltage gain (AV), and
center frequency (f0). The component
values for the circuit were calculated
based on an f0 = 900 Hz, an AV of 1 and
a Q of 5. These are typical values of AV
and Q for filters of this type. Both can be
increased for a single-section filter, but
it is best to restrict the gain to 2 or less
and limit the Q to no more than 5 to
prevent unwanted filter ringing and
audio instability. [E7G05] Ringing, in
which oscillations are sustained beyond
the duration of the original signal, can be
a problem in high-gain or very narrow
bandwidth circuits. [E7G02]
DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING

(DSP) FILTERS
E7F02 — What kind of digital signal
processing audio filter is
used to remove unwanted
noise from a received SSB
signal?
E7F12 — Which of the following is an
advantage of a Finite
Impulse Response (FIR)
filter vs an Infinite Impulse
Response (IIR) digital filter?
E7F13 — What is the function of taps
in a digital signal processing
filter?
would allow a digital signal
processing filter to create a
sharper filter response?
There are numerous advantages to

filtering signals digitally. DSP can create
a number of filters that are impractical
or impossible to build with physical
components. For example, “brick wall”
filters with extremely steep cutoffs
would require expensive precision
components and an impractical number
of sections to implement with active
filters. These are fairly easy to build
using DSP techniques, however.
The drawback of DSP filters is that
they require the necessary computing
hardware to implement them. However,
changing the filter characteristics is
simply a matter of changing the program.
In fact, this leads to some interesting
applications because the program can
respond differently to different types of
signals or conditions. This is called
adaptive processing.
An adaptive filter can be useful for
removing unwanted noise from a
received SSB signal, for example.
[E7F02] An adaptive or automatic
notch filter might automatically identify
an interfering tone from a carrier, lock
onto that signal and remove it from the
received audio. Such a filter can even
track the interfering signal as it moves
through the receiver passband!
Any type of filter response
characteristics that can be created by
passive or active components can be
implemented in a digital filter. The
limits of DSP technique are mainly the
sampling rate and resolution with which
the input signal can be sampled as
discussed in the previous section on
DSP and SDR.
Digital filters are categorized
according to their response to a narrow
pulse. As a pulse becomes narrower and
narrower, its frequency spectrum
spreads out more and more. This
happens because higher and higher
frequency components are required to
form the sharp edges of the pulse. If the
pulse becomes infinitely narrow, the
spectrum becomes flat from zero hertz to
infinity. An infinitely narrow pulse is
called an impulse and is a very useful
concept because of its flat frequency
spectrum. The response of the filter to an
impulse is called its impulse response.
The two primary DSP filter categories
are described below.
Finite Impulse Response (FIR) Filters

A finite impulse response (FIR) filter
is a filter with an impulse response that
is finite, ending in some fixed time. Note
that analog filters have an infinite
impulse response — the output
theoretically lasts forever. Even a
simple RC low-pass filter’s output
decays exponentially toward zero but
theoretically never quite reaches it. In
contrast, an FIR filter’s impulse
response becomes exactly zero at some
time after receiving the impulse and
stays zero forever (or at least until
another impulse comes along).
of an FIR filter. The input signal is
stored in a shift register. Each block
labeled “Delay” represents a delay of
one sample time. At each sample time,
the signal is shifted one register to the
right. Each output from each incremental
delay block is called a tap.
Each register feeds a multiplier. The
values by which the signal from each tap
is multiplied are called filter
coefficients. The resulting multiplier
outputs are all added together and create
the filter output. The combination of the
number of taps and the filter coefficient
values is the filter algorithm. [E7F13]
For an input signal consisting of a
single impulse, the shift register will
eventually cause all tap outputs to be
zero so that the filter output will also be
zero, so we have created a finite impulse
response filter.
The higher the number of taps, the more
precisely the filter output can be
calculated. [E7F14] This allows filters
with extremely sharp rolloff and narrow
bandwidth to be implemented without
the ringing or distortion of an equivalent
analog filter. The tradeoff is that each
tap requires a delay of one sample time,
so more taps results in a longer delay as
the signal moves through the filter.
Infinite Impulse Response (IIR) Filters

An infinite impulse response (IIR)
filter is a filter with an impulse response
that lasts forever. This is because an IIR
filter contains feedback and feed-
forward loops in its design as shown in
Figure 6.39. After an impulse is applied
to the input, theoretically the output
never goes to zero, just like an analog
filter. In practice, of course, the signal
eventually does decay until it becomes
smaller than one least significant bit of
the filter’s resolution.
Unlike a symmetrical FIR filter,
frequency components of the input signal
can be delayed by different amounts.
[E7F12] On the other hand, many fewer
adders and multipliers are typically
required to achieve the same passband
and stop band filter response, so IIR
filters are often used where
computations must be minimized.
IMPEDANCE MATCHING
describes how the loading
and tuning capacitors are to
be adjusted when tuning a
vacuum tube RF power
amplifier that employs a Pi-
network output circuit?
E7C01 — How are the capacitors and
inductors of a low-pass filter
Pi-network arranged
between the network’s input
and output?
E7C02 — Which of the following is a
property of a T-network
with series capacitors and a
parallel shunt inductor?
E7C03 — What advantage does a
series-L Pi-L-network have
over a series-L Pi-network
for impedance matching
between the final amplifier
of a vacuum-tube
transmitter and an antenna?
E7C04 — How does an impedance-
matching circuit transform a
complex impedance to a
resistive impedance?
E7C07 — Which describes a Pi-L-
network used for matching a
vacuum tube final amplifier
to a 50-ohm unbalanced
output?
E7C12 — What is one advantage of a
Pi-matching network over an
L-matching network
consisting of a single
inductor and a single
capacitor?
When most hams talk about impedance

matching circuits or networks, they are
probably thinking of a piece of
equipment — an impedance matching
unit — used between a transmitter or
transceiver and an antenna system. Its
basic purpose is to convert or match the
input impedance of the antenna feed line
to the output of a transceiver or power
amplifier so the amplifier has the proper
resistive load. These are also known as
antenna couplers, transmatches,
matchboxes, antenna tuners, and
impedance matchers. Impedance
matching networks are also used inside
radio equipment to convert impedances
from one value to another.
In the case of an antenna coupler, the
impedance matching circuit is usually
required to transform a complex load
impedance with both resistance and
reactance to a purely resistive value,
usually 50 Ω. To perform this task, the
circuit cancels the reactive part of the
impedance and then transforms the
remaining resistive portion to the
desired value. [E7C04]
An impedance matching network
performs the transformation by
exchanging energy between the inductor
and capacitor in such a way that the ratio
of voltage and current (the impedance) is
changed between the input and output
connections. Aside from small resistive
losses, no energy is lost in the
transformation. Only the ratio of voltage
and current are changed. A mechanical
analog is the gearbox in which power at
one combination of speed and torque is
changed to a different combination of
speed and torque.
L-Networks
The simplest LC impedance matching
network is the L-network. Figure 6.40
shows its four variations that have both
an inductor and capacitor. (There are
four additional variations that either
have two inductors or two capacitors,
but they are less common.) The choice of
circuit to be used is determined by the
ratio of the two impedances to be
matched and the practicality of the
component values that are required.
The L-network in Figure 6.41 will
transform to 50 Ω any higher impedance
presented at the input to the feed line.
(At least it will if you have an unlimited
choice of values for L and C.) Most
antennas and feed lines will present an
impedance that can be matched with an
L-network.
To adjust this L-network for a proper

match, the coil tap is moved one turn at a
time, adjusting C for lowest SWR at
each step. Eventually a combination
should be found that will give an
acceptable SWR value. If the impedance
at the input to the feed line is lower than
50 Ω, the circuit can be “turned around”
to reverse the transformation ratio.
Matching networks made entirely of
inductors and capacitors work equally
well in either direction!
The major limitation of an L-network is
that a combination of inductor and
capacitor is normally chosen to operate
on only one frequency band because a
given LC combination has a relatively
small impedance-matching range. If the
operating frequency varies too greatly, a
different set of components will be
needed.
Pi and Pi-L Networks
Most tube-type amplifiers use pi-
network output-coupling circuits as
shown in Figure 6.42. The most common
form of this network consists of one
capacitor in parallel with the input and
another capacitor in parallel with the
output. An inductor is in series between
the two capacitors. [E7C01] The circuit
is called a pi-network because it
resembles the Greek letter pi (π) — if
you use your imagination a bit — with
the two capacitors drawn vertically at
the ends of the horizontal inductor. Using
this circuit, very wide values of load
impedance can be matched, providing a
greater impedance-transformation range
than the L-network. The pi-network can
be thought of as two L-networks back-
to-back with L1 split into two inductors
in series.
To adjust the pi-network in a power

amplifier for proper operation, the
tuning capacitor (C1) is adjusted for
minimum plate current (called “dipping
the plate”), and the loading capacitor
(C2) is adjusted for maximum
permissible plate current. The
adjustments interact, so this procedure is
usually performed several times to reach
the optimum settings. [E7B09]
Because of the series coil and parallel
capacitors, this circuit acts as a low-
pass filter to reduce harmonics as well
as acting as an impedance-matching
device. (A pi-network with two coils
shunted to ground and a series capacitor
would make a high-pass filter and is
virtually never used as an amateur
output-coupling circuit.) Harmonic
suppression with a pi-network depends
on the impedance-transformation ratio
and the circuit Q. While the L-network’s
Q is determined by the impedance
transformation ratio, the pi-network’s Q
can be controlled by selecting different
combinations of component values.
[E7C12] Circuit design information for
pi-networks appears in the ARRL
Handbook.
If you need more attenuation of the
harmonics from your transmitter, you can
add an L-network in series with a pi-
network, to build a pi-L-network. Figure
6.43 shows a pi-network and an L-
network connected in series. [E7C07] It
is common to combine the value of C2
and C3 into a single variable capacitor
as shown in Figure 6.43B as C4. The pi-
L-network thus consists of two series
inductors and two shunt capacitors. The
pi-L-network provides the greatest
harmonic attenuation of the three most-
used matching networks — the L, pi, and
pi-L-networks. [E7C03]
T-Networks
A T-network as shown in Figure 6.44
consists of two capacitors in series with
the signal lead and a parallel, or shunt-
connected inductor between them to
ground. The T-network can also be
thought of as two L-networks as shown
in the figure.
This circuit is commonly used in
antenna coupling equipment because the
series capacitors and shunt inductor
have lower loss than a pi-network.
While this type of T-network will
transform a wide range of impedances it
also acts as a high-pass filter and
provides little harmonic rejection.
[E7C02]
6.5 Power Supplies

Almost every electronic device
requires some type of power supply. The
power supply must provide the required
voltages when the device is operating
and drawing a certain current. The
output voltage of most simple power
sources, such as batteries or basic
rectifier circuits, varies inversely with
the load current. If the device starts to
draw more current, the supplied voltage
will drop. In addition, the operation of
most circuits will change as the power-
supply voltage changes. For this reason
there is a voltage-regulation circuit
included in the power supply of almost
every electronic device. The purpose of
this circuit is to stabilize the power-
supply output voltage and/or current
under changing load conditions.
LINEAR VOLTAGE REGULATORS

E7D01 — How does a linear
electronic voltage regulator
work?
E7D03 — What device is typically
used as a stable voltage
reference voltage in a linear
voltage regulator?
types of linear voltage
regulator places a constant
load on the unregulated
voltage source?
E7D06 — What is the purpose of Q1
in the circuit shown in Figure
E7-2?
E7D07 — What is the purpose of C2
in the circuit shown in Figure
E7-2?
E7D08 — What type of circuit is
shown in Figure E7-2?
E7D11 — What is the function of the
pass transistor in a linear
voltage regulator circuit?
E7D12 — What is the dropout voltage
of an analog voltage
regulator?
Linear voltage regulators make up one

major category of voltage regulator. In
these circuits, regulation is
accomplished by varying the conduction
of a control element in some proportion
to the load current. The control element
conduction is varied so as to maintain
the output voltage at a constant level.
[E7D01]
Shunt and Series Regulators
In Zener diode regulator circuits the
control element is a Zener diode (D1)
that varies the current through a fixed
resistor (R1) as shown in Figure 6.45.
Because the Zener diode’s reverse-
breakdown voltage is relatively
constant, varying load currents do not
cause the regulated output voltage to
change as long as enough current flows
through the Zener diode. Because the
Zener diode controls the output voltage
by drawing current from the power
source in parallel with the load, it is
called a shunt regulator. Shunt
regulators are most useful when a
constant load on the input voltage source
results in constant output voltage.
[E7D05]

linear series regulator circuit, also
shown on the exam in Figure E7-2.
[E7D08] The control element is a pass
transistor (Q1) with base current
controlled by the error amplifier.
[E7D06] The error amplifier compares
a fraction of the output voltage to that of
the voltage reference and adjusts the
pass transistor base current until the
output voltage has the correct value. By
varying the dc current in the base of the
transistor its collector-emitter output
current supplied to the load may be
varied as necessary to hold the output
voltage constant. [E7D11]
A series regulator also requires a
minimum level of voltage drop across
the pass element so that it can respond to
changes in the load current and maintain
a constant output voltage. If the input
voltage to the regulator becomes too
low, the regulator will be unable to
cause the pass element to supply enough
load current and output voltage will
begin to fall below the regulated value.
The minimum input-to-output voltage is
regulator’s drop-out voltage. [E7D12]
The output resistive divider of R1, R2
and the potentiometer both provide a
sample of the output voltage and place a
small load on the regulator at all times.
C1 serves to filter the unregulated input
supply voltage. This capacitor is often
the rectifier output filter capacitor of an
unregulated rectifier supply. The voltage
reference, usually a Zener diode (D1) as
shown in the figure, provides a stable
reference for comparing output voltage
to the desired value or set point.
[E7D03] R3 supplies current to the
Zener diode. C2 across the Zener diode
serves to bypass hum, ripple, and noise
from the rectifier output around the
voltage reference. [E7D07] C3 across
the output terminals prevents the
regulator from oscillating if the load is
removed or is very small.
EFFICIENCY AND POWER

DISSIPATION
types of linear voltage
regulator usually make the
most efficient use of the
primary power source?
E7D13 — What is the equation for
calculating power dissipated
by a series linear voltage
regulator?
As for any system, efficiency for

voltage regulators is calculated as:
In effect, series regulators create

“smart resistors” with a value that is
varied to create just the right amount of
voltage drop, maintaining a constant
output voltage. As such, they also
dissipate power just like a resistor,
calculated as the voltage drop across the
regulator multiplied by the load or
output current [E7D13]:
PDISS = (VIN – VOUT) × (Equation

IOUT 6.6)
Both series and shunt regulators

dissipate a significant amount of the
supply’s input power as heat in order to
maintain the constant output voltage.
Because the series regulators control the
load current directly, however, they are
more efficient than shunt regulators.
[E7D04]
BATTERY CHARGING
REGULATORS
E7D09 — What is the main reason to
use a charge controller with
a solar power system?
A special type of voltage regulator

called a charge controller is used to
charge rechargeable batteries. Each
different type of battery chemistry
requires a different type of controller.
The controller applies charging current
at the right rate until the desired battery
voltage is reached. The controller then
supplies just enough charge to maintain
the battery at an optimum voltage. This
is particularly important if the battery is
supplied by an intermittent or variable
power source, such as a wind or solar
power system. If the power source were
connected directly to the battery, it might
overcharge and damage the battery.
[E7D09] As alternative energy systems
become more common, battery charge
controllers are becoming an important
type of regulator system. Visit
www.batteryuniversity.com for more
information about batteries and charging.
SWITCHING REGULATORS
E7D02 — What is a characteristic of a
switching electronic voltage
regulator?
E7D10 — What is the primary reason
that a high-frequency
switching type high-voltage
power supply can be both
less expensive and lighter in
weight than a conventional
power supply?
The second major category of voltage

regulators is the switching regulator in
which the control device is switched on
and off electronically. The switching
regulator works by storing energy in the
magnetic field of an inductor or
transformer, then releasing it to an output
filter circuit. The duty cycle of the
control element controls the rate at
which energy is stored and released and
is automatically adjusted to maintain a
constant average output voltage.
[E7D02]
Switching frequencies of tens of
kilohertz or more reduce the size of the
transformer or energy storage inductor
and of the capacitors needed to filter the
output voltage. In an inverter-style dc-to-
ac power supply, the savings in weight
and component cost can be substantial.
[E7D10] Switching regulators also have
a very high efficiency compared to
linear regulators, justifying the higher
expense and complexities of their
design.
HIGH VOLTAGE TECHNIQUES

E7D14 — What is the purpose of
connecting equal-value
resistors across power
supply filter capacitors
connected in series?
E7D15 — What is the purpose of a
step-start circuit in a high-
voltage power supply?
The construction of high-voltage

supplies poses special considerations in
addition to the normal design and
construction practices used for lower-
voltage supplies. In general, remember
that physical spacing between leads,
connections, parts and the chassis must
be sufficient to prevent arcing. Also, the
series connection of components such as
capacitor and resistor strings must be
done with consideration for voltage
stresses in the components.
Capacitors
Capacitors are often connected in
series strings to form an equivalent
capacitor with the capability to
withstand the applied voltage. When this
is done, equal-value resistors need to be
connected across each capacitor in the
string in order to distribute the voltage
equally across each capacitor. The
equalizing resistors should have a value
low enough to equalize differences in
capacitor leakage resistance between the
capacitors but high enough not to
dissipate excessive power. The
equalizing resistors also serve bleeder
resistors to discharge the filter
capacitors when power is removed and
place a constant, light load on the supply
to prevent excessive voltage with no
load connected. [E7D14]
Capacitor bodies and cases in high-
voltage strings need to be insulated from
the chassis and from each other by
mounting them on insulating panels to
prevent arcing to the chassis or other
capacitors in the string.
In order to reduce stress on the power
supply high-voltage transformer and
rectifier circuits when the supply is
turned on, a “step-start” function is often
used to charge the filter capacitors
gradually. This consists of a resistor in
the primary circuit of the power
transformer that limits the input current
to the supply. After a short period of a
second or two, the resistor is switched
out with a relay and the supply charges
to its full output. [E7D15]
Avoid older oil-filled capacitors. They
may contain polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs), a known cancer-causing agent.
Newer capacitors have eliminated PCBs
and have a notice on the case to that
effect. Should you encounter old oil-
filled capacitors, contact your local
power utility as they often have the
means to safely dispose of them.
• Test equipment used in ham radio
• Oscilloscopes and spectrum
analyzers
• Receiver sensitivity and noise
• Dynamic range and intercept point
• Phase noise
• Transmitter intermodulation
• Atmospheric, power line, and
vehicle noise
• Noise reduction techniques
This chapter covers the instruments

used to measure signals and radio
performance. Like other topics on the
Extra class exam, you were introduced
to many of these concepts as you studied
for your Technician and General class
licenses. For the Extra class exam, we’ll
dive deeper into these topics.
The Extra class license exam includes
basic questions about test equipment,
receiver performance, intermodulation,
noise, and interference. These topics are
somewhat related and that is why they
are grouped together in this chapter.
Questions about these topics are located
in several parts of the question pool, so
be sure to review each one before
moving on. If you need a refresher on ac
waveforms, read “AC Waveform
Supplement” that is provided on this
manual’s website: arrl.org/extra-class-
license-manual. It covers basic
waveform terms and measurements that
are important for understanding the
material in this chapter.
7.1 Test Equipment
The following types of test equipment
are just a few of the many different
instruments used in radio. You have been
introduced to the multimeter in studies
for your previous license exams and the
Extra class license goes a bit further.
The other types of test equipment
covered in this section may be new to
you, but are often encountered in
building and testing amateur equipment
and antennas.
INSTRUMENTS AND ACCURACY

E4B02 — What is the significance of
voltmeter sensitivity
expressed in ohms per volt?
E8A05 — What of the following
instruments would be the
most accurate for measuring
the RMS voltage of a
complex waveform?
Multimeters
The multimeter is a basic piece of test
equipment that makes variety of
measurements. The digital multimeter
(DMM) is microprocessor-controlled
and most are autoranging so they
automatically choose the right range to
display voltage, resistance, and current
values. While most multimeters are
digital, moving-needle analog meters are
still common. Regardless of whether the
meter is digital or analog, their basic
specifications are similar.
The accuracy of most meters is
specified as a percentage of full scale. If
the specification states that the meter
accuracy is within 2% of full scale, the
possible error anywhere on a scale of 0
to 10 V is 2% of 10 V, or 0.2 V. The
resolution of almost any multimeter sold
today is sufficient for general
measurements in radio equipment. Most
offer “31⁄2 digit” displays, meaning that
the left-most of four digits is 1 or blank.
Such a meter has a resolution of 0.05%
at full scale, plenty good for amateur
use! See the sidebar “Accuracy,
Precision, and Resolution” for more
information on these important topics.
Accuracy, Precision, and Resolution

The terms accuracy, precision and
resolution are often confused and used
interchangeably, when they have very
different meanings. When dealing with
measurements and test instrumentation, it’s
important to keep them straight.
• Accuracy is the ability of an instrument to
make a measurement that reflects the actual
value of the parameter being measured. An
instrument’s accuracy is usually specified in
percent or decibels referenced to some
known standard.
• Precision refers to the smallest division
of measurement that an instrument can make
repeatedly. For example, a metric ruler
divided into mm is more precise than one
divided into cm.
• Resolution is the ability of an instrument
to distinguish between two different
quantities. If the smallest difference a meter
can distinguish between two currents is 0.1
mA, that is the meter’s resolution.
It is important to note that the three
qualities are not necessarily mutually
guaranteed. That is, a precise meter may not
be accurate, or the resolution of an accurate
meter may not be very high, or the precision
of a meter may be greater than its resolution.
It is important to understand the difference
between the three when selecting and using
test instruments.
Another useful specification is the

meter’s sensitivity. A sensitive meter
draws very little current from the circuit
being tested. Sensitivity is often
specified in ohms-per-volt (Ω/V), the
input impedance in ohms divided by the
full-scale reading in volts. The input
impedance can also be calculated by
multiplying the full-scale meter reading
by the sensitivity in Ω/V. [E4B02]
Digital meters may also specify their
input impedance directly.
RMS Measurements
Some meters are specified as
measuring “true RMS” values of voltage
or current. What does “RMS” mean?
When an ac voltage is applied to a
resistor, the resistor will dissipate heat,
just as if the voltage were dc. The dc
voltage that would cause an identical
amount of heating as the ac voltage is
called the root-mean-square (RMS) or
effective value of the ac voltage. (RMS
refers to the mathematical method to
calculate RMS values.)
The RMS value of any waveform,
voltage, or current can be determined by
making a large number of point-by-point
measurements and then calculating the
RMS value. (It can also be determined
by measuring the waveform’s heating
effect on a resistor.) For this reason,
“true RMS” calculating meters are the
most accurate for determining the RMS
value of any waveform, no matter how
complex. [E8A05]
Meters that don’t perform the full
calculations usually assume the
waveform is a sine wave and convert the
measurement to an equivalent RMS
value. These meters are not accurate for
non-sinusoidal waveforms, pulses, or
waveforms with a dc offset.
Fortunately, for common symmetric ac
waveforms the conversions between
peak, peak-to-peak, average, and RMS
are simple. Table 7.1 shows how to
convert between peak, peak-to-peak,
average and RMS waveforms of sine
and square waves. You will make
frequent use of the sine wave
conversions.
RF Wattmeters
E8A06 — What is the approximate
ratio of PEP-to-average
power in a typical single-
sideband phone signal?
E8A07 — What determines the PEP-
to-average power ratio of a
single-sideband phone
signal?
Nearly all commercial radios have

some kind of built-in capability to
measure and display RF output power.
Standalone wattmeters are installed in
the feed line between the transceiver and
antenna. Most have the ability to
measure both forward and reflected
power so that SWR can be displayed.
(See the Antennas and Feed Lines
chapter for more information.)
Most wattmeters respond to the
average of the RF power over many
cycles of the modulation envelope.
When amateurs refer to average output
power in this context, they are referring
to this long-term average of power.
When using an AM voice mode such as
SSB, it is important to know the peak
envelope power (PEP) of the transmitted
signal because that is how the rules
specify power levels. Envelope peaks
occur too quickly for meter readings to
accurately represent their values, though.
Peak-hold or peak-reading wattmeters
have special circuits that measure and
display the peak value of a signal.
The PEP of an AM or SSB signal will
be several times greater than the average
power. The ratio of peak-to-average
power in SSB voice signals varies
widely with voices of different
characteristics. [E8A07] Figure 7.1
shows two typical envelope patterns. In
the case shown in Figure 7.1A, the
average power (estimated graphically)
is such that the peak-to-average ratio is
almost 3:1. Depending on the type of
voice and manner of speaking the ratio
may be more than 10:1. By using a
compressor circuit to increase the
minimum modulated signal levels, the
average output power can be increased
as in Figure 7.1B. Typical ratios of PEP
to average power are about 2.5:1.
[E8A06] Remember that FM and PM are
constant-power modes for which the
envelope has a constant amplitude
during transmission.
Frequency Counters and References

E4A05 — What is the purpose of the
prescaler function on a
frequency counter?
factors most affects the
accuracy of a frequency
counter?
One of the most accurate means of

measuring frequency is the frequency
counter. This instrument counts cycles
of the input signal over a specified time
and displays the frequency of the signal
on a digital display. For example, if an
oscillator operating at 14.230 MHz is
connected to the counter input, 14.230
would be displayed. Some counters are
usable well into the gigahertz range.
Advanced frequency counters can also
measure pulse widths and signal
periods, count pulses, and measure time
intervals. Figure 7.2 shows a typical
frequency counter. Lab-grade counters
are widely available as surplus or used
equipment and as inexpensive new
equipment and kits.
Most counters that are used at such high

frequencies use a prescaler ahead of a
lower-frequency counter. A special type
of frequency divider circuit, the
prescaler reduces a signal’s frequency
by a factor of 10, 100, 1000, or some
other integer divisor so that a low-
frequency counter can display the input
frequency. [E4A05]
The internal circuits of a typical
counter are illustrated as the block
diagram in Figure 7.3. Frequency-
counter accuracy depends on an internal
crystal-controlled reference oscillator,
also called the time base, shown in the
figure as the 1 MHz crystal standard.
Any variation of the time base oscillator
frequency affects the counter accuracy
and precision. The more accurate the
crystal reference, the more accurate the
counter readings will be. [E4B01] A
crystal frequency of 1 MHz has become
more or less standard for use in the
reference oscillator. The crystal should
have excellent temperature stability so
the oscillator frequency won’t change
appreciably as temperature changes.
A frequency counter will measure the

frequency of the strongest signal at its
antenna or input connector. Counters can
acquire their input signal by an antenna
placed close to a transmitter rather than
having a direct connection. For low-
level signals, however, a probe or other
input connection may be used.
Although usually quite accurate, a
frequency counter should be checked
regularly against WWV, WWVH, or
some other frequency standard. The
accuracy of frequency counters is often
expressed in parts per million (ppm).
Even after checking the counter against
WWV, you must take this possible error
into account. The counter error can be as
much as:
This is the maximum displayed error.
THE OSCILLOSCOPE
Direct observation of high-speed
signals and waveforms is not possible
using any kind of meter or numeric
instrument. There is just too much
information to be conveyed at too high a
rate. Enter the oscilloscope, or “scope”
— the amateur’s electronic eyes. A
scope is used to display a signal’s
amplitude versus time so that the shape
and other characteristics of the
waveform can be seen and measured,
even if the signal is changing very
quickly.
While digital scopes display the
digitized input signal on a computer-type
screen, the terminology was developed
for analog scopes. For example, the
horizontal axis time calibration is often
referred to as “sweep speed” because an
electron beam was “swept” across the
face of a cathode-ray tube (CRT). In a
digital scope, nothing is “swept” but the
term and others like it remain in use.
Because many CRT-based scopes remain
in service (and are quite capable, even
preferred in some applications) this
section will retain the original analog
terminology, noting differences with the
newer digital instruments as needed.
Oscilloscope Basics
A sawtooth-type ramp waveform with
a slow rise time and a sudden fall time
causes a spot created by the electron
beam to move from left to right, creating
a narrow line of light (called the trace)
on the face of the CRT as shown in
Figure 7.4. On a digital scope, the trace
appears as a line of pixels on a digital
display.
The rate at which the beam moves
across the CRT is called the sweep
speed and it is selected by the operator.
For digital scopes, a sweep speed or
time base value determines the time per
horizontal division. The oscillator or
clock systems that control the timing of
the display are called the scope’s time
base.
The input signal to be analyzed is
applied to the scope’s vertical channel
input. Positive voltage moves the trace
upward. If a sine wave signal is applied
to the vertical input and the appropriate
sweep speed is selected, the trace will
form a sine wave as it moves up and
down simultaneously with its movement
across the tube.
An important limitation to the accuracy,
frequency response and stability of an
oscilloscope is the bandwidth
(frequency response) of the scope’s
vertical channel amplifiers. Scopes are
often specified in terms of this
bandwidth.
Scopes are also specified by how many
vertical channels they have (special
circuits can make it appear as if there
are separate traces for each channel), so
you might see a particular model listed
as a “20 MHz dual-channel scope.”
Another important performance
limitation is the accuracy and linearity of
the scope’s time base. Unless the time
base is stable, frequency and timing
measurements made with the scope will
not be accurate.
The grid of marks on the face of the
tube is called a graticule and each line
is called a division. The graticule’s
vertical axis is calibrated in
volts/division or V/div and various
scales are selectable by the operator.
The horizontal axis is calibrated in
time/division or seconds/division
(s/div). Vertical scales are often
available from mV/div to tens of V/div.
Most scopes offer horizontal axis
calibrations of a few s/div to ns/div.
This allows the display of signals with
frequencies of less than 1 Hz to hundreds
of MHz and with amplitudes ranging
from mV to tens of V.
By using a positioning control, the
amplitude and period of a signal can be
compared to the fine divisions on the
graticule’s central axes. The easiest
amplitude measurement to make with an
analog scope is an ac signal’s peak-to-
peak voltage by using the graticule lines
as shown in Figure 7.5. A digital scope
can usually make these measurements
automatically and display the results on-
screen.
There are many uses for an
oscilloscope in an amateur station. This
instrument is often used to display a
transmitter's output waveform. Such a
test can help you determine if the
amplifier stages in your transmitter are
operating properly. An oscilloscope can
also be used to display signal
waveforms during troubleshooting
procedures. For example, consider the
waveform display of Figure 7.5. The
sine wave can be seen to have some
significant distortion due to the presence
of harmonics adding to the fundamental
waveform.
Oscilloscope Probes
E4A04 — How is the compensation of
an oscilloscope probe
typically adjusted?
E4A09 — Which of the following is
good practice when using an
oscilloscope probe?
Oscilloscopes are connected to the

circuits being tested using a special
oscilloscope probe or scope probe.
Such probes are specially constructed to
change the input signal frequency and
timing characteristics as little as
possible. Each probe has its own ground
lead that is connected to the circuit being
tested. For the most accurate
measurements at high frequencies, it is
important to keep the ground connection
as short as possible. [E4A09]
The probe incorporates a high-
impedance voltage divider that loads the
circuit as little as possible. The signal’s
amplitude at the output of the probe (the
input to the scope) is typically divided
by 10 — this is a times-10 (× )
probe. (There are also ×1 and ×100
probes, but they are used much less
frequently.) Most scopes assume a ×10
probe is used when displaying the
vertical scale in V/div.
Because the frequency response of the
probe can affect the frequency response
of the signal being displayed on the
scope, it is important to ensure that the
probe is adjusted properly. This is
referred to as the probe’s compensation.
Most scopes provide a square wave
calibration signal of a few kHz and with
an amplitude of 0.1 to 1 V. The probe is
connected to this signal and its
compensation control adjusted until the
square wave’s horizontal portions are
flat and the corners are sharp. (The
scope’s user manual will describe this
procedure in detail.) [E4A04]
Digital Oscilloscopes
limits the highest frequency
signal that can be accurately
displayed on a digital
oscilloscope?
E4A06 — What is the effect of
aliasing on a digital
oscilloscope caused by
setting the time base too
slow?
A digital scope samples the input
signal, converting it to digital data with
an analog-to-digital converter (ADC).
All display and calculation functions are
then performed using that data. Because
digital scopes sample the input signal,
they have all of the same concerns
regarding bandwidth and frequency
response as the DSP systems discussed
in the Radio Circuits and Systems
chapter. Review the DSP material, if
necessary.
Similar to an analog scope, a digital
scope has a specified bandwidth for
displaying signals accurately. The upper
limit on bandwidth is determined by the
sampling rate of the analog-to-digital
converter. [E4A01]
Aliasing, in particular, can be a
significant challenge for digital scopes.
If the time base and sample rate are too
low for a specific signal or a signal has
too high a frequency for the scope’s
ADC, a false, jittery low-frequency alias
of the input signal will appear on the
scope’s display and be treated just as a
real signal. [E4A06] To prevent
aliasing, signals with frequencies that
are too high must be prevented from
reaching the ADC input. Scopes use
low-pass, anti-alias filters to eliminate
these signals. This limits the practical,
alias-free bandwidth of a digital scope
to a somewhat lower value than one-half
the sample rate.
The digital scope can perform many
functions automatically that an analog
scope user must perform manually. For
example, after a trace has been captured,
the time base can be expanded to “zoom
in” on a signal feature or contracted to
see more of a signal. Other functions
performed digitally include automatic
amplitude and frequency measurements,
labeling traces, storage and recall of
traces, and greatly enhanced triggering
operation.
The Logic Analyzer

displays multiple digital
signal states simultaneously?
The logic analyzer is a special type of
oscilloscope specifically for observing
and measuring digital signals, such as
from a microprocessor. Instead of a
linear vertical amplifier, the logic
analyzer senses and displays logic
levels. A typical logic analyzer has at
least 16 and sometimes many more input
channels so that all bits in a data or
address bus can be captured and
displayed simultaneously along with
auxiliary enable/disable and clock
signals. [E4A10] The logic analyzer can
apply sophisticated logical tests on the
signals to perform the trigger function
and can capture and record signal states.
If you do a lot of microprocessor or
digital circuit development, a logic
analyzer is a very handy piece of test
gear.
THE SPECTRUM ANALYZER
Time and Frequency Domains

An oscilloscope displays signals in the
time domain with amplitude on a
vertical axis and time on a horizontal
axis. A spectrum analyzer is very similar
to an oscilloscope but displays signal
frequency on the horizontal axis instead.
Displaying amplitude versus frequency
is the frequency domain. This type of
measurement is useful when testing the
frequency content of signals from
amplifiers, oscillators, detectors,
modulators, mixers, and filters. You can
find a more detailed discussion of
spectrum analyzer measurement
techniques in The ARRL Handbook.
To better understand the concepts of
time and frequency domains, refer to
Figure 7.6. In Figure 7.6A, the three-
dimensional coordinates show time (as
the line sloping toward the bottom right),
frequency (as the line sloping toward the
top right), and amplitude (as the vertical
axis). The signal frequencies shown are
harmonically related (f1 and 2f1). The
time domain is represented in Figure
7.6B, in which both signals are shown
together. If the two signals were applied
to the input of an oscilloscope, we
would see the bold line that represents
the amplitudes of the signals added
together.
The display in Figure 7.6C is typical of
a spectrum analyzer presentation of a
complex waveform. Here the signals are
separated into its individual frequency
components, and a measurement made of
the amplitude of each signal. A signal’s
amplitude can be represented on a
spectrum analyzer’s vertical scale as its
voltage or as its power.
The frequency domain contains
information not found in the time
domain, and vice versa. Hence, the
spectrum analyzer offers advantages
over the oscilloscope for certain
measurements, but for measurements in
the time domain, the oscilloscope is an
invaluable instrument.
Waveform Spectra
E8A01 — What is the name of the
process that shows that a
square wave is made up of a
sine wave plus all its odd
harmonics?
E8A03 — What type of wave does a
Fourier analysis show to be
made up of sine waves of a
given fundamental frequency
plus all its harmonics?
Fourier analysis is a mathematical

method of analyzing ac waveforms. It
breaks or decomposes a waveform into
sine and cosine waves of a fundamental
frequency and harmonic frequencies. For
example, analyzing the distorted sine
wave in Figure 7.5 might show it to be
made up of a sine wave at some
fundamental frequency plus a second
harmonic with a somewhat smaller
amplitude. That information would help
the circuit designer to modify or adjust
its operation to reduce the unwanted
harmonic.
A spectrum analyzer performs Fourier
analysis either with analog electronics
as described in the following sections or
by digitizing the input signal and doing
the analysis on the resulting digital data.
Square Waves
A square wave is one that abruptly
changes back and forth between two
voltage levels and remains an equal time
at each level as in Figure 7.7. (If the
wave spends an unequal time at each
level, it is known as a rectangular
wave.) Fourier analysis shows the
square wave to be made up of a sine
wave at the square wave’s fundamental
frequency and all of the sine wave’s odd
harmonics as shown in Figure 7.7.
[E8A01] You can see this by looking at
the square wave with a spectrum
analyzer.
Sawtooth Waves
A sawtooth waveform, as shown in
Figure 7.8, has a significantly faster rise
time (the time it takes for the wave to
reach a maximum value) compared to its
fall time (the time it takes for the wave
to reach a minimum value). A sawtooth
wave is made up of a sine wave at its
fundamental frequency and all of its
harmonics as shown in Figure 7.8. The
ramp waveform is similar to the
sawtooth but with a slow rise time (the
ramp) and a fast fall time. [E8A03]
Spectrum Analyzer Basics

parameters does a spectrum
analyzer display on the
vertical and horizontal axes?
E4A03 — Which of the following test
instruments is used to
display spurious signals
and/or intermodulation
distortion products
generated by an SSB
transmitter?
methods measures
intermodulation distortion in
an SSB transmitter?
Just as for oscilloscopes, digital

technology is replacing analog designs
but many analog spectrum analyzers are
still in use by amateurs. Both digital and
analog analyzers share similar concepts
and terminology. A simplified block
diagram of an analog CRT-based swept
superheterodyne analyzer is shown in
Figure 7.9. Digital analyzers are
constructed similarly to an SDR as
described in the Radio Circuits and
Systems chapter. The digitized signal’s
spectrum is analyzed and displayed on a
computer-type screen. As with
oscilloscopes, we will use the analog
terminology, noting any differences with
digital analyzers.
The analyzer is basically a narrow-

band receiver with a frequency that is
electronically-tuned. Tuning is
accomplished by applying a linear ramp
voltage to a voltage-controlled
oscillator (VCO) or using a
microprocessor to control a
numerically-controlled oscillator
(NCO). The same ramp voltage or
function simultaneously controls
horizontal position on the display. This
means the horizontal axis of the spectrum
analyzer displays frequency and the
vertical axis displays signal amplitude.
The resulting spectrum analyzer display
shows amplitude versus frequency.
[E4A02]
Spectrum analyzers are calibrated in
both frequency and amplitude for
relative and absolute measurements. The
center frequency control sets the center
of the range swept by the receiver. The
scan width control, is calibrated in
hertz, kilohertz, or megahertz per
division on the graticule and controls
how far the receiver is tuned on either
side of the center frequency. For
example, if the center frequency were set
to 146 MHz and the 10-division
horizontal axis scan width were set to
100 kHz per division, the receiver
would be tuned across a 1 MHz range
from 145.500 MHz to 146.500 MHz,
The vertical axis of the display is
commonly calibrated as 1 dB, 2 dB, or
10 dB per division. (Linear scales in
V/division are also available, but not
used as frequently.) For transmitter
testing, 10 dB/div is commonly used
because it allows you to view a wide
range of signal strengths, such as those
of the fundamental signal, harmonics,
and spurious signals.
Transmitter Testing with a Spectrum

Analyzer
Among other practical uses, the
spectrum analyzer is ideally suited for
checking the output from a transmitter or
amplifier for spectral quality. Within the
limits of the receiver, you can test a
transmitter over any frequency range.
Whether you are testing an HF or a VHF
transmitter, the spectrum analyzer
displays all frequency components of the
transmitted signal. You can easily see
any spurious signals from the transmitter
on a spectrum analyzer display. [E4A03]
Figure 7.10 shows two test setups
commonly used for transmitter testing.
The setup at B is the more accurate
approach for broadband measurements
because most transmission line power
sampling devices do not have a constant-
amplitude output across a broad
frequency spectrum. The ARRL
Headquarters Laboratory staff uses the
setup shown in B.
Another area of concern about
transmitter spectral purity has to do with
the intermodulation distortion (IMD)
levels of SSB transmitters and
amplifiers. The test setup in Figure 7.11
shows how a spectrum analyzer is used
for SSB transmitter IMD testing. The
transmitter is first adjusted to produce
full PEP output with a single audio tone
input. Two equal-amplitude, but non-
harmonically related, audio tones are
then input to the transmitter and the RF
output displayed on a spectrum analyzer.
[E4B10] (The ARRL Lab uses 700 and
1900 Hz tones.)
Figure 7.12 shows a typical display

during a transmitter IMD test. Signals
other than from the two individual tones
(the large peaks at the center of the
display) are distortion products. In this
example, IMD products are observed at
approximately 28, 47, and 52 dB below
the transmitter’s single-tone PEP output
level, which is at the very top line of the
display. Sidebands from the two input
tones are 6 dB below the PEP output.
7.2 Receiver
Performance
Effective radio communication
depends on quality reception of signals,
as free of noise and distortion as
possible, able to ignore unwanted
signals, and sensitive enough to hear the
weakest. That is why it’s important to be
able to measure and evaluate receiver
quality.
When you read product reviews of new
radios, you’ll notice that a great deal of
time is spent evaluating the receiver. Its
performance will be measured using the
parameters you’re about to study. By
learning more about each one, you’ll be
able to compare receivers and make
informed decisions about which radio
design is better. We’ll begin with the
receiver’s ability to hear and then move
on to how well it hears a particular
signal.
SENSITIVITY AND NOISE

E4C05 — What does a receiver noise
floor of –174 dBm
represent?
E4C06 — A CW receiver with the
AGC off has an equivalent
input noise power density of
–174 dBm/Hz. What would
be the level of an
unmodulated carrier input to
this receiver that would yield
an audio output SNR of 0 dB
in a 400 Hz noise
bandwidth?
E4C07 — What does the MDS of a
receiver represent?
E4C11 — Why can an attenuator be
used to reduce receiver
overload on the lower
frequency HF bands with
little or no impact on signal-
to-noise ratio?
One of the fundamental receiver

specifications is sensitivity or minimum
discernible signal (MDS). The MDS of
a receiver represents the strength of the
smallest discernible input signal.
[E4C07]
Another important concept is signal-
to-noise ratio or SNR which is defined
as signal power divided by noise power
and is expressed in dB. An SNR of
greater than 0 dB means the signal is
stronger than the noise.
Another type of signal-to-noise ratio is
signal-to-noise-and-distortion
(SINAD). This figure includes the ability
of the receiver to accurately detect or
demodulate the input signal. Any
distortion of the signal is added to the
noise in the sense that it lowers the ratio
of the desired signal’s energy to that of
the undesired energy.
The MDS is also called the receiver’s
noise floor, because it represents the
strength of a signal that produces the
same audio output power as the receiver
noise. You can measure receiver MDS
by measuring its audio output power
when the antenna input is connected to a
dummy load of the proper impedance.
(The AGC system must be disabled to
keep it from affecting the receiver’s
gain.) After making that measurement,
feed an unmodified carrier signal from a
calibrated signal generator into the
receiver antenna input. When the audio
output power is twice what it was
without an input signal (a 3 dB
increase), then the input signal is just
strong enough to produce an audio output
equal to the receiver’s internal noise.
Since the signal and noise powers are
equal, the signal-to-noise ratio is 0 dB.
The strength of that signal is equal to the
MDS for that receiver. The lower the
MDS, the more sensitive the receiver. (It
is also necessary to specify the receiver
bandwidth as discussed below.)
MDS and other receiver performance
specifications are often given in dBm.
This abbreviation means “decibels with
respect to one milliwatt.” 0 dBm is the
same as 1 mW, +10 dBm is 10 mW, –20
dBm is 0.01 mW (or 10 µW), and so
forth. Using dBm allows us to discuss an
extremely wide range of signal power
levels.
MDS may also be given in µV, such as
0.5 µV. This can be converted to power
if the receiver input impedance is known
— usually 50 Ω. Power, P = V2/50 in
this case. The equivalent in dBm = 10
log (P/0.001). For example, an MDS of
0.5 µV equals an MDS of –113 dBm.
This is a practical MDS on the HF bands
where natural noise is present.
It is useful to know that the theoretical
noise power at the input of an ideal
receiver, with an input-filter bandwidth
of 1 Hz, is –174 dBm at room
temperature. [E4C05] (The ARRL
Handbook contains more detailed
information about how to calculate this
number and why it depends on
temperature.) This is considered to be
the theoretical best (lowest) noise floor
any receiver can have. In other words,
for this ideal receiver, the strength of any
received signal would have to be at least
–174 dBm to be detected. Because the
noise power increases linearly with
bandwidth, the theoretical MDS with a 1
Hz bandwidth filter is specified as –174
dBm/Hz.
Of course –174 dBm is an incredibly
small power level — only four
billionths of a billionth of a milliwatt!
With an antenna attached, an HF
receiver’s noise floor is actually
determined by atmospheric noise which
is far higher than the theoretical noise
floor. Atmospheric noise, therefore, is
the limiting factor for sensitivity of
receivers on the HF bands. This is why
turning on an HF receiver’s attenuator
— to reduce overload, for example —
has little or no impact on signal-to-noise
ratio. Both signal and noise are
attenuated equally. [E4C11]
A receiver bandwidth of 1 Hz is
impractical, but is used as a reference
for comparing wider filters. An actual
receiver might have a 500-Hz bandwidth
for CW operation, or even wider for
SSB or FM voice. As the filter gets
wider, more noise will be received by a
factor equal to the ratio of the filter used
to 1 Hz. For example, a 500-Hz
bandwidth increases the received noise
power by a factor of 500 over the 1 Hz
bandwidth, a ratio of 27 dB = 10 log
500. That increase in filter width also
increases the noise floor of this
theoretical receiver to –174 dBm + 27
dB = –147 dBm.
For whatever filter width the receiver
uses, you can calculate the theoretical
MDS for that receiver by calculating the
log of the bandwidth and multiplying that
value by 10. Add the result to –174 dBm
which is the 1-Hz bandwidth value for
MDS.
Example 7.1
What is the MDS for a receiver with a
–174 dBm/Hz noise floor if a 400 Hz
filter bandwidth is used with the AGC
turned off? What would be the level of
an unmodulated carrier input to this
receiver that would yield an audio
output SNR of 0 dB in a 400 Hz noise
bandwidth? [E4C06]
Step 1 — Calculate the bandwidth
ratio in dB = 10 log (400 Hz / 1 Hz) =
26 dB
Step 2 — To get MDS, add that figure
to –174 dBm = –174 + 26 = –148 dBm
Noise Figure
E4C04 — What is the noise figure of a
receiver?
Noise figure is a “figure of merit” for

the receiver — expressed in dB, it is the
ratio of the noise generated internally by
the receiver to the theoretical MDS.
[E4C04] Noise figure evaluates how
much noise the receiver’s internal
circuits contribute.
The higher a receiver’s noise figure,
the more noise that is generated in the
receiver itself. This also means the
receiver will have a higher noise floor.
Lower noise figures are more desirable.
The receiver’s internal noise raises the
noise floor by increasing the power that
actual signals must have to be heard.
You can calculate the actual noise floor
of a receiver by adding the noise figure
(expressed in dB) to the theoretical best
MDS value in dBm.
Actual Noise Floor = (Equation
Theoretical MDS + noise 7.2)
figure
For example, suppose our 500-Hz-
bandwidth receiver has a noise figure of
8 dB. We can use Equation 7.2 to
calculate the actual noise floor of this
receiver.
Actual Noise Floor = –147 dBm + 8 dB
= –139 dBm
The noise figure of a receiver is
related to the signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR) of the input and output signals.
Lowering a receiver’s noise figure
lowers its actual noise floor and
improves weak signal sensitivity. By
lowering noise without changing the
input signal level, the SNR ratio will be
increased, meaning that the signal is
easier to copy.
SELECTIVITY
receiver circuits can be
effective in eliminating
interference from strong
out-of-band signals
E4D09 — What is the purpose of the
preselector in a
communications receiver?
The perfect receiver can tune any

frequency and reject every signal except
the one you want to receive. That is one
definition of selectivity — the ability to
select a specific signal. That broad
definition of selectivity has more
specific meanings in the different parts
of the receiver. For example, selectivity
in a receiver’s front end may apply to
rejection of strong out-of-band signals,
such as shortwave broadcasts or nearby
public safety dispatch transmitters.
Selectivity is a term that depends on
where it is applied.
Band-pass front-end filters that pass
an entire amateur band (or a significant
portion of it) are used at the receiver’s
antenna input. They provide front-end
selectivity and their purpose is to keep
strong out-of-band signals of nearby
transmitters or broadcast stations from
overloading the sensitive input circuits.
A preselector is a tunable input filter
adjusted to pass signals at the desired
frequency and increase rejection of out-
of-band unwanted signals. [E4D09]
Both improve receiver performance by
rejecting signals that can cause image
responses in an analog receiver or
eliminate overload in an SDR. [E4C02]
The degree of selectivity for an analog
receiver is determined by the bandwidth
of the receiver’s entire filter chain, from
the front end to the audio output. (Filters
are discussed in the Radio Circuits and
Systems chapter.) In superheterodyne
receivers, there are several filters in the
signal path. As the signal passes through
the receiver, it encounters progressively
narrower filters that remove more and
more of the unwanted signals.
In an SDR, filtering is performed
mathematically on digitized signals but
the definition of filter parameters are the
same. Many SDRs and digital mode
software packages are capable of
receiving, demodulating, and decoding
multiple signals at once so the concept
of filtering out all but the desired signal
is not valid. Selectivity for this type of
receiver can also refer to the ability to
obtain the information from one signal
when others are present.
Analog Receiver IF Filters

choices is a good reason for
selecting a high frequency
for the design of the IF in a
superheterodyne HF or VHF
E4C10 — What is an advantage of
having a variety of receiver
IF bandwidths from which to
select?
E4C13 — How does a narrow-band
roofing filter affect receiver
performance?
E4C14 — What transmit frequency
might generate an image
response signal in a receiver
tuned to 14.300 MHz and
that uses a 455 kHz IF
frequency?
Farther along the signal’s path, analog

receivers often use relatively wide
filters in each IF amplifier circuit. These
may be LC filters, quartz crystal filters,
or ceramic resonator filters with
characteristics similar to crystal filters.
These are used to reject unwanted
mixing products and to prevent spurious
signals from slipping into the receiver’s
signal path. These filters pass many
signals on or near the desired frequency.
Increasing a superheterodyne
receiver’s IF improves selectivity. As
the IF is increased, the frequency at
which image responses occur becomes
farther from the desired signal and
easier to filter out. [E4C09] This
filtering can be performed in the
receiver’s front-end circuitry and at each
conversion stage in the receiver. For
example, if a low IF such as 455 kHz is
used to receive a signal on 14.300 MHz,
the BFO could be tuned to 14.3 + 0.455
= 14.755 MHz. (The BFO could also be
tuned to 14.3 – 0.455 = 13.845 MHz.)
The receiver would also receive an
image signal on 15.210 MHz because
15.210 – 14.755 = 0.455 MHz. [E4C14]
If the IF were raised to 9 MHz, the BFO
would be set to 14.3 + 9 = 23.3 MHz
and the image frequency would be 23.3
+ 9 = 32.3 MHz, which is much farther
away and easier to filter out.
At the input to each IF stage where the
most strenuous filtering is performed, a
roofing filter is often used. (Most
superheterodyne receivers have two or
more IF stages.) Roofing filters are high-
performance filters (generally crystal
filters) that have a bandwidth wider than
that of the widest signal that will be
received. Their purpose is to increase
receiver dynamic range by rejecting as
many as possible of the strong signals on
adjacent frequencies without affecting
the desired signal. [E4C13] Such signals
can cause amplifiers to overload or
affect the AGC system so as to distort
the desired signals. Figure 7.13
illustrates why the filters are called
roofing filters — their broad response
acts as a “roof” over the narrower filters
intended to pass just a single signal.
In the final IF stage of an analog

receiver, narrow filters are used to
select only one signal from the many that
may be present. Crystal or mechanical
resonator filters are used for this
purpose. The bandwidth of these filters
is selectable for the type of desired
signal.
It is important to match the filter
bandwidth with that of the desired
signal. Table 7.2 shows typical filter
bandwidths for receiving a single
amateur signal of various types. If the
filter is too wide, unwanted signals will
be received. If the filter is too narrow,
the desired signal will be distorted. For
example, using a 500-Hz CW filter to
receive an SSB signal would render it
nearly unintelligible. In general,
selecting an IF filter bandwidth that is
slightly greater than the bandwidth of the
modulated signal you want to receive
maximizes signal-to-noise ratio while
minimizing interference. [E4C10]
RECEIVER DYNAMIC RANGE

Dynamic range is an important
receiver parameter that refers to the
ability of the receiver to operate
properly in the presence of strong
signals. The general definition of
receiver dynamic range is the span in dB
between the MDS and the largest input
signal that does not cause audible
distortion products. There are several
types of dynamic range measurements
used to describe receiver performance,
based on input signal levels in dBm (dB
with respect to 1 mW).
SDR Dynamic Range

E4C08 — An SDR receiver is
overloaded when input
signals exceed what level?
E4C12 — Which of the following has
the largest effect on an SDR
receiver’s dynamic range?
The performance of an SDR receiver in
the presence of strong signals, which are
common on the busy amateur bands, is
largely determined by its sample width.
That is, the number of bits in each
sample of the input signal to the analog-
to-digital converter. The larger the
number of bits, the larger the range of
signals the SDR can process linearly,
meaning that the strong signals do not
overload the receiver. [E4C12]
Once a signal has been digitized in an
SDR, there are no analog circuits in its
path to distort or otherwise compromise
the signal. While that provides superior
filtering and rejection of unwanted
signals, the analog-to-digital converter’s
maximum input signal level which is set
by the reference voltage must not be
exceeded or the receiver is overloaded.
[E4C08] The receiver input includes all
of the signals present at the receiver’s
antenna terminals except for those
removed by a front-end filter or
preselector. If all of those signals add
together to exceed the maximum input
voltage, distortion is produced and the
receiver’s performance begins to
degrade. The SDR’s dynamic range is
approximately the range between its
internal noise floor or minimum
encoding voltage, whichever is lower,
and the analog-to-digital converter’s
maximum input signal.
Blocking Dynamic Range
E4D01 — What is meant by the
blocking dynamic range of a
receiver?
reduces the likelihood of
receiver desensitization?
E4D12 — What is the term for the
reduction in receiver
sensitivity caused by a
strong signal near the
received frequency?
An input signal can be strong enough

that an analog receiver no longer
responds linearly and its gain begins to
drop. (SDR receivers behave differently
as described above.) This reduction in
gain due to the strong signal causes
weaker signals to appear to fade. This
reduction in gain is called gain
compression or blocking. Blocking may
be observed as desensitization or
desense — the reduction in apparent
strength of a desired signal caused by a
nearby strong interfering signal.
[E4D12]
A receiver’s blocking level is the
power of an input signal that causes 1
dB of gain compression. Blocking
dynamic range (BDR) as illustrated in
Figure 7.14 is the difference between
the level of the receiver’s MDS and the
blocking level. When the blocking
dynamic range is exceeded, the receiver
begins to lose the ability to amplify
weak signals. [E4D01] If the interfering
signal is far enough from the desired
signal, it may be possible to reduce
desensitization by reducing the
receiver’s RF bandwidth to reject the
strong signals. [E4D07]
INTERMODULATION (IMD)
E4D05 — What transmitter
frequencies would cause an
intermodulation-product
signal in a receiver tuned to
146.70 MHz when a nearby
station transmits on 146.52
MHz?
E4D11 — Why are odd-order
intermodulation products,
created within a receiver, of
particular interest compared
to other products?
The following discussion applies only

to analog receivers. SDR receivers
respond differently to strong signals.
(This discussion touches on several key
points regarding IMD products and
receiver linearity but is not meant to be
complete. For additional detailed
information about receiver performance,
see The ARRL Handbook.)
A perfectly linear receiver will
produce an output signal with a strength
that changes exactly as the input signal.
If the input signal changes by 1 dB, the
output signal will also change by 1 dB.
This is called the first order response
and is shown as the dashed line in
Figure 7.14. No receiver is perfectly
linear, however. As the input signal
strength increases, the receiver’s
response becomes nonlinear and IMD
products or “intermod” are created.
The frequency and amplitude of the
IMD products depends upon the order of
the IMD response. IMD products are
created at frequencies which are the sum
and difference of the input signals and
their harmonics.
fIMD = n f1 ± m f2 (Equation 7.3)
where:
f1 and f2 are the input signal frequencies
n and m are positive integers; 1, 2, 3,
etc
Even-order IMD products result if the
sum of n and m is even, and odd-order
IMD products result if the sum is odd.
Second-order IMD products are created
for n + m = 2 (both n and m equal to 1).
Third-order IMD products are created if
n + m = 3.
The frequencies of even-order IMD
products caused by signals that are close
together are far from the frequency of
either input signal and so are generally
not a problem if caused by signals
within an amateur band. Second-order
IMD products are the strongest of the
even-order family and can be created in
an amateur band by strong out-of-band
signals such as from shortwave
broadcast stations. Preselectors and
front-end band-pass filters can reduce or
eliminate second-order IMD products
caused by those signals.
There are four third-order IMD product
frequencies. Two are additive (fIMD1 and
fIMD3) and two are subtractive (fIMD2 and
fIMD4):
fIMD1 = 2f1 + f2 (Equation 7.4)
fIMD2 = 2f1 – f2 (Equation 7.5)
fIMD3 = 2f2 + f1 (Equation 7.6)
fIMD4 = 2f2 – f1 (Equation 7.7)
where:
fIMD is the frequency of the IMD
product
f1 and f2 are the input signals
If the frequencies of the signals causing
the IMD products are close together,
such as in the same amateur band as the
desired signal, the subtractive IMD
products (fIMD2 and fIMD4) could possibly
be very close to the desired signal
frequency. This is true of all odd-order
IMD products although the third-order
products are the strongest. [E4D11]
Therefore, the third-order IMD
performance of a receiver is an
important receiver specification.
Here’s an example of third-order IMD
performance being important. Let’s say
your receiver is tuned to 146.70 MHz.
Whenever a nearby station is
transmitting on 146.52 MHz, you receive
intermittent bursts of garbled speech.
This is likely to be a third-order
intermodulation product generated in
your receiver which is very sensitive but
becomes nonlinear for very strong input
signals.
What are the likely frequencies for a
second strong signal that could combine
with the one on 146.52 MHz to produce
the IMD product you hear on 146.70
MHz? [E4D05] You know that the
subtractive products are the likely
source of the interfering signal because
one of the signals causing the
interference is close to the desired
frequency. If the frequency of the IMD
product is 146.70 MHz and you know
one of the strong signal frequencies, f1 =
146.52 MHz, you can solve for f2 using
Equation 7.5:
fIMD2 = 2f1 – f2
f2 = 2f1 – fIMD2 = 2 × 146.52 MHz –
146.70 MHz = 146.34 MHz
This is a common repeater input
frequency! Solving Equation 7.7 for f2
using fIMD4 and strong signal frequency
for f1, you’ll find the other possible
frequency to be (146.70 + 146.52) / 2 =
146.61 MHz. It would not be practical to
filter out these strong input signals
because they are in-band signals, close
to your operating frequency. It would be
better to use a receiver with a high
enough dynamic range to accommodate
these signals linearly and not produce
the IMD products. (If the input signals
are simply too strong, an attenuator at the
receiver input may reduce the signal
levels to a level at which they do not
create IMD products.)
Another example from the HF bands
will help illustrate the problem. If the
interfering IMD product occurs at
14.020 MHz whenever a strong station
is transmitting at 14.035 MHz, you can
expect to find the other strong signal at:
f2 = 2 × 14.035 – 14.020 = 14.050 MHz
or
f2 = (14.035 + 14.020) / 2 = 14.0275
MHz
With many strong signals closely
spaced on a typical amateur band, IMD
products can be a real problem!
Reducing intermodulation is another
reason to use roofing filters. A 6-kHz-
wide roofing filter would significantly
reduce the level of any signal at all three
of these frequencies at which the IMD
product could be generated. Other
remedies include adding attenuation as
mentioned previously or reducing RF
gain. By eliminating (or at least
reducing) strong in-band signals near the
desired signal, the receiver’s dynamic
range is improved and IMD is reduced.
Intercept Points
describes problems caused
by poor dynamic range in a
receiver?
E4D10 — What does a third-order
intercept level of 40 dBm
mean with respect to
receiver performance?
Second-order IMD products occur at

the sum and the difference of the input
signal frequencies and their amplitude
changes 2 dB for every 1 dB of input
signal change. Third-order IMD product
amplitudes change 3 dB for every 1 dB
of input-signal change. (This assumes
that the input signals have equal
amplitudes.) Figure 7.15 shows the
output power of the desired signal
versus the output power of the third-
order distortion products at different
input signal power levels. (The graph of
second-order product strength would be
similar but have a slope of 2 instead of
3.)
The input signal power at which the
level of the distortion products equals
the output level for the desired signal
(where the lines cross) is the receiver’s
intercept point. There is a separate
intercept point for each order of IMD
product — second-order intercept point
(SOI or IP2), third-order intercept point
(TOI or IP3), and so on. By measuring
signal and IMD product amplitudes, the
intercept points can be calculated or
estimated graphically. Specifically, the
output power level at which the curves
intersect is the output intercept.
Similarly, the input power level
corresponding to the point of
intersection is called the input intercept.
For example, a 40 dBm third-order
intercept point means that a pair of 40
dBm signals would theoretically
produce a third-order IMD product of
the same 40 dBm level. [E4D10] A
level of 40 dBm is equal to 10 W so
calculating the intercept point level is
only a method of evaluating receiver
performance and not a specification of
how much signal the receiver can
actually accept.
Although signals on the air are not
strong enough to reach the intercept point
levels, the intercept point values are
useful for assessing receiver linearity.
The higher the intercept point, the lower
the amplitude of the IMD products
generated by the receiver due to
nonlinearities at actual received signal
levels. Third-order intercept
performance of a receiver usually gets
worse as the frequencies of the strong
signals (f1 and f2 in the equations above)
get closer together. That is why the IMD
performance of a receiver is typically
given for several spacings of the input
signals.
Intermodulation distortion dynamic
range measures the ability of the
receiver to avoid generating IMD
products. When input signal levels
exceed the IMD dynamic range, IMD
products will begin to appear along with
the desired signal. We can also calculate
the third-order IMD dynamic range using
the third-order intercept point and the
receiver noise floor or MDS value.
IMD DR3 = (2/3) (IP3 – (Equation

MDS) 7.8)
where:
IMD DR3 is the third-order
intermodulation distortion dynamic
range in dB.
IP3 is the third-order input intercept
point in dBm.
MDS is the noise floor or MDS of the
receiver in dBm.
Figure 7.16 illustrates the relationship
between the input signal levels, noise
floor, blocking dynamic range, and IMD
dynamic range. Top-quality receivers
have blocking dynamic ranges of more
than 100 dB, so the receiver we have
used in this example could be any
typical modern receiver. If a receiver
has poor dynamic range, cross-
modulation or IMD products will be
generated and desensitization (blocking)
from strong adjacent signals will occur.
[E4D02]
PHASE NOISE
E4C01 — What is an effect of
excessive phase noise in a
receiver’s local oscillator?
E4C15 — What is reciprocal mixing?
Phase noise is a problem that has

become more apparent as receiver
improvements have reduced the noise
floor and increased dynamic range.
Today’s commercial transceivers largely
use direct digital synthesis (DDS)
frequency synthesizers to create VFOs
and other signal sources in a transceiver.
DDS synthesizers exhibit small
variations in frequency based on the
clock signal and artifacts from creating
the output waveform as small discrete
steps. These result in the phase of the
output signal continuously and randomly
shifting back and forth a slight amount,
creating phase noise. (DDS and PLL
synthesizers are discussed in the Radio
Circuits and Systems chapter.)
Phase noise creates a random
collection of low-level sidebands that
are increasingly stronger close to the
desired signal frequency. On a
transmitted signal, phase noise sounds
like a strong hiss that can often be heard
across an entire band to a nearby
receiver, even on other bands. This can
be a serious problem for other stations
on the band if the transmitted signal is
strong.
On receive, phase noise from the
receiver’s local oscillator mixes with
the received signals just as the desired
signal does, but the result is random
noise, not the desired mixing product.
Thus, as you tune toward a strong signal,
the receiver noise floor appears to
increase. In other words, you hear an
increasing amount of noise in an
otherwise quiet receiver as you tune
toward the strong signal. This is called
reciprocal mixing. [E4C15]
Excessive phase noise in a receiver
local oscillator allows strong signals on
nearby frequencies to interfere with the
reception of a weak desired signal.
[E4C01] This increased receiver noise
can cover a weak desired signal, or at
least make copying it more difficult.
Figure 7.17 illustrates how phase noise
can cover a weak signal.
A transmitter with excessive phase
noise on its output signal also causes
noise to be received up and down the
band for some range around the desired
transmit frequency. This additional noise
can fall within the passband of a
receiver tuned to some weak signal. So
even if you have a receiver with very
low phase noise, you can be bothered by
this type of interference!
Phase noise can be a serious problem
when trying to operate two stations close
together, such as during Field Day. The
phase noise from one transmitter can
cause severe interference to nearby
receivers, even if they are operating on a
different band! In this case, a band-pass
filter at the transmitter is required to
eliminate the interference to receivers on
other bands.
CAPTURE EFFECT
E4C03 — What is the term for the
suppression in an FM
receiver of one signal by
another stronger signal on
the same frequency?
One of the most notable differences

between an amplitude-modulated (AM)
receiver and a frequency-modulated
(FM) receiver is how noise and
interference affect an incoming signal.
The limiter and discriminator stages in
an FM receiver can eliminate most of the
atmospheric or impulse-type noise,
unless the noise has frequency-
modulation characteristics.
FM receivers perform quite differently
from AM, SSB, and CW receivers when
QRM is present, exhibiting a
characteristic known as the capture
effect. The loudest signal received, even
if it is only a few dB stronger than other
signals on the same frequency, will be
the only signal demodulated, suppressing
all weaker signals. [E4C03]
It is common that when two stations
transmit an FM signal on the same
frequency, the receiving station will hear
only the stronger signal, with only
buzzing or clicks remaining of the
weaker signal. This can be a problem on
busy repeaters, particularly during nets
with multiple stations attempting to
check in or pass messages.
7.3 Interference and
Noise
Interference and noise are the bane of
receivers everywhere. Interference, or
QRM, is the term given to unwanted
signals that have the characteristics of
transmitted signals, whether they are
actually a transmitter output or not.
Noise, or QRN, is either randomly
generated by natural processes or is the
unintentional output of non-transmitting
equipment. Confronted with a mix of
both when trying to receive a weak
signal, the distinction can seem a bit
strained. Different techniques can be
applied to reduce, filter or eliminate
each type. This section touches on a few
of the different types of interference and
noise and how to manage them.
TRANSMITTER
INTERMODULATION
E4D03 — How can intermodulation
interference between two
repeaters occur?
E4D04 — Which of the following may
reduce or eliminate
intermodulation interference
in a repeater caused by
another transmitter
operating in close proximity?
E4D06 — What is the term for
spurious signals generated
by the combination of two or
more signals in a non-linear
device or circuit?
E4D08 — What causes
intermodulation in an
electronic circuit?
E4E11 — What could cause local AM
broadcast band signals to
combine to generate
spurious signals in the MF or
HF bands?
Intermodulation (IMD) is discussed at

several points in this manual. IMD is a
serious problem because it generates
interfering signals both internally and
externally to equipment. To a receiver,
these signals are no different than signals
received over the air and so cannot be
filtered out. It is important that IMD be
reduced or eliminated as much as
possible.
Nonlinear circuits or devices can cause
intermodulation distortion in just about
any electronic circuit. IMD (also called
cross-modulation) often occurs when
signals from several transmitters, each
operating on a different frequency, are
mixed in a nonlinear manner, either by
an active electronics device or a passive
conductor that happens to have nonlinear
characteristics. [E4D08] The mixing,
just like in a mixer circuit, produces
mixing products that may cause severe
interference in a nearby receiver.
Harmonics can also be generated and
those frequencies will add to the
possible mixing combinations. The
intermod, as it is called, is radiated and
received just like the transmitted signal.
[E4D06]
For example, suppose an amateur
repeater receives on 144.85 MHz.
Nearby, are relatively powerful non-
amateur transmitters operating on 181.25
MHz and on 36.4 MHz (see Figure
7.18). Neither of these frequencies is
harmonically related to 144.85. The
difference between the frequencies of
the two non-amateur transmitters,
however, is 144.85 MHz. If the signals
from these transmitters are somehow
mixed, an intermod mixing product at the
difference frequency could be received
by the amateur repeater, demodulated as
if it were a desired signal, and
retransmitted on the repeater’s output
frequency. A listening station would hear
a signal with the modulation of both non-
amateur transmitters.
Intermodulation interference can be
produced when two transmitted signals
mix in the final amplifiers of one or both
transmitters and unwanted signals at the
sum and difference frequencies of the
original signals are generated. [E4D03]
In this example, the two signals could be
perfectly clean, but if they are mixing in
one of the transmitters, the intermod
signal may actually be transmitted along
with the desired signal from that
transmitter.
Two devices that are highly effective in
eliminating this type of intermod are
isolators and circulators. Circulators
and isolators are ferrite components that
function like a one-way valve to radio
signals. Very little transmitter power is
lost as RF travels to the antenna, but a
considerable loss is imposed on any
power coming back down the feed line
to the transmitter. Circulators can also
be used to allow two or more
transmitters to use a single antenna.
Thus, circulators and isolators at a
transmitter’s output effectively reduce
intermod problems. [E4D04] Another
advantage of a circulator is that it
provides a matched load to the
transmitter output, regardless of what the
antenna-system SWR might be, by
routing reflected power to a dummy
load. Figure 7.19 illustrates how
circulators or isolators may be included
in a repeater system.
Low-pass and band-pass filters usually
are ineffective in reducing intermod
problems, because at VHF and UHF they
are seldom sharp enough to suppress the
offending signal without also weakening
the wanted one.
Intermod, of course, is not limited to
repeaters. An intermod problem can
develop anywhere two relatively
powerful and close-by transmitter
fundamental-frequency outputs or their
harmonics can combine to create a sum
or a difference signal at the frequency on
which any other transmitter or receiver
is operating. Any nonlinear device or
conductor in which energy from the two
transmitters can combine will generate
both harmonics and IMD products from
the two signals. For example, corroded
metal joints are very nonlinear. If two
strong AM broadcast stations are nearby,
the signals can mix in the joint and
generate intermodulation products
across a wide range of frequencies,
some in the ham bands. [E4E11]
Tracking down such a problem can be
quite time-consuming, but fortunately, the
harmonics and other products are usually
fairly weak and not received over a
wide area.
Another IMD topic mentioned earlier
has to do with transmitter spectral-output
purity. When several audio signals are
mixed with the carrier signal to generate
the modulated signal, spurious signals
will also be produced. These are
normally reduced by filtering after the
mixer, but their strength will depend on
the level of the signals being mixed,
among other things, and they will be
present in the transmitter output to some
extent. You can test your transmitter’s
output signal purity by performing a
transmitter two-tone test as described
earlier in this section. This is important
because excessive intermodulation
distortion of an SSB transmitter output
signal results in splatter being
transmitted over a wide bandwidth. The
transmitted signal will be distorted, with
spurious (unwanted) signals on adjacent
frequencies. This is not a good way to
make friends on the air!
POWER LINE NOISE

E4E05 — How can radio frequency
interference from an AC
motor be suppressed?
E4E10 — What might be the cause of
a loud roaring or buzzing AC
line interference that comes
and goes at intervals?
Electrical line noise can be

particularly troublesome to operators
working from a fixed location. The loud
buzz or crackling sound of power line
noise can cover all but the strongest
signals. Most of this man-made
interference is produced by some type of
electrical arc. An electrical arc
generates varying amounts of RF energy
across the radio spectrum. (In the early
days of radio, amateurs used spark gap
transmitters to generate their radio
signals.) Another type of noise present
on the ac line is transients — short
impulses caused by a spark or some
amount of energy being dumped or
coupling to the ac line from lightning,
motors being turned on and off, or even
loose connections.
When an electric current jumps a gap
between two conductors as in Figure
7.20, an arc is produced as the current
travels through the air. To produce such
an arc, the voltage must be large enough
to ionize the air between the conductors.
Once an ionized path is established,
there is a current through the gap. The
electron flow through this gap is highly
irregular compared to the smooth flow
through a conductor. The resistance of
the ionized air varies constantly, so the
instantaneous current is also changing.
This causes radio-frequency energy to
be radiated and the noise can be
conducted along the power wires that act
as an excellent antenna. The longer the
width of the gap and the higher the
voltage, the greater the interference the
arc causes. Because of the high voltages
and power available, poor connections
or defective insulators in the power
distribution system are frequent sources
of potentially severe line noise.
Small arcs are created in a variety of
electrical appliances, especially those
using brush-type motors. Electric
shavers, sewing machines, and vacuum
cleaners are just a few examples. In
addition, devices that control voltage or
current by opening or closing a circuit
can produce momentary arcs that cause
interference as pops or clicks. Light
dimmers, heater elements, and blinking
advertising displays are a few examples
of devices like this. Defective or broken
appliances and wiring inside the home
can also generate line noise. Doorbells
or doorbell transformers and other types
of devices that are powered
continuously often generate low-level
arcs (and fire hazards!) when they begin
to fail. The typical interference is a loud
roaring or buzzing ac line noise that
comes and goes at intervals. [E4E10]
Locating Noise and Interference

Sources
Perhaps one of the most frustrating facts
about power line noise is its intermittent
nature. The noise will come and go without
warning, usually with no apparent pattern or
timing (except that it occurs when you are
trying to operate). This can make it extremely
difficult to locate the source of the
interference. There are two ways that noise
interference can find its way into a receiver.
If the interference source is located in the
same building as the receiver, it’s likely that
the noise will flow along the house wiring.
For example, if a furnace’s blower motor is at
fault, the interference may be carried by the
ac wiring from the furnace to wherever the
receiver is located. Interference from outside
the home is usually picked up through an
antenna and feed line.
The first step in tracking down the
interference is to determine if it is being
generated in your own house. Check this by
opening the mains circuit breaker, powering
down your entire house. You will need a
battery-powered receiver for this test, but a
portable AM receiver should work fine.
Check to be sure you can hear the noise on
your portable receiver. Tune to a clear
frequency and listen for the interference. An
FM receiver, with or without a directional
antenna, will not be helpful in tracking down
the noise source because FM receivers are
not affected by line noise.
If the noise goes away when you turn off all
power to your house, check to see if it comes
back when you turn the power on again. It’s
possible that the offending device only
produces the noise after it has been operating
for a while, so the interference may not come
back immediately when you restore power. If
it doesn’t return, continue your investigation
later.
After you are reasonably confident that the
noise is being produced in your house,
proceed with your investigation by removing
power from one circuit at a time. When you
narrow it down to a particular circuit, unplug
the appliances or other electrical devices one
by one. Be persistent. You may have to
continue your investigation over a long time
until you discover the culprit device.
If the interference is not being produced in
your house, the search will be a bit more
difficult. The problem may be an arc in the
utility company’s power distribution system,
a neighbor’s appliance or any of a number of
other items. Your portable AM receiver can
be used to “sniff” along the power lines,
looking for stronger interference. Driving
around with your car’s AM radio tuned
between stations is sometimes effective. A
directional antenna may help you locate the
noise source. When you get close to the
noise source you may find that the null
(direction of weakest signal in the antenna
pattern) is more helpful in pinpointing the
direction to the source.
When you think you’ve located the source,
contact the power company and explain the
problem to them. Be as specific as possible
about where you believe the interference is
originating. Note the identification numbers
on the utility pole, for example. The power
company may send a technician with even
more sophisticated equipment to help
pinpoint the location and source of the
interference. The technician may have a
handheld “RF sniffer” that will pick up the
radio frequency noise. They may also use an
ultrasonic transducer that uses a parabolic
reflector antenna and an amplifier to listen
for the sound of an arc at frequencies just
above the audio spectrum.
For more information about electrical
power line noise and other types of
interference, see The ARRL RFI Book. That
book contains detailed information about how
noise and interference are generated, how to
locate the source, and how to cure it.
One effective way to reduce electrical

noise produced by an electric motor is to
use a “brute force” ac line filter in series
with its power leads. This filter will
block the noise from being conducted
along the power wiring away from the
motor. [E4E05] Figure 7.21 shows the
schematic diagram for such a filter. All
components must be ac line rated, and
able to carry the current required by the
motor or appliance connected to the
filter. UL-listed commercial filters are
recommended for this application. Note
that this type of filter will not prevent
noise from being radiated by the wiring
between the filter and the motor.
INTERFERENCE FROM STRONG

SIGNALS
E4E07 — Which of the following can
cause shielded cables to
radiate or receive
interference?
E4E08 — What current flows equally
on all conductors of an
unshielded multi-conductor
cable?
A transmitted signal may also cause

interference to devices such as a TV,
radio, audio system, or telephone. That
signal may be from your station or it may
be from a nearby non-amateur
transmitter. Such interference is often
caused by common-mode signals picked
up on the shields of cables and on
unshielded cables such as the ac and
telephone wiring in your house. The
wiring may pick up your signals and
conduct them to the device or re-radiate
the signal and create interference that
way. [E4E07] Common-mode means the
that signal flows in the same direction on
all of wires in a multiconductor cable
such as the power or phone line rather
than in opposite directions along the
wires as it would on a transmission line.
[E4E08] You’ll need a common-mode
choke to cure this type of interference.
Wind several turns of the power cord or
phone line around a ferrite toroid core.
Ferrites made of type 31 and 73 material
are a good choice for most HF
problems. Type 43 material works best
on the upper HF bands and at VHF and
UHF.
COMPUTER INTERFERENCE
E4E06 — What is one type of
electrical interference that
might be caused by a nearby
personal computer?
Interference may also be generated by

computer and network equipment and
switching power supplies. The
characteristics of noise from this type of
device are unstable modulated or
unmodulated signals at specific
frequencies. [E4E06] The signal may
change as the device performs different
functions.
VEHICLE NOISE
E4E04 — How can conducted and
radiated noise caused by an
automobile alternator be
suppressed?
One of the most significant deterrents

to effective signal reception during
mobile or portable operation is
electrical impulse noise from an
engine’s ignition system, including
gasoline-powered portable generators.
This form of interference can completely
mask a weak signal. Other sources of
noise include conducted interference
from the vehicle battery-charging
system, instrument-caused interference,
static and corona discharge from the
mobile antenna.
The first rule when installing a mobile
transceiver in a modern vehicle is to
follow the manufacturer’s recommended
procedures. Some manufacturers
provide detailed installation guidelines
for installing transmitting equipment.
Others may recommend against installing
any transmitters, or provide little
instruction. If possible, you should check
with the manufacturer before buying a
vehicle. There is a lot of information
about mobile installations from the
ARRL’s Technical Information Service
at www.arrl.org.
Ferrite beads and cores are a possible
means for RFI reduction in modern
vehicles. Both primary and secondary
ignition leads are candidates for beads.
Install them liberally then test the engine
under load to ensure adequate ignition
system performance.
Conducted noise and radiated noise
from the vehicle’s battery charging
system can be minimized by connecting
the radio power leads directly to the
battery, as this point has the best voltage
quality and regulation in the system.
Connect both the positive and negative
leads directly to the battery, with a fuse
rated to carry the transmit current
installed in each lead. Coaxial
capacitors in series with the alternator
leads may also help. [E4E04]
NOISE REDUCTION
E4E01 — What problem can occur
when using an automatic
notch filter (ANF) to remove
interfering carriers while
receiving CW signals?
types of noise can often be
reduced with a digital signal
processing noise filter?
signals might a receiver
noise blanker be able to
remove from desired
signals?
E4E09 — What undesirable effect can
occur when using an IF noise
blanker?
Once inside the receiver, noise is very

difficult to eliminate. Two basic types of
noise reduction techniques are widely
used. The first, noise blanking, works
by detecting noise pulses and muting the
receiver when they are present. The
second, noise reduction, uses special
DSP techniques to separate noise from
the desired signal.
Noise Blankers
Special IF circuits detect the presence
of a noise impulse and open or mute the
receive signal path just long enough to
prevent the impulse from getting through
to the audio output stages where it is
heard as a “pop” or “tick.” This
technique, called gating, is particularly
effective on power line and mobile
ignition noise.
A diode or transistor is used as a
switch to control the signal path. An
important requirement is that the IF
signal must be delayed slightly, ahead of
the switch, so that the switch is activated
precisely when the noise arrives at the
switch. The circuitry that detects the
impulse and operates the switch has a
certain time delay, so the signal in the
mainline IF path must be delayed also.
To detect the sharp noise pulses, the
noise blanker must detect signals that
appear across a wide bandwidth.
[E4E03] This usually means that the
noise blanker cannot be protected by the
narrow receive filters. As a
consequence, the noise blanker can be
fooled by strong signals into shutting
down the receiver as if they were noise
pulses. This can cause severe distortion
of desired signals, even if no noise is
present. It might sound as if the strong
signal is very “wide” with lots of
spurious signals. Before getting upset at
the station with the strong signal, make
sure your noise blanker is turned off.
[E4E09] A preamp can make your
receiver easier to overload and cause
similar problems.
DSP Noise Reduction

DSP noise reduction filters operate by
using adaptive filter techniques in which
software programs search for signals
with the desired characteristics of
speech or CW or data and remove
everything else, such as impulse noise
and static. These techniques work
particularly well at removing broadband
audio “white” noise. DSP noise
reduction also works on impulse noise
such as ignition and power line noise.
[E4E02]
Automatic notch filters are a
particularly useful feature of these
systems. Modern DSP auto-notch
features can track and remove several
interfering tones from an audio channel!
This is very useful under crowded band
conditions or on shared allocations
where carriers from shortwave
broadcast stations can be quite strong.
One drawback of these systems is that
they sometimes confuse CW or low-rate
digital signals with an interfering tone
and attempt to remove them, as well!
[E4E01]
Emission designators and types
FM and types of digital modulation
Digital codes, protocols, and modes
Spread spectrum techniques
Fast-scan amateur television
Slow-scan amateur television
Building on your growing knowledge

of radio terminology, circuits, and
signals, this chapter deals with FM and
digital modulation techniques. Those are
the foundation for digital protocols and
modes, the fastest-growing part of
amateur radio. We’ll then review the
two most common image modes, fast-
scan and slow-scan amateur TV.
While the amateur radio Extra class
license exam has groups of questions on
each of these topics — modulation,
digital communications, and image
transmission — there is also a sprinkling
of questions from other parts of the
question pool that are easier to discuss
in the context of these topics. As in all of
the sections, it’s a good idea to review
all of the listed questions before moving
on. If you have trouble with any group of
questions, review material from earlier
chapters and make use of the online
references at www.arrl.org/extra-class-
license-manual.
8.1 Modulation
Systems
The process of adding information to
and recovering information from signals
is what radio is all about! You’ve
already studied AM techniques for the
General class exam, and modulators and
demodulators for AM signals were
covered in the Radio Circuits and
Systems chapter. In this section, we’ll
cover important signal definitions for
FM, the most popular analog mode.
We’ll also take a look at multiplexing (a
method of combining more than one flow
of information in a single signal).
FCC EMISSION DESIGNATIONS

AND TYPES
Although the question pool does not
include any direct questions on the
system of emission identifiers used by
the FCC, it is a good idea to be familiar
with them, since they are frequently used
in spectrum allocations and regulations.
The International Telecommunication
Union (ITU) has developed a special
system of identifiers to specify the types
of signals (emissions) permitted to
amateurs and other users of the radio
spectrum. This system designates
emissions according to their necessary
bandwidth and their classification.
While a complete emission designator
might include up to five characters,
generally only three are used.
The designators begin with a letter that
tells what type of modulation is being
used. The second character is a number
that describes the signal used to
modulate the carrier. The third character
specifies the type of information being
transmitted. Table 8.1 lists emission
designators for the most common modes
used in amateur radio.
The amateur radio regulations in Part

97 refer to emission types rather than
emission designators. The emission
types are CW, phone, RTTY, data,
image, MCW (modulated continuous
wave), SS (spread spectrum), pulse, and
test. Any signal may be described by
either an emission designator or an
emission type. Emission types are what
amateurs refer to as “modes.”
While emission types are fewer in
number and easier to remember, they are
a somewhat less descriptive means of
identifying a signal. There is still a need
for emission designators in amateur
radio and they are used in Part 97.
FM/PM MODULATION AND

MODULATORS
E1C09 — What is the highest
modulation index permitted
at the highest modulation
frequency for angle
modulation below 29.0
MHz?
E8B01 — What is the modulation
index of an FM signal?
E8B02 — How does the modulation
index of a phase-modulated
emission vary with RF
carrier frequency?
index of an FM-phone signal
having a maximum
frequency deviation of 3000
Hz either side of the carrier
frequency when the
modulating frequency is
1000 Hz?
index of an FM-phone signal
having a maximum carrier
deviation of plus or minus 6
kHz when modulated with a
2 kHz modulating
frequency?
E8B05 — What is the deviation ratio
of an FM-phone signal
having a maximum
frequency swing of plus-or-
minus 5 kHz when the
maximum modulation
frequency is 3 kHz?
E8B06 — What is the deviation ratio
of an FM-phone signal
having a maximum
frequency swing of plus or
minus 7.5 kHz when the
maximum modulation
frequency is 3.5 kHz?
E8B09 — What is deviation ratio?
You learned about direct and indirect

FM modulation in the Radio Circuits and
Systems chapter. With FM, the signal
frequency is varied above and below the
carrier frequency at a rate equal to the
modulating signal frequency. (Carrier
frequency refers to the frequency of the
FM signal with no modulation applied.)
For example, if a 1000-Hz tone is used
to modulate a transmitter, the modulated
signal’s frequency will vary above and
below the carrier frequency 1000 times
per second.
The amount of frequency change,
however, is proportional to the
modulating signal amplitude. This
frequency change is called deviation.
Let’s say that a certain modulating signal
produces a 5-kHz deviation. If another
signal, with only half the amplitude of
the first, were used to modulate the same
transmitter, it would produce a 2.5-kHz
deviation.
To more completely describe an FM
signal, you will need to understand two
terms that refer to FM systems and
operation: deviation ratio and
modulation index. They may seem to be
almost the same — indeed, they are
closely related.
Deviation Ratio
In an FM system, the ratio of the
maximum frequency deviation to the
highest audio modulating frequency is
called the deviation ratio. [E8B09] It is
a constant value for a given modulator
and transmitter, and is calculated as:
(E
where:
DMAX = peak deviation in hertz
M = maximum modulating frequency in
hertz.
Peak deviation is defined as half the
difference between the maximum and
minimum signal frequencies. That is, a
sine-wave modulating signal will cause
the signal frequency to move
symmetrically higher and lower about
the carrier frequency. If maximum
deviation is specified as ±5 kHz, a total
difference of 10 kHz between maximum
and minimum frequency, the peak
deviation is one-half that value, or 5
kHz.
Peak deviation is usually controlled by
setting an audio gain control in the FM
modulator’s circuit. Because it is fixed
for that transmitter, there is no
microphone gain control on an FM
transmitter’s front panel.
Example 8.1
In the case of narrow-band FM (the
type used in amateur analog FM voice
communications), peak deviation at
100% modulation is typically 5 kHz.
What is the deviation ratio if the
maximum modulating frequency is 3
kHz? [E8B05]
Example 8.2
If the maximum deviation of an FM
transmitter is 7.5 kHz and the maximum
modulating frequency is 3.5 kHz, what is
the deviation ratio? [E8B06]
Notice that since the frequencies of

DMAX and M were given in kilohertz we
did not have to change them to hertz
before doing the calculation. The
important thing is that they both be in the
same units.
Modulation Index
The ratio of the maximum signal
frequency deviation to the instantaneous
modulating frequency is called the
modulation index. [E8B01] Modulation
index is a measure of the relationship
between deviation and the modulating
signal’s frequency. That is:
where:
DMAX = peak deviation in hertz.
m = modulating frequency in hertz at
the same time.
Example 8.3
If the peak deviation of an FM
transmitter is 3000 Hz, what is the
modulation index when the carrier is
modulated by a 1000-Hz sine wave?
[E8B03]
When the same transmitter is

modulated with a 3000-Hz sine wave
that results in the same peak deviation
(3000 Hz), the index would be 1; with a
100-Hz modulating wave and the same
3000-Hz peak deviation, the index
would be 30, and so on.
Example 8.4
If the peak deviation of an FM
transmitter is 6 kHz, what is the
modulation index when the carrier is
modulated by a 2 kHz sine wave?
[E8B04]
As Equation 8.1 shows, if the peak

deviation is kept the same, modulation
index varies inversely with the
modulating frequency. A higher
modulating frequency results in a lower
modulation index. In a frequency
modulator, the actual deviation depends
only on the amplitude of the modulating
signal and is independent of frequency.
Thus, a 2-kHz tone will produce the
same deviation as a 1-kHz tone if the
amplitudes of the tones are equal. The
modulation index in the case of the 2-
kHz tone is half that for the 1-kHz tone.
By contrast, in a phase modulator,
deviation increases with the modulating
frequency. If the modulating signal
amplitude stays constant, the modulation
index in this modulator will also remain
constant. In other words, a 2-kHz tone
will produce twice as much deviation as
a 1-kHz tone if the amplitudes of the
tones are equal.
With either an FM or a PM system, the
deviation ratio and modulation index are
independent of the frequency of the
modulated RF carrier. [E8B02] It
doesn’t matter if the transmitter is a 10
meter or 2 meter FM radio.
What are deviation ratio and
modulation index used for? Since
deviation ratio is fixed, it is used to
describe and specify an FM or PM
modulator. The deviation ratio of the
transmitter is set during the
manufacturing process and not adjusted
during operation.
Modulation index, on the other hand,
varies with the input signal’s amplitude
(because it changes DMAX) and
frequency. The actual spectrum of an FM
signal is quite complex and modulation
index provides a way to describe how
the energy is distributed within that
signal.
Just as with an AM signal, modulation
index is a way to describe a modulated
signal’s bandwidth. Increasing the
modulation index results in signal
components farther and farther from the
carrier frequency where they can cause
interference to signals on adjacent
channels. The solution is reducing the
modulating signal’s amplitude,
particularly at low frequencies.
Controlling modulation index is another
reason why pre-emphasis and de-
emphasis are used in FM modulators and
demodulators. To limit the bandwidth of
FM signals on the narrow HF amateur
bands, the maximum modulation index
allowed below 29.5 MHz by FCC rules
is 1.0. [E1C09]
Multiplexing
E8B10 — What is frequency division
multiplexing?
E8B11 — What is digital time division
multiplexing?
Multiplexing means to combine more

than one stream of information into one
modulated signal. This allows one RF
transmitter and transmitted signal to
carry more than one information stream.
There are two common methods of
multiplexing, frequency division
multiplexing (FDM) and time division
multiplexing (TDM).
FDM uses more than one subcarrier,
each modulated by a separate message
signal. The subcarriers are combined
into a single baseband signal that then
modulates the RF carrier. [E8B10]
Amateurs use a form of FDM with multi-
carrier digital modes that will be
described later in this chapter.
TDM is the transmission of two or
more signals over a common channel by
interleaving so that the signals occur in
different, discrete time slots of a digital
transmission. [E8B11] In amateur radio,
the most popular TDM mode is DMR
(Digital Mobile Radio). DMR repeater
systems use a computer-controlled
system that divides a channel into two
alternating time slots. TDM is also used
for telemetry, such as from amateur
satellites and remote repeaters.
8.2 Digital Protocols

and Modes
Before plunging into details (and there
are many) of the digital transmissions
becoming so popular with amateurs,
we’ll clearly define some digital
terminology. It’s very easy to misapply a
term or to confuse the meaning of one
term with another, leading to certain
confusion.
SYMBOL RATE, DATA RATE, AND

BANDWIDTH
E8C02 — What is the definition of
symbol rate in a digital
transmission?
E8C10 — How may data rate be
increased without increasing
bandwidth?
E8C11 — What is the relationship
between symbol rate and
baud?
Two of the most important and useful

characteristics of a digital
communications system concern the
speed with which data is transferred.
“Speed” actually means the rate of
information transfer, so it is measured in
units of data per second as described
below. It also depends on where the rate
is measured in the total communications
system — from the generation of data to
the delivery of data.
There are two ways of defining digital
signal speed, depending on whether you
are referring to the air link — meaning
the actual transmitted signal — or the
data stream that occurs within the
computer equipment that handles the
digital data. For example, when listening
to an RTTY signal’s characteristic two-
tone warble on the air by ear, you are
listening to the RTTY communication
system’s air link. If you are reading the
received characters from an RTTY
decoder box or a software program, that
is the data stream. The speed of the data
stream is often called data throughput,
meaning the overall speed with which
the entire communications system
transfers data.
When discussing the speed of the air
link, the unit of speed is baud (Bd) or
bauds. Baud, like hertz, refers to a
quantity of events per second. Just as
frequency counts the cycles of an ac
waveform, baud counts signaling events
that refer to changes in the transmitted
signal representing information. Each
signaling event transfers one symbol
across the air link to the receiving
station. Thus, symbol rate refers to the
rate at which the transmitted waveform
changes in order to convey information.
[E8C02] Baud and symbol rate are the
same, so a rate of one baud means that
one symbol is transmitted every second.
[E8C11] (Baud is also referred to as
baud rate but that is redundant because
baud is already a rate! Just say “baud”
or “bauds.”)
In an RTTY signal’s air link, for
example, (see Figure 8.1) the symbols
mark and space are pulses of transmitted
tones with separate frequencies. The
tone frequency during the pulse is the
signaling event. Sometimes the tone
changes from one symbol to the next
(such as from b0 to b1 in the figure) and
sometimes it doesn’t (such as from b1 to
b2). The signal’s baud is the number of
those events — the transmitted symbols
— per second.
Data Rate vs Symbol Rate

Figure 8.1 serves two purposes. It
describes how the air link would sound
if you listened to an RTTY signal and it
also shows a possible data stream
waveform. The figure shows how the
five bits (b0 through b4) are encoded as
mark or space symbols, one after the
other. Each symbol on the air link
corresponds one-to-one with a bit in the
data stream. In many simple transmission
systems — such as RTTY and 1200-
baud packet — the system data rate,
which is measured in bits per second or
bps, is exactly the same as the symbol
rate in baud. This is not always the case.
In some transmission systems — such
as 9600-baud packet or D-STAR’s
digital voice and data systems — each
data symbol can encode more than one
bit at a time. This can be done by
simultaneously transmitting more than
one signal or by varying more than one
attribute of the signal over the air link.
When each transmitted symbol encodes
more than one bit of information, the
data rate is higher than the symbol rate
and coding system efficiency is
increased. This means more data can be
sent in the same bandwidth than when a
less efficient code is used. [E8C10]
PROTOCOLS AND CODES

Before studying the characteristics of
digital mode communications, some
definitions are in order. A protocol is
the set of rules that controls the
encoding, packaging, exchanging and
decoding of digital data. For example,
packet radio uses the AX.25 protocol.
The AX.25 standard specifies how each
packet is constructed, how the packets
are exchanged, what characters are
allowed, and so forth.
The protocol standard may allow
different types of modulation, such as
SSB packet (on HF) or FM packet (at
VHF and above). The actual transmitted
signal characteristics are determined by
conventional operating practice and
regulation.
Control Operator Responsibilities

E2E12 — How do ALE stations
establish contact?
Practical digital protocols require that

the receiving and transmitting station
operate under the control of
microprocessors to perform all of the
encoding, decoding, error correction,
and so forth. If other signals are present
on the channel, the system executing the
protocol usually assumes other
communications to be interference and
just keeps trying until it gets through or
fails. For example, stations using the
Automatic Link Establishment (ALE)
protocol constantly scan a list of
frequencies looking for their call sign
and activate or respond automatically
when they receive it whether other
signals are present or not. [E2E12]
Because of this potential for
interference, specific segments of each
amateur band are designated for stations
that operate under fully automatic
control. As in any part of the amateur
bands, it is quite important for the
control operator who initiates the
contact to be sure the transmissions
won’t cause interference to other
stations. Listen first — don’t assume that
because a modem’s BUSY light is off
there are no other stations using the
channel!
Codes
A code is the method by which
information is converted to and from
digital data. The individual symbols that
make up a specific code are its
elements. The elements may be numbers,
bits, tones or even images (think of the
code “one if by land and two if by sea”
used by Paul Revere).
A digital code doesn’t specify how the
data is transmitted, the rules for its
transmission or the method of
modulation. The code doesn’t control
those things — it’s only a set of rules for
changing information from one form to
another. Certain types of codes are more
suitable for different applications, a
matter of preference by the
communications system designer.
Amateur radio uses three common types
of codes: varicodes (Morse and
PSK31’s Varicode), Baudot, and ASCII.
Morse and Varicode

E2E09 — Which of the following HF
digital modes uses variable-
length coding for bandwidth
efficiency?
While most types of digital codes use a

fixed number of identical length bits to
make up each character, variable-length
codes or varicodes can vary both the
length of the bits and the number of bits
in each character or symbol. The length
of the codes for a character varies with
its frequency of use to save transmission
time. Varicode is a more efficient code
than fixed-length codes and maximizes
bandwidth efficiency or spectral
efficiency.
Morse is a varicode because the
elements and characters are of different
lengths. Morse code is constructed from
the dot and its absence, the inter-element
space. The dash and longer spaces are
made up of multiple dots and inter-
element spaces. This creates the
elements of Morse: dot, dash, and three
lengths of spaces between elements,
characters and words.
PSK31 uses a type of varicode that is
also named Varicode, invented by Peter
Martinez, G3PLX. The elements of the
PSK31 Varicode are the same length but
its characters have different lengths with
the most-common text character “E”
being the shortest, similar to Morse
code. [E2E09]
Baudot
The Baudot code is used by RTTY
systems and has two elements — mark
and space — each the same length. The
code is made up of different
combinations of five mark and space
elements as illustrated in Figure 8.1.
(The mark tone can also be transmitted
continuously when the system is idle, but
no information is being sent during that
period.) Each combination of elements
always has the same length and each
element represents one data bit.
Figure 8.1 also shows additional
elements called start and stop bits at the
beginning and end of the group of five
that represents the character. These are
called framing bits and allow the
receiving system to synchronize itself
with the transmitted codes. A complete
received character, including the framing
bits, is called a frame.
ASCII
E8D06 — What is the advantage of
including parity bits in ASCII
characters?
E8D10 — What are some of the
differences between the
Baudot digital code and
ASCII?
E8D11 — What is one advantage of
using the ASCII code for
data communications?
ASCII stands for American National

Standard Code for Information
Interchange and is the most commonly
used code in computer systems. Basic
ASCII code uses seven information bits,
so 128 characters are possible (27). This
makes it possible for the ASCII
character set to include upper- and
lower-case letters, numbers, punctuation
and special control characters. [E8D11]
The ASCII code does not need a shift
character, like Baudot, to change
between the letters and figures
characters. Some systems use an eighth
bit for another data bit, providing 256
possible characters with each
representing a full byte of data. [E8D10]
The eighth bit can also be a parity bit
that is used to detect transmission errors.
The parity bit is set to 1 or 0 to maintain
either an even number of 1s (even
parity) in the character, or an odd
number of 1s (odd parity). Parity bits
allow the receiving system to detect
single-bit errors. The receiving system
checks the number of 1s in the received
character. If the total, including the
parity bit, does not match the system
convention of odd or even, the receiving
system knows an error has occurred
during transmission and it can reject the
character. [E8D06]
ASCII codes also have framing bits —
one start bit at the beginning of the code
and one or two stop bits at the end. A
full ASCII character is thus 10 or 11 bits
long: 7 data bits, one parity bit (or extra
data bit), one start bit, and one or two
stop bits. It is necessary to preset both
the transmitting and receiving systems so
they agree on these conventions or the
recovered data will be garbled.
When transferring ASCII data,
remember to account for the difference
between bits per second and bytes per
second. If each ASCII character includes
two framing bits, the byte rate of data
transfer will be about one-tenth the bit
rate.
Gray Code
E8C09 — Which digital code allows
only one bit to change
between sequential code
values?
In a table of binary patterns for ASCII

or Baudot characters, you’ll notice that
if you count from all zeroes through the
maximum value of all ones, there are
some consecutive values where many
bits change at once. If your
communications system is trying to send
those two values back-to-back, the large
number of changing bits is harder to
decode properly. That makes it more
likely an error will occur. Gray codes
are arranged so that only a single bit
changes between any consecutive value
as shown in Table 8.2. [E8C09] For
example, between decimal values 3 and
4, in ASCII three binary bits change
from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0, but only one
bit changes in the Gray code.
DIGITAL MODES
A digital mode consists of both a
protocol and a method of modulation.
Since digital protocols can be used to
convey speech, video or data files, each
specific use forms a different emission
or mode, as referred to in amateur radio.
The FCC includes the type of data being
transmitted — voice, text, data or image
— in the definition of each emission,
assigning a different emission designator
to each. FCC emission designators were
discussed earlier in this chapter.
Digital modes have become very
popular in all types of communications.
The following sections present the most
common amateur digital modes and
compare some of their basic
characteristics. Digital protocol
development is a hotbed of innovation in
the amateur community with new modes
and variations on existing modes
appearing all the time. If you are
interested in digital mode technology in
amateur radio, the TAPR group
(www.tapr.org) should be your first stop
on the internet.
Digital Signal Bandwidth

It is important to know the bandwidth
of a digital signal when transmitted over
the air link. Shannon’s Information
Theorems, fundamental laws of
information transmission, link the
symbol rate of a signal to its bandwidth.
The higher the signal’s baud, the wider
the air link signal will be. This
relationship determines the signal’s
necessary bandwidth which is the
minimum bandwidth required to send a
certain number of symbols per second
using a particular type of modulation.
A calculation of bandwidth can be
quite complex so the ITU has done the
job for us and published a set of tables
and formulas relating bandwidth to baud,
including other factors such as fading or
keying shift. (ITU-R SM.1138-2 is the
document with the information.) The
bandwidth formulas in the following
sections are taken from that reference.
CW
E8C05 — What is the approximate
bandwidth of a 13-WPM
International Morse Code
transmission?
E8C12 — What factors affect the
bandwidth of a transmitted
CW signal?
E8D04 — What is the primary effect
of extremely short rise or
fall time on a CW signal?
E8D05 — What is the most common
method of reducing key
clicks?
A CW signal produced by turning an

AM transmitter on and off is described
by the emission designator A1A. The
bandwidth of a CW signal is determined
by two factors: the speed of the CW
being sent and the shape of the keying
envelope. [E8C12] The ITU equation
for the necessary bandwidth of CW is:
BW = B × K (Equation 8.3)
where:
BW is the necessary bandwidth of the
signal
B is the speed of the transmission in
baud
K is a factor relating to the shape of the
keying envelope.
The ITU bandwidth tables use a value
of 0.8 for the conversion between baud
and WPM. The second variable, K,
reflects the abruptness of the keying
waveform with typical values of 3 to 5
for amateur signals. As CW rise and fall
times get shorter (more abrupt, harder
keying), K gets larger. This is because
signals with short rise and fall times
contain more harmonics than longer,
softer envelopes. (Remember that a
square wave contains an infinite number
of odd harmonics.) The more harmonics
required to construct the keying
envelope, the greater the bandwidth of
the resulting CW signal must be. The
ITU standard suggests a typical value for
K of 5 on an HF channel where the
signal is subjected to fading. Thus, for
CW signals:
BW = (WPM × 0.8) × 5 (Equation 8.4)
Suppose you are sending Morse code

at a speed of 13 WPM. According to
Equation 8.4, the necessary bandwidth
of the transmitted signal is:
BW = WPM × 0.8 × 5 = 10.4 × 5 = 52
Hz [E8C05]
This is why “hard” keying waveforms
with extremely short rise and fall times
(1 millisecond or less) cause key clicks.
[E8D04] The burst of harmonics
modulating the signal (CW is, after all,
an AM signal) appear as signals on
nearby frequencies. These can be
extremely disruptive to adjacent stations.
Disruptions of a smooth rising or falling
edge, such as overshoot or glitches, can
also be heard as key clicks. To make
sure your signal is not generating key
clicks, increase the rise and fall time,
usually adjustable as a menu selection in
today’s transceivers, and be sure the
waveform is clean throughout the keying
cycle. [E8D05]
FSK/AFSK
types of modulation is
common for data emissions
below 30 MHz?
E2E04 — What is indicated when one
of the ellipses in an FSK
crossed-ellipse display
suddenly disappears?
E2E11 — What is the difference
between direct FSK and
audio FSK?
E8C06 — What is the bandwidth of a
170-hertz shift, 300-baud
ASCII transmission?
E8C07 — What is the bandwidth of a
4800-Hz frequency shift,
9600-baud ASCII FM
transmission?
Most amateur data transmissions on HF

use frequency shift keying (FSK).
[E2E01] In FSK systems, the transmitter
uses different frequencies to represent 0
and 1. For RTTY, two frequencies are
used so this is a binary FSK or 2-FSK
system. By shifting between the two
frequencies (called the mark and space
frequencies), the transmitter creates data
symbols. The difference between the
mark frequency and the space frequency
is called the shift.
Binary FSK signals can be generated in
two ways. Direct FSK is created by
shifting a transmitter oscillator’s
frequency with a digital signal. Audio
FSK or AFSK is created by injecting two
audio tones, separated by the correct
shift, into the microphone input of a
single-sideband transmitter. [E2E11]
The necessary bandwidth of that signal
is determined by the frequency shift used
and the speed at which data is
transmitted. The bandwidth is not
affected by the type of data being
transmitted or its code. The equation
relating necessary bandwidth to shift and
data rate is:
BW = (K × Shift) + B (Equation 8.5)
where:
BW is the necessary bandwidth in
hertz.
K is a constant that depends on the
allowable signal distortion and
transmission path. For most practical
amateur FSK communications, K = 1.2.
Shift is the frequency shift in hertz.
B is the symbol rate in baud.
Example 8.5
What is the bandwidth of a 170-Hz
shift, 300-baud ASCII signal transmitted
as a J2D emission? [E8C06]
BW = (1.2 × 170 Hz) + 300 = 504 Hz
This is a necessary bandwidth of about
0.5 kHz.
Example 8.6
What is the bandwidth of a 4800-Hz
shift, 9600-baud ASCII signal
transmitted as an F1D emission?
[E8C07]
BW = (1.2 × 4800 Hz) + 9600 = 15360
Hz = 15.36 kHz
RTTY and other FSK/AFSK modes
require careful tuning of the SSB
transceiver so that the tones of the
signals are as close to exactly right as
possible. Errors in tuning will result in
poor copy and garbled characters,
particularly when using RTTY. To assist
in tuning, several “cross-style”
indicators have been developed. One of
the most popular is the crossed-ellipse
indicator seen in Figure 8.2. The signal
should be tuned in so that the ellipses
(representing the two FSK tones) are of
equal size and at right angles. This
display shows selective fading very
clearly, in which one or both of the tones
is severely attenuated for a short period
as the ellipse shrinks dramatically.
[E2E04]
PSK
E2E10 — Which of these digital
modes has the narrowest
bandwidth?
E8C03 — Why should phase-shifting
of a PSK signal be done at
the zero crossing of the RF
signal?
E8C04 — What technique minimizes
the bandwidth of a PSK31
signal?
Peter Martinez, G3PLX, developed

PSK31 for real-time keyboard-to-
keyboard QSOs. The name derives from
the modulation type — phase-shift
keying (PSK) — and data rate, which is
actually 31.25 bauds. PSK31 uses the
128-character ASCII and the full 256
ANSI character sets. (ANSI stands for
the American National Standards
Institute.) Variations of PSK31, such as
the faster PSK63, are also used.
PSK31 uses Varicode to encode the
characters and as with the Baudot and
ASCII codes, there is a need to indicate
the gaps between characters. Varicode
does this by using “00” to represent a
gap.
With Varicode, a typing speed of about
50 words per minute requires a 32 bit/s
transmission rate. Martinez chose a rate
of 31.25 bps because it is easily derived
from the 8-kHz sample rate used in many
DSP systems at the time PSK31 was
developed.
The bandwidth of PSK31 signals is
minimized by the special sinusoidal
shaping of the transmitted data symbols
and by making shifting the modulation’s
phase only when the RF carrier signal
crosses zero voltage. [E8C03, E8C04]
This reduces the harmonic content of
each symbol. Using Equation 8.1 and K
= 1.2, the bandwidth of a PSK31 signal
is approximately BW = 31.25 × 1.2 =
37.5 Hz, narrowest of all two-way HF
digital modes used by amateurs,
including CW. [E2E10] The mode’s
narrow bandwidth and phase-shift
keying require stable tuning and careful
transmitter adjustment.
Packet Radio and APRS

E2D04 — What technology is used to
track, in real time, balloons
carrying amateur radio
transmitters?
E2D07 — What digital protocol is
used by APRS?
E2D08 — What type of packet frame
is used to transmit APRS
beacon data?
E2D10 — How can an APRS station
be used to help support a
public service
communications activity?
E2D11 — Which of the following data
are used by the APRS
network to communicate
station location?
Packet radio on VHF and UHF uses

AFSK modulation to send data at 1200
baud over an FM link. The data is
exchanged in packets called frames
using the methods defined by the AX.25
protocol standard. Complete information
on packet radio and the AX.25 protocol
are available via the Tucson Amateur
Packet Radio (TAPR) website,
www.tapr.org.
The most common use for packet radio
is making connections to store-and-
forward systems. This refers to a
computer system that receives messages,
stores them, and makes them available to
other users or forwards them to other
computer systems. The most common
method of creating these systems on
VHF and UHF is to use packet radio.
The Automatic Packet Reporting
System (APRS) is a messaging system
that makes use of packet radio functions
by using the AX.25 Amateur Packet
Radio Protocol. [E2D07]. Position and
other data from a station is broadcast to
other stations in the region and relayed
to internet servers. The network of
APRS stations is created by individual
stations using packet radio to relay
APRS data between other stations in the
network.
An APRS station typically uses a 2
meter FM radio operating on the national
APRS frequency of 144.39 MHz. The
station consists of a packet radio
terminal node controller (TNC) and
computer system running APRS
software. A Global Positioning System
(GPS) receiver typically supplies
position information.
APRS stations transmit a beacon
packet containing the station’s location,
weather conditions, and short text
messages. The data is transmitted in an
unnumbered information (UI) frame.
[E2D08] Other stations act as
digipeaters to relay the packets to other
stations and to gateways that relay the
station’s information to internet APRS
servers, such as findu.com. APRS
software running on a personal computer
can be used to display the station call
sign on a map with a user-selected icon
and the transmitted data.
APRS packets are not directed to a
specific station and receiving stations do
not acknowledge correct receipt of the
packets. This simplifies APRS operation
because the stations do not all have to
remain “connected” for the network to
function and transfer data.
Position data is sent to the APRS
network as latitude and longitude.
[E2D11] You can obtain this
information:
• From an accurate map in degrees,
minutes and seconds, entering it
manually into a host computer running
APRS software, or
• As an NMEA-0183-formatted text
string from a Global Positioning System
(GPS) satellite receiver or other suitable
navigation system.
NMEA-0183 refers to a data formatting
standard from the National Marine
Electronics Association. A number of
commercially available TNCs support
direct connections to a GPS receiver via
an RS-232 serial data interface.
Miniature low-power APRS stations
called “trackers” incorporate all of the
necessary functions (TNC, transceiver,
and GPS receiver) into a single package.
Trackers make it easy to add location
monitoring to portable and mobile
platforms when bicycling, hiking, or
driving. By adding the altitude data from
the GPS receiver, a three-dimensional
position can be obtained. This type of
APRS system is frequently used to track
the position of a high-altitude balloon or
rocket in near real-time, aiding in its
recovery and linking position with any
sensor data being measured. [E2D04]
APRS networks can also be used to
support public service or emergency
communications by providing event
managers and organizers continuously-
updated location and other information
from an APRS-equipped station.
[E2D10]
HF Packet
E2E06 — What is the most common
data rate used for HF
packet?
E2E13 — Which of these digital modes
has the fastest data throughput
under clear communication
conditions?
Packet radio on HF uses the same
AX.25 protocol as on VHF, but is
limited to 300 baud by regulation to
control the signal’s bandwidth. Most HF
packet transmissions use FSK at 300
baud compared to the 1200-baud AFSK
more common on VHF FM packet
systems. [E2E06] The length of the
AX.25 packets (typically 40 bytes) and
the distortion and fading of HF
propagation combine to make HF packet
a niche mode, although under clear
communication conditions it is still
faster than 45-baud RTTY, PSK31, or
AMTOR. [E2E13]
PACTOR
E2E05 — Which of these digital
modes does not support
keyboard-to-keyboard
operation?
E2E08 — Which of the following HF
digital modes can be used to
transfer binary files?
The original PACTOR mode (referred

to as PACTOR-I) is an HF digital mode
developed by German amateurs Hans-
Peter Helfert, DL6MAA, and Ulrich
Strate, DF4KV. It was designed to
overcome the shortcomings of AMTOR
and HF packet. It performs well under
both weak-signal and high-noise
conditions. The protocol also supports
the transfer of binary files, making it
quite useful in today’s data-intensive
world. [E2E08] The exchange of data is
by formatted packets that include error-
detection and correction data. This
makes it very reliable but it cannot
support keyboard-to-keyboard “chat”
operation. [E2E05]
The most popular PACTOR modes in
use today are PACTOR-III and the
related WINMOR, particularly for using
e-mail over HF via the Winlink system.
(As of early 2020, PACTOR-IV is not
legal for US amateurs although the FCC
is considering rule changes for digital
emissions.)
PACTOR systems automatically
evaluate the conditions between receive
and transmit stations, training to the
highest speed supported by the path. As
a result, PACTOR-III systems running at
better than 5 kbps offer the highest data
rate of any amateur HF digital mode.
(Note that Winlink is not a mode, it is a
system of modes and protocols and
internet services that allow e-mail to be
exchanged using amateur radio.)
WSJT-X Modes
E2D09 — What type of modulation is
used for JT65 contacts?
E2E03 — How is the timing of FT4
contacts organized?
Developed by a team led by Joe

Taylor, K1JT, the WSJT-X software suite
supports several modes designed
specifically for weak-signal
communication such as Earth-Moon-
Earth (JT4 and JT65 for EME or
moonbounce), meteor scatter (MSK144),
and low signal-to-noise HF contacts
(FT8 and FT4).
The WSJT-X protocols use advanced
multi-tone AFSK modulation and
sophisticated codes to recover signals
with very low signal-to-noise ratios.
[E2D09] These protocols use precisely
timed sequences of transmitting and
receiving to synchronize the stations. For
example, FT4 sequences are 7.5 seconds
long and JT65 sequences are 1 minute
long. [E2E03] For more information
about the WSJT-X protocols, read
K1JT’s website at
physics.princeton.edu/pulsar/K1JT.
OFDM Modulation
E8B07 — Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiplexing is a
technique used for which
type of amateur
communication?
E8B08 — What describes Orthogonal
Frequency Division
Multiplexing?
A special type of modulation used with

multi-tone modes creates specially-
shaped and spaced signals that interfere
with each other as little as possible.
Figure 8.3A shows the spectrum of one
such signal being modulated by a single
bit. Note how the spectrum has zero
amplitude at regularly spaced intervals.
If several of these signals are spaced so
their spectra overlap precisely at the
zero points as in Figure 8.3B, it becomes
much easier to demodulate each signal
without interference from the other
subcarriers, called intersymbol
interference. Signals having this spacing
and modulation rate are called
orthogonal to each other. The
combination of multiple tones and the
orthogonal signals results in orthogonal
frequency division multiplexing or
OFDM. [E8B08] OFDM requires
precise modulation techniques and clean
transmitted signals. It is used by later
versions of PACTOR and other
advanced wide-band digital modes.
[E8B07]
Transmitting Digital Mode Signals

E2E07 — Which of the following is a
possible reason that
attempts to initiate contact
with a digital station on a
clear frequency are
unsuccessful?
E8D07 — What is a common cause of
overmodulation of AFSK
signals?
E8D08 — What parameter evaluates
distortion of an AFSK signal
caused by excessive input
audio levels?
E8D09 — What is considered an
acceptable maximum IMD
level for an idling PSK
signal?
For digital modes to perform well it is

important to pay attention to transmitted
signal quality. Especially when using
protocols that require very precise phase
and amplitude control, it is important to
avoid introducing distortion anywhere in
the transmit path.
Transmitter ALC systems are designed
for voice and will cause distortion of the
modulated signal by changing the power
level. This creates intermodulation
distortion (IMD) and other spurious
signals in the transmitter output. Not only
do these signals cause interference but
they also make it harder for the receiver
to recover the data. If the transceiver’s
ALC meter is active during digital
transmission, the signal is
overmodulating the transmitter and the
audio level should be reduced. [E8D07]
To make sure your digital signal is
clean, follow the manufacturer’s
instructions on setting the transmitter
controls, especially ALC and
microphone gain. Software that receives
AFSK digital signals often measures the
distortion level of signals, reporting it as
an “IMD Level” parameter. [E8D08]
For example, for a clean PSK signal that
is idling (not sending characters), the
received IMD level should be –30 dB
with respect to the main signal. [E8D09]
Overmodulation is visible on a
waterfall-style display as bars or “ghost
signals” alongside the main transmitted
signal extending to frequencies above
and below it.
Once you have the transmitter and your
computer or TNC operating properly, do
an “on-air” check yourself or with a
nearby station. Measuring your own
digital signal can be done in your own
station by transmitting into a dummy
load, receiving the signal on a second
receiver, and feeding the received audio
into the sound card of a computer
running a demodulation program for that
mode. You’ll quickly see whether you
have the audio and RF levels set
properly on the transmitting system.
Along with not being on the right
frequency or using the wrong version of
a protocol, not being able to establish a
digital contact may have nothing to do
with your transmitter. The reason is
called the “hidden transmitter” problem.
On the HF bands, it is common for a
station to be inaudible at one location
but quite strong at another because of
propagation conditions. When this
happens, a station receiving signals from
two stations that can’t hear each other
will often be able to decode neither
signal well. This situation can prevent
you from making contact with another
station even on a “clear” channel. When
this happens, you may have to just try
again later when conditions change.
[E2E07]
SPREAD SPECTRUM
TECHNIQUES
E8D01 — Why are received spread
spectrum signals resistant to
interference?
E8D02 — What spread spectrum
communications technique
uses a high-speed binary bit
stream to shift the phase of
an RF carrier?
E8D03 — How does the spread
spectrum technique of
frequency hopping work?
The usual measure of efficiency for a

modulation scheme is to examine how
well it concentrates the signal for a
given rate of information — less
bandwidth for equivalent data rate is
good. While compactness of the signal
appeals to the conventional wisdom,
spread-spectrum modulation techniques
take the exact opposite approach. They
spread the signal over a very wide
bandwidth by rapidly varying the carrier
frequency of the signal in a predefined
sequence.
Communications signal bandwidth is
increased (called spreading) by factors
of 10 to 10,000 by using a sequence of
bits (the spreading code) to vary the
signal’s frequency. The exact techniques
are discussed below.
Spreading has two beneficial effects.
The first effect is the dilution of the
signal energy on a given frequency, so
that while occupying a very large
bandwidth, the power density at any
point within the spread signal is very
low (see Figure 8.4).
Dilution of the signal across many

frequencies causes spread-spectrum
signals to appear as wideband noise to a
conventional receiver. Spectrum
spreading may result in the digital signal
being below the noise floor of a
conventional receiver, and thus invisible
to it, while the signal can still be
received with a spread-spectrum
receiver.
The second beneficial effect of
spectrum spreading is that a spread-
spectrum receiver can reject strong
undesired signals — even those much
stronger than the desired spread-
spectrum signal’s power density. This is
because the receiver uses the spreading
code to “de-spread” the signal, a
process like following the signal as it
changes frequency. Non-spread signals
are then suppressed in the processing
because they are not consistent with the
spreading code. [E8D01] The
effectiveness of this interference-
rejection property has made spread-
spectrum a popular communications
security technique.
Conventional signals such as
narrowband FM, SSB, and CW are
rejected by a spread-spectrum receiver,
as are other spread-spectrum signals not
following the required coding sequence.
The result is a type of private channel,
one where only spread-spectrum signals
using the correct spreading code are
received. A two-party conversation can
take place, or if the spreading code is
known to a number of people, network-
type operations are possible.
The use of different spreading codes
allows several spread-spectrum systems
to operate independently while using the
same frequencies. This is a form of
frequency sharing called code-division
multiple access or CDMA. If the
spreading parameters are chosen
judiciously for the propagation
conditions that exist on the selected
frequencies, conventional users in the
same amateur band will experience very
little interference from spread-spectrum
users. This allows more signals to be
packed into a band, but each additional
signal (conventional or spread spectrum)
will add some interference for all users
by raising the received noise level.
Types of Spread Spectrum

There are many ways to cause a signal
to spread, but all spread-spectrum
systems can be viewed as a combination
of two modulation processes. First, a
conventional form of modulation, either
analog or digital, is used to add the
information to the carrier. Next, the
modulated carrier is again modulated by
the spreading code, causing it to spread
out over a large bandwidth. Four
spreading techniques are commonly used
in military and space communications,
but amateurs are currently only
authorized to use frequency hopping and
direct sequence.
Frequency Hopping
Frequency hopping (FH) is a form of
spreading in which the center frequency
of a conventional carrier is altered many
times per second in accordance with a
pseudorandom list of channels.
[E8D03] (Pseudorandom means that the
list is not truly random, but is a very
long list of numbers that appears random
before it repeats.) The same channel list
must also be used by the receiving
station. The amount of time the signal is
present on any single channel is called
the dwell time. To avoid interference
both to and from conventional frequency
users, the dwell time must be very short,
typically less than 10 milliseconds.
Direct Sequence
In direct sequence (DS) spread
spectrum, a very fast binary bit stream is
used to shift the phase of the modulated
carrier. [E8D02] DS spread spectrum is
typically used to transmit digital
information.
Like the pseudo-random frequency list
of FH systems, the sequence of the bits
created by a digital circuit is designed to
appear random. This binary sequence
can be duplicated and synchronized at
the transmitter and receiver. Such
sequences are called pseudo-noise or
PN.
Each bit of the PN code is called a
chip and the rate at which the chips shift
carrier phase is called the chip rate. If
the RF carrier’s phase is shifted 0 or
180 degrees, it is called binary phase-
shift keying (BPSK). Other types of
phase-shift keying are also used. For
example, quadrature phase-shift keying
(QPSK) shifts between four different
phases (0, 90, 180 and 270 degrees).
Amateur Spread Spectrum

Applications
frequencies are sometimes
used for amateur radio mesh
networks?
E2C09 — What type of equipment is
commonly used to implement
an amateur radio mesh
network?
E2C12 — What technique do
individual nodes use to form
a mesh network?
Amateurs use spread spectrum
techniques to establish mesh networks,
such as Broadband-Hamnet (BBHN),
Amateur Radio Emergency Data
Network (AREDN), and HamWAN.
Individual network nodes are
constructed from commercial Wi-Fi
routers reprogrammed with custom
software to meet amateur radio
regulations. [E2C09] The nodes operate
on frequencies shared with various
unlicensed wireless data services, such
as Wi-Fi. [E2C04] When a node is
activated, it uses discovery and link
establishment protocols, similar to those
used by commercial wireless data
systems. [E2C12] These amateur
networks are operational in the 2.4 GHz
and 5.6 GHz bands and are a rapidly
growing use of amateur microwave
frequencies for personal and public
service data communications.
ERROR DETECTION AND

CORRECTION
E2E02 — What do the letters FEC
mean as they relate to
digital operation?
E8C01 — How is Forward Error
Correction implemented?
E8C08 — How does ARQ accomplish
error correction?
Even the best transmitter and receiver

systems cannot guarantee 100%
accuracy of data transmitted across an
air link. There are just too many ways
for Mother Nature to disrupt the signal;
noise, multipath and fading are just a
few causes of errors. To get an idea of
what can happen to a data signal, try to
copy RTTY signals that are weak or
fluttery from ionospheric variations!
In recognition of the realities of radio
propagation, data communications
engineers have devised a number of
strategies. The first challenge is to find
out when an error has occurred! This is
called error detection. Without some
clue about what the data should have
been, however, there is no way to detect
errors. To be able to discern
transmission errors, information
describing the data is sent along with the
original data.
Error detection data can be as simple
as the parity bit of ASCII data discussed
earlier. Another popular technique of
error detection, used by packet radio’s
AX.25 protocol, TCP/IP networking
systems, and Ethernet (among many
others) is the cyclical redundancy check
or (CRC). If the CRC of a received
packet matches the CRC sent with the
packet, the entire packet is judged to be
error-free. Using a CRC detects most
errors.
Once the system has detected an error,
what it decides to do about it is another
matter. This moves the process from
error detection to error correction. The
simplest form of error correction is
ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request). If the
receiving system detects an error, it
requests a retransmission of the
corrupted packet or message by sending
a NAK (Not Acknowledge) message to
transmitting station. [E8C08] The
information is retransmitted until the
receiver responds with an ACK
(Acknowledge) message. If the errors
persist long enough, the system gives up
and drops the connection.
Another popular error correction
technique is to send some extra data
about the information in the packet or
message so that the receiving station can
actually correct some types of errors.
This technique is called forward error
correction or (FEC). [E2E02] The term
“forward” stems from sending extra
error correction data “ahead” with the
original information. The combination of
the FEC data and the algorithm by which
errors are detected and corrected is
called an FEC code. [E8C01]
There are many types of FEC codes:
Reed-Solomon, Hamming, BCH, and
Golay codes are all used in consumer
electronics. FEC data is sometimes
spread out over several data packets to
account for fading. FEC is used with
digitized voice to help preserve the
quality of the received speech. This is
why digital voice systems (such as
mobile phones) tend to have good
quality up to a certain error threshold
and then become completely garbled —
their FEC code fails at that point.
8.3 Amateur Television

Many new hams are surprised to find
that amateurs can (and do!) communicate
using video television signals “just like
broadcast stations.” Slow-scan
television also has an enduring presence
on the amateur bands, taking advantage
of computer sound card and signal
processing technology. New hams could
be equally surprised to find that they
may have some of the necessary
equipment already available to them.
FAST-SCAN TELEVISION
E2B08 — What technique allows
commercial analog TV
receivers to be used for fast-
scan TV operations on the
70 cm band?
Fast-scan TV (FSTV) can be used by

any amateur holding a Technician or
higher-class license. FSTV or amateur
TV (ATV) closely resembles broadcast-
quality television, because it normally
uses the same technical standards. It is
called “fast-scan” because the images
are transmitted quickly enough to
support full-motion video. Amateurs
typically use commercial transmission
standards for TV signals, but are not
limited to commercial standards.
Nevertheless, due to the wide
availability of equipment that conforms
to those standards, most amateur
television is compatible with
commercial broadcast equipment for
analog signals.
Digital Amateur TV (DATV)

While this section of the chapter
focuses on analog television signals, the
migration of amateur TV to use the now-
standard digital TV mode is underway.
Affordable equipment is available as
surplus and several groups are
experimenting with digital TV around
the country. The ARRL Handbook
chapter on Image Communications
covers both analog and digital ATV, as
well. There is a lot of analog equipment
in active use but expect DATV to
become equally popular.
Fast-Scan System Components

A basic ATV station is constructed as
shown in Figure 8.5. This is where you
may recognize some common home
entertainment gear. Any camera or
camcorder that produces a standard
video signal can be used, color or black-
and-white. Newer ATV modulators may
work directly with HDMI signals from
cameras. Converters are available to
change analog video signals to HDMI.
Image monitors for “off-air” use can be
any TV or computer display that accepts
a composite video signal, such as from a
camera or video player. Some HDMI-
compatible equipment may be used, as
well. Regular cable-ready TV receivers
can be used with a receive converter or
down converter to receive UHF ATV
signals that use broadcast transmission
standards. The converter shifts the ATV
signal to an unused channel shared with
cable TV systems for display. [E2B08]
An ATV transmitter is one piece of
equipment not found in most ham
stations. Nevertheless, low-power ATV
transmitters, modulators and linear ATV
amplifiers with a few watts of output
power are available. They take a
standard composite video signal as input
and produce the UHF ATV signal ready
for amplification or connection directly
to the antenna.
Antennas for ATV need to have fairly
high gain (to boost the strength of the
weak, wide bandwidth signal) and a
consistent radiation pattern over the
wide bandwidth consumed by an ATV
signal. Yagis and corner reflectors are
popular for ATV stations. At microwave
frequencies, both Yagi and dish antennas
are used.
Video Signal Definitions

E2B01 — How many times per second
is a new frame transmitted
in a fast-scan (NTSC)
television system?
E2B02 — How many horizontal lines
make up a fast-scan (NTSC)
television frame?
E2B03 — How is an interlaced
scanning pattern generated
in a fast-scan (NTSC)
television system?
E2B07 — What is the name of the
signal component that
carries color information in
NTSC video?
In analog television, a process called

scanning translates a picture into a
series of horizontal lines, called scan
lines. The lines are transmitted to a
receiver which reproduces the image
line by line on a CRT or solid-state
display. The combination of video and
control signals required to transmit and
display the image is called a raster,
which is defined by a video standard.
For digital television, the image is
captured as an array of pixels and is
transferred as a digital signal with
HDMI being the most common interface
method.
When transmitting an analog image
over the air, US amateurs use the NTSC
(National Television Standard
Committee) standard. For digital TV,
either the DVB-T or Cable-QAM
standards are used. The exam questions
are restricted to analog TV and video
signals.
Table 8.3 lists the primary elements of
the NTSC standard used for ATV. In the
NTSC standard, a total of 525 horizontal
scan lines comprise a frame to form one
complete image. [E2B02] Thirty frames
are generated each second. [E2B01]
Each frame consists of two fields, each
field containing 2621⁄2 lines, so 60 fields
are generated each second. Figure 8.6
illustrates the concept of scan lines and
interlacing. CCD cameras and solid-
state displays do not scan or reproduce
the image in this way, but the composite
video signal is still constructed in the
same way. HDMI and other digital video
interfaces use a different set of signals
and are not discussed here.
Scan lines from one field fall between
lines from the next field. This is called
interlacing and is done to reduce
flicker, improve the smoothness of
motion from frame to frame, and reduce
bandwidth while maintaining adequate
image quality. If all 525 scan lines are
numbered from top to bottom, then one
field contains the even-numbered lines
and the alternate field contains the odd-
numbered lines. [E2B03] This process
of slicing up an image is reversed to
create the line-by-line image displayed
by a TV receiver or computer monitor.
The electronic signal that carries all of
the image and display coordination
information is called baseband video or
composite video and is described in the
standard ANSI RS-170. Figure 8.7
shows the basic structure of one frame of
an RS-170 video signal. Sync signals
have a negative voltage and the video
portion of the signal a positive voltage.
The standard voltage level between
white video and the sync tip is 1-V peak
to peak. Television engineers measure
video levels in IRE or IEEE Units.
Vertical sync pulses tell the display
electronics when a new field is about to
begin. There are two vertical sync
pulses per frame, one for each field.
Horizontal sync pulses occur between
each horizontal scan line. Sync pulses
are markers to keep the image’s
information aligned properly.
Blanking refers to the time interval
between video lines and frames.
Blanking is no longer required of
modern displays but the signals are used
for timing and synchronization. These
time periods are called the horizontal
and vertical blanking intervals.
Between horizontal blanking pulses,
the voltage of the signal represents the
brightness or luminance of the image. In
monochrome black-and-white video,
higher video voltages create whiter
areas on the image. Lower voltages
create blacker areas. Note that the sync
pulses have lower voltages than the
blackest video voltage. Sync pulses are
thus termed “blacker than black.”
Composite and RGB Video

In a composite color video signal, all
of the information about the image is
contained in a single waveform. The
color (called chroma) information is
combined with the luminance
information through the use of a separate
chrominance subcarrier signal.
[E2B07]
In each scan line, between the end of
the horizontal sync pulse and the start of
the video is a short interval of a 3.5789
MHz signal (see Figure 8.7). This is the
chroma subcarrier frequency. The short
chroma burst helps synchronize the
image and chrominance subcarrier
timing. If the two are not precisely
locked, the hues of the reproduced
colors will be wrong.
RF ATV Signal Characteristics
describes the use of vestigial
sideband in analog fast-scan
TV transmissions?
E2B06 — What is vestigial sideband
modulation?
A fast-scan color ATV video signal has

a bandwidth of about 4 MHz as shown in
Figure 8.8. (Satisfactory black-and-
white signals require somewhat less
bandwidth.) The wide bandwidth is
necessary to send the information
required for full-motion, real-time
images. Consequently, ATV is permitted
only in the 420 to 450 MHz band and at
higher frequencies.
Most ATV activity occurs in the 420 to
450 MHz band. The exact frequency
used depends on local custom and band
plans. Some populated areas have ATV
repeaters. ATV users should avoid
interfering with the weak-signal
operation (moonbounce, for example)
near 432 MHz and with repeater
operation above 442 MHz.
Most amateurs use vestigial sideband
(VSB) for transmission. VSB is like
SSB plus full carrier, except a portion
(vestige) of the unwanted sideband is
retained. [E2B06] In the case of VSB
TV, approximately 1 MHz of the lower
sideband and all of the upper sideband
plus full carrier comprise the transmitted
image signal. Figure 8.8 shows the
spectrum of a color TV signal. VSB uses
less bandwidth than a full DSB AM
signal but can still be demodulated
satisfactorily by simple video detector
circuits. [E2B05]
There are at least three ways to
transmit voice information with a TV
signal. The most popular method is by
talking on another band, often 2 meter
FM. This has the advantage of letting
other local hams listen in on what you
are doing. Rather than tie up a repeater
for this, it is best to use a simplex
frequency.
Commercial TV includes an FM voice
sub-carrier 4.5 MHz above the TV
image carrier (see Figure 8.8). If your
ATV transmitter provides FM audio via
a subcarrier 4.5 MHz above the video
carrier, the audio can be received easily
in the usual way on an analog TV set.
SLOW-SCAN TELEVISION
E1A12 — What special operating
frequency restrictions are
imposed on slow scan TV
transmissions?
Since fast-scan TV systems take

several megahertz of bandwidth that
must mean there are no images sent on
the HF bands, right? Images can’t be sent
via HF as fast-scan video, but there are
two image modes that do work on HF:
facsimile and slow-scan television. You
are probably familiar with facsimile, or
fax, and, yes, amateurs can use the same
fax protocols over the airwaves.
Amateur facsimile is rarely heard these
days because slow-scan television
(SSTV) is used instead, even though it
offers somewhat lower resolution than
fax.
As an image mode, SSTV is restricted
to the phone segments of all bands
(which excludes 30 meters, since phone
operation is not allowed there). SSTV
signal bandwidth must be no greater than
that of a phone signal using the same
modulation. [E1A12] SSTV is usually
transmitted on HF because fast-scan is
available on UHF and higher bands.
Standard HF calling frequencies for
SSTV are 3.845, 7.171, 14.230, 21.340
and 28.680 MHz. The most popular
bands for SSTV are 20 and 75 meters.
A typical SSTV system shown in
Figure 8.9 uses a computer and software
to generate the required audio tones to
represent an image for transmission and
to decode the received audio tones and
display the image on the computer
monitor. Computer graphics open up
many possibilities for creating your own
SSTV images. Software can be used to
capture an image from a video or still
camera or document scanner for
transmission via slow-scan.You can
store received images on disk for later
retransmission, as well. Figure 8.10
shows a screen shot of a program used
to handle SSTV images.
An important transceiver consideration
is that SSTV is a 100%-duty-cycle
transmission mode. This means your
transmitter will be producing full power
for the entire image-transmission time.
Most transmitters and amplifiers will
have to be run at reduced power output
to avoid overheating.
Analog SSTV Signal Basics

E2B04 — How is color information
sent in analog SSTV?
E2B10 — What aspect of an analog
slow-scan television signal
encodes the brightness of
the picture?
E2B11 — What is the function of the
Vertical Interval Signaling
(VIS) code sent as part of an
SSTV transmission?
E2B12 — What signals SSTV
receiving software to begin a
new picture line?
Like fast-scan television, SSTV
divides the image into scan lines and
frames. (Basic television image
terminology is defined in the preceding
section on fast-scan TV.) Between each
scan line is a horizontal sync pulse to
establish the beginning of each line. The
beginning of a frame is established by
the vertical sync pulse.
Instead of using voltage levels as video
and sync signals, SSTV uses frequencies
with specific frequencies encoding
specific functions. This allows SSTV
signals to be transmitted using SSB
modulation. For example, sync pulses
signifying new lines are sent as bursts of
1200-Hz tones. [E2B12] The image’s
luminance or brightness is transmitted as
a tone of varying frequency. [E2B10]
For monochrome black-and-white SSTV
signals, a 1500-Hz signal produces
black and a 2300-Hz signal produces
white. Frequencies between these limits
represent shades of gray. The 1200 Hz of
the sync pulses are thus “blacker than
black” like their fast-scan counterparts
and do not show up on the display.
Table 8.4 summarizes the standard
parameters for a black-and-white analog
SSTV signal. The horizontal sync pulse
is included in the time required to send
one line, but the vertical sync pulse adds
30 msec of “overhead.” So, it takes a bit
more than 8 seconds to actually transmit
a black-and-white image frame.
A basic monochrome black-and-white

SSTV image takes 8 seconds for one
frame and has only 120 scan lines. This
works out to 15 scan lines per second.
The bandwidth of a monochrome SSTV
signal is about 2 kHz. Unlike fast-scan
images, the scan lines of SSTV are not
interlaced and so each image frame is
composed of a single field.
Most SSTV operators today send color
images. There are several modes of
formatting color images, transmitting
120, 128, 240, or 256 scan lines. Colors
are transmitted as sequential lines
showing the same image in red, green,
and blue. [E2B04] The receiving system
recombines the three lines into a full-
color line.
For receiving equipment and software
to discern the mode of the SSTV image,
a code is transmitted with each image
frame. The code is sent during the
vertical sync pulse and is called vertical
interval signaling or VIS. Receiving
software reads the code and adjusts its
decoding settings to properly capture
and display the image. Similarly, the
operator can select the mode for
transmission and the appropriate code
will be incorporated into the image.
[E2B11]
The various SSTV modes allow the
operator to select different resolutions
and control image transmission time.
Low to moderate resolution images can
be transmitted when crowded band
conditions favor short transmission
times. Higher resolution images can be
transmitted when longer transmissions
are acceptable.
Digital SSTV
E1B02 — Which of the following is an
acceptable bandwidth for
Digital Radio Mondiale
(DRM) based voice or SSTV
digital transmissions made
on the HF amateur bands?
E2B09 — What hardware, other than
a receiver with SSB
capability and a suitable
computer, is needed to
decode SSTV using Digital
Radio Mondiale (DRM)?
To send high-quality digital-encoded

program material, shortwave
broadcasters developed and released the
Digital Radio Mondiale (DRM)
protocol, meaning “Digital World
Radio.” Amateurs adapted DRM’s file
transfer capabilities to send digitized
SSTV images instead. Since DRM
signals can be generated and decoded
with software on a PC, no additional
special equipment beyond a receiver is
required to use DRM for SSTV
communications. [E2B09] While
broadcast DRM signals have
bandwidths of 4 kHz or more, amateur
DRM signals on HF are restricted to a
normal SSB signal’s bandwidth of 3
kHz. [E1B02]
• Antenna basics — radiation
patterns, gain and beamwidth,
polarization, and bandwidth
• The effects of ground on antennas
• Variations of the dipole
• Shortened, multiband and satellite
antennas
• Traveling wave antennas and
phased arrays
• Receiving and direction finding
antennas
• Impedance matching techniques
• Transmission line mechanics and
the Smith chart
• Antenna measurements and
analyzers
• Antenna modeling and design
Antennas and antenna systems are of

primary importance to amateurs.
Equipment available to amateurs is of
the best quality in the history of radio but
even the best radios require an antenna
to communicate effectively. It is up to the
station owner to select and install
antennas and antenna system components
that get the most out of the radio
equipment.
The topics covered by the license exam
touch on many important subjects for
amateur radio antenna systems. Basic
antenna concepts are explored in more
detail than for other license classes.
Practical issues affecting antennas, such
as ground systems, shortened antennas,
and popular multiband designs are
covered. We’ll also look into the
functions of transmission lines as they
affect antenna systems. The section
concludes with some discussion of using
computers to model antennas. The set of
exam questions for each subject is listed
at the end of each section so that you can
review your understanding and build a
solid background in antennas. All of
these topics are covered in detail in The
ARRL Antenna Book if you would like
more information.
9.1 Basics of Antennas

E9A01 — What is an isotropic
antenna?
E9A12 — How much gain does an
antenna have compared to a
1 ⁄2 -wavelength dipole when it
has 6 dB gain over an
isotropic antenna?
E9B07 — How does the total amount
of radiation emitted by a
directional gain antenna
compare with the total
amount of radiation emitted
from a theoretical isotropic
antenna, assuming each is
driven by the same amount
of power?
E9B08 — What is the far field of an
antenna?
We’ll explore another level of detail

beyond your General class license
studies, including some background on
antenna radiation patterns.
ANTENNA RADIATION PATTERNS

An antenna radiation pattern contains a
wealth of information about the antenna
and its expected performance. By
learning to recognize certain types of
patterns and what they represent, you
will be able to identify many important
antenna characteristics and to compare
design variations. Figure 9.1 is an
example of a dipole’s radiation pattern,
including a three-dimensional view
(Figure 9.1A).
Figure 9.1B shows one “slice” through
the three-dimensional pattern of Figure
9.1A. The orientation of the antenna is
shown and the directions around the
antenna are shown on the outer circle.
The strength scale from the center to the
edge of the pattern is usually shown in
decibels, but the step size of each ring
can be adjusted to show desired pattern
details. Make sure the strength scales are
the same when comparing the patterns of
different antennas.
The radiation pattern is usually drawn
so it just touches the outer circle at the
point of its maximum strength. The scale
then shows the relative strength of
signals radiated in any direction with the
maximum point representing 0 dB with
respect to all other directions. A legend
on the chart often gives the value of gain
at the outer circle. To compare antennas,
use patterns with the same value of gain
at the outer circle. Or, if you’re
modeling the antennas, plot the radiation
patterns for all antennas on a common
chart.
Antenna radiation patterns describe the
antenna’s radiated signal in the antenna’s
far field which begins several
wavelengths from the antenna and
extends to infinity. Antennas also have a
near field region which is too close to
the antenna for the final pattern to
emerge. In the far field, the pattern shape
is independent of distance. [E9B08]
ANTENNA GAIN
In many applications, the antenna’s
most important property is its ability to
concentrate its radiated power in useful
directions. This property, however, only
has meaning with respect to other
antennas, so a reference must be
established.
The Isotropic Radiator

An isotropic radiator is a theoretical,
point-sized antenna that is assumed to
radiate equally in all directions. The
three-dimensional radiation pattern of an
isotropic radiator (see Figure 9.2) is a
sphere, since the same amount of power
is radiated in all directions. This
hypothetical antenna has a radiation
pattern that is omnidirectional, because
the signal is equal in all directions. No
such antenna actually exists, but it serves
as a useful theoretical gain reference for
comparison with real antennas. The
isotropic antenna also provides a useful
reference for comparing the differences
in gain among real antennas. [E9A01]
Directional Antennas
Directional antennas are designed
specifically to concentrate their radiated
power in one (or more) directions. The
direction in which most of the power is
focused is the major lobe or main lobe
of radiation and is designated to be the
forward direction. Most directional
antennas also have minor lobes in the
back and side directions. The directions
of minimum radiation between the lobes
are the pattern’s nulls.
Figure 9.3 is an example of a radiation
pattern for a typical VHF beam antenna,
illustrating major and minor lobes. By
reducing radiation in the side and back
directions and concentrating it instead in
the forward direction, a beam antenna
can transmit or receive a stronger signal
in that direction.
An antenna’s gain is the ratio
(expressed in decibels) between the
signal radiated from an antenna in the
direction of its main lobe and the signal
radiated from a reference antenna in the
same direction and with the same power.
A typical beam might have 6 dB of gain
compared to a dipole which means that
it makes your signal sound four times (6
dB) louder than if you were using a
dipole with the same transmitter. The
gain of directional antennas is the result
of concentrating the radio wave in one
direction at the expense of radiation in
other directions. There is no difference
in the total amount of power radiated.
[E9B07]
There are two reference antennas used
to compare the radiation patterns of
other antennas: the half-wavelength
dipole and the isotropic antenna. Gain
referenced to the isotropic antenna is
given in dBi, and gain referenced to the
dipole in its direction of maximum
radiation is given as dBd. Fortunately,
it’s simple to convert between gain with
respect to an isotropic antenna and gain
with respect to a dipole because the
dipole has 2.15 dB of gain over an
isotropic radiator.
Gain in dBi and dBd are related as
follows:
Gain in dBd = Gain in dBi – (Equation
2.15 dB 9.1)
and
Gain in dBi = Gain in dBd (Equation

+ 2.5 dB 9.2)
where:
dBd is antenna gain compared to a
dipole in its direction of maximum
radiation.
dBi is antenna gain compared to an
isotropic radiator.
Example 9.1
If an antenna has 6 dB more gain than
an isotropic radiator, how much gain
does it have compared to a dipole?
[E9A12]
Gain in dBd = Gain in dBi – 2.15 dB = 6
dBi – 2.15 dB = 3.85 dBd
Example 9.2
If an antenna has 12 dB more gain than
a dipole, how much gain does it have
compared to an isotropic antenna?
Gain in dBi = Gain in dBd + 2.15 dB =
12 dBi + 2.15 dB = 14.15 dBi
dBd and dBi gains are free-space
gains, meaning that there are no
reflecting surfaces near the antenna, such
as the ground. Nearby reflecting surfaces
can dramatically increase or decrease an
antenna’s gain. When you compare
specifications for several antennas, be
sure that they all use the same reference
antenna for comparison or convert the
gains from one reference to another.
Specifications should give free-space
gain or state the antenna’s height.
BEAMWIDTH AND PATTERN

RATIOS
E9B01 — In the antenna radiation
pattern shown in Figure E9-
1, what is the beamwidth?
1, what is the front-to-back
ratio?
1, what is the front-to-side
ratio?
In comparing antennas, it is useful to

know their beamwidth. Beamwidth is
the angular distance between the points
on either side of the major lobe at which
the gain is 3 dB below the maximum.
This is also sometimes called the 3 dB
beamwidth. Figure 9.4 illustrates the
idea. The antenna in the figure has a
beamwidth of 30°. This means if you
turn the antenna plus or minus 15° from
the optimum heading, the signal received
(and the signal received from your
transmitter) will drop by 3 dB.
Figure 9.5 illustrates how to determine
beamwidth from a radiation pattern. The
major lobe of radiation from the antenna
in the figure points to the right, and is
centered along the 0° axis. You can make
a pretty good estimate of the beamwidth
of this antenna by carefully reading the
graph. Notice that angles are marked off
every 15° and the –3 dB circle is the
first one inside the outer circle. The
pattern crosses the –3 dB circle at points
about 25° either side of 0°. So we can
estimate the beamwidth of this antenna
as 50°. [E9B01]
There are other useful measurements to
be taken from an antenna’s radiation
pattern. Gain is not everything! The
ability to reject received signals from
unwanted directions is also important.
This ability, called a pattern ratio, is
measured with respect to the directivity
of the antenna in the forward or “front”
direction. There are three primary
pattern ratios:
• Front-to-back (F/B): the difference
in gain in the direction of the major lobe
to the gain in the exact opposite (back)
direction.
• Front-to-rear (F/R): the difference in
gain in the direction of the major lobe to
the average gain over a specified angle
centered on the back direction.
• Front-to-side (F/S): the difference in
gain in the direction of the major lobe to
the gain at 90° to the front direction.
(F/S usually assumes a symmetrical
pattern to either side of the major lobe.)
In the example shown in Figure 9.5,
find the front-to-back ratio by reading
the maximum value of the minor lobe at
180°. This maximum appears to be
halfway between the –12 dB and –24 dB
circles, so estimate it to be about 18 dB
below the major lobe. [E9B02]
The pattern in Figure 9.5 has a minor
lobe to each side of the antenna whose
maximum strength is a bit more than 12
dB below the main-lobe maximum. A
front-to-side ratio of 14 dB looks like a
pretty good estimate for this pattern.
[E9B03]
RADIATION AND OHMIC

RESISTANCE
E9A03 — What is the radiation
resistance of an antenna?
E9A05 — What is included in the total
resistance of an antenna
system?
The power supplied to an antenna is

dissipated in the form of radio waves
and in heat losses in the wire and
materials nearby that absorb the waves,
such as foliage or buildings. The
radiated energy is the useful part, of
course. The power being radiated away
by the antenna can be treated as if the
energy were dissipated in a resistance.
The antenna can then be modeled as two
resistances, one for radiated power and
one for power dissipated as heat.
In the case of the heat losses, RLOSS is
a real or ohmic resistance that gets
warm. In the case of the radiated power,
RR is an assumed resistance, that if
actually present, would dissipate the
same power radiated by the antenna.
This assumed resistance is called the
radiation resistance, RR. [E9A03]
These resistances are treated as if they
are in series so the total power
dissipated by current, I, in the antenna is
equal to I2 (RR + RLOSS). The sum of
these two resistances forms the total
resistance of an antenna system, RT.
[E9A05]
Taking as an example an ordinary half-
wave dipole antenna for the HF bands,
the power lost as heat in the antenna
does not exceed a few percent of the
total power supplied to the antenna. This
is because the RF resistance of copper
wire even as small as #14 AWG is very
low compared with the radiation
resistance if the antenna is reasonably
clear of surrounding objects and not too
close to the ground. It is reasonable to
assume that the ohmic (heat) loss in a
reasonably located antenna is negligible
and that all of the resistance shown by
the antenna is radiation resistance. Such
an antenna is a highly efficient radiator
of radio waves! If the antenna is very
short in terms of wavelength, though, RR
is quite low. For example, for the
popular magnetic loops less than 1/10th
of a wavelength in circumference, RR
can be much less than 1 Ω! This can
result in the applied power being largely
dissipated as heat by losses in the
materials used to construct the antenna
and surrounding materials.
FEED POINT IMPEDANCE

factors affect the feed point
impedance of an antenna?
An important characteristic of an
antenna is the feed point impedance
presented to the transmission line. Feed
point impedance is simply the ratio of
RF voltage to current wherever the
transmission line is attached to the
antenna. If the voltage and current are in-
phase, the feed point impedance is
purely resistive and the antenna is
resonant, regardless of the value of the
resistance. If the voltage and current are
not in-phase, the impedance will have
some reactance as well and may be
inductive or capacitive. Feed point
impedance consists of the antenna’s
radiation resistance, ohmic losses
including ground losses, and any
reactance caused by the antenna being
nonresonant.
Feed point impedance also changes
with position on the antenna. Consider a
resonant, half-wavelength dipole with
maximum current at the mid-point and
minimum current at the end. The feed
point impedance is lowest in the middle
of the antenna where the ratio of voltage
to current is lowest. As the feed point is
moved toward either end of the dipole,
however, the voltage increases and
current decreases, causing the feed point
impedance to increase. Near the center,
feed point impedance is less than 100
ohms but at the ends, feed point
impedance can be several thousand
ohms. If the same amount of power is
transferred to the dipole at both
locations for the feed point, the radiated
signal will be the same.
The value of an antenna’s feed point
impedance is also affected by a number
of other factors. One is the location of
the antenna with respect to other objects,
particularly ground. For example, in free
space with nothing else near it, the
radiation resistance of a resonant 1⁄2-
wavelength dipole made of thin wire is
approximately 73 Ω at its center. As the
antenna is lowered closer to the ground,
the radiation resistance drops as well,
lowering the feed point impedance.
Other nearby conducting surfaces such
as buildings and other antennas can also
affect the antenna’s feed point
impedance. [E9A04]
Another factor is the length/diameter
ratio of the conductor that makes up the
antenna. As the conductor is made
thicker, radiation resistance decreases.
For most practical wire sizes, the half-
wave dipole’s radiation resistance is
close to 65 Ω. At VHF and above, the
dipole’s radiation resistance will be
from 55 to 60 Ω for antennas constructed
of rod or tubing.
ANTENNA EFFICIENCY
E9A09 — What is antenna efficiency?
Antenna efficiency — the ratio of
power radiated as radio waves to the
total power input to the antenna — is
given by Equation 9.3. [E9A09]
(Equa
where:
RR = radiation resistance.
RT = total resistance.
Example 9.3
If a half-wave dipole antenna has a
radiation resistance, RR, of 70 Ω and a
total resistance, RT, of 75 Ω, what is its
efficiency?
Efficiency = (70 / 75) × 100% = 93.3%
The actual value of the radiation
resistance has little effect on the
radiation efficiency of a practical
antenna. This is because the ohmic
resistance is only on the order of 1 Ω
with the conductors used for thick
antennas. The ohmic resistance does not
become important until the radiation
resistance drops to very low values —
say less than 10 Ω — as may be the case
when several antenna elements are very
close together or for antennas such as
mobile whips and the small loops that
are very short in terms of wavelength.
ANTENNA PATTERN TYPES
E9B04 — What is the front-to-back
ratio of the radiation pattern
E9B05 — What type of antenna
pattern is shown in Figure
E9-2?
E9B06 — What is the elevation angle
of peak response in the
antenna radiation pattern
E and H Planes
Two types of radiation patterns are
often used to picture the overall, three-
dimensional radiation pattern — the E-
plane and the H-plane radiation
patterns. The E-plane pattern is taken in
the plane of the radiated electric field
and the H-plane pattern in the plane of
the magnetic field. In general, the E-
plane pattern is in the plane of the
antenna’s elements and the H-plane
pattern is perpendicular to them.
Azimuthal and Elevation Patterns

For a horizontally polarized antenna,
the E-plane pattern is parallel to the
surface of the Earth and shows the
antenna’s radiation pattern in directions
around the antenna. This is called an
azimuthal pattern. The H-plane pattern
of the same antenna is called the
elevation pattern and shows the
antenna’s radiation pattern at different
angles above the Earth. Figure 9.5 in the
section on Beamwidth and Pattern
Ratios shows a typical azimuthal pattern
for a beam antenna.
Figure 9.6 shows a typical elevation
pattern with multiple lobes in the
forward and back directions. [E9B05]
The antenna pattern shows four forward
lobes (those on the same half of the
graph as the largest or main lobe) and
three rear lobes. For antennas mounted
over ground, an elevation pattern shows
only the half of the radiation pattern at
positive angles above ground. The
angles on the graph represent the vertical
angle above ground at which radiated
power is measured. The vertical angle at
which the antenna’s major lobe has its
maximum radiation is called the takeoff
angle. In Figure 9.6, the takeoff angle is
7.5 degrees. [E9B06]
Just as with an azimuthal pattern, an
antenna’s front-to-back ratio can be
determined from the maximum radiation
in the forward direction to that in the
opposite direction. In an elevation
pattern, however, it is necessary to
specify the elevation angle at which the
pattern is to be measured — usually the
takeoff angle. In the case of Figure 9.6,
toward the back of the pattern at the
takeoff angle antenna gain is about 28 dB
below that of the main lobe so front-to-
back ratio for this antenna would be 28
dB. [E9B04] At other elevation angles,
the front-to-back ratio would be quite
different.
BANDWIDTH
E9A08 — What is antenna
bandwidth?
E9D08 — What happens as the Q of
an antenna increases?
Along with the characteristics of the

antenna’s radiation pattern, feed point
impedance, and so forth, it’s also
important to know how antennas behave
over the range of frequencies over which
they are expected to operate.
As frequency changes, the electrical
size of the antenna and all of its
components changes, too. This means the
antenna’s gain, feed point impedance,
radiation pattern, and so forth will also
change. The antenna is expected to
perform to some specified level — these
are the performance requirements of the
antenna. In general, the bandwidth of an
antenna is the frequency range over
which it satisfies a performance
requirement. [E9A08]
For example, an antenna may be
specified to have an SWR of less than
1.5:1, but without an associated
bandwidth, the specification is
incomplete. Is the SWR going to be less
than 1.5:1 at just a few frequencies or
over the whole band? If that antenna’s
SWR bandwidth is specified to be 200
kHz, then you can expect to see an SWR
of 1.5:1 or less over a range of 200 kHz.
Notice that the frequency of minimum
SWR is not known, so the range may
shift depending on factors relating to
assembly or installation. Other common
bandwidth specifications are gain
bandwidth and front-to-back
bandwidth.
An antenna’s bandwidth is affected by
Q, just like the tuned circuits you studied
in the Electrical Principles chapter. For
an antenna, Q is defined as the energy
stored in the fields around the antenna
divided by the power it radiates. The
antenna’s radiation resistance has the
same effect as loss resistance in the
tuned circuit. The higher an antenna’s Q,
the narrower its SWR bandwidth will be
just as a tuned circuit’s bandwidth gets
narrower as Q increases. [E9D08]
EFFECTS OF GROUND AND
GROUND SYSTEMS
improves the efficiency of a
ground-mounted quarter-
wave vertical antenna?
factors determines ground
losses for a ground-mounted
vertical antenna operating in
the 3 MHz to 30 MHz
range?
E9C11 — How is the far-field
elevation pattern of a
vertically polarized antenna
affected by being mounted
over seawater versus soil?
E9C13 — How does the radiation
pattern of a horizontally
polarized 3-element beam
antenna vary with increasing
height above ground?
E9C14 — How does the performance
of a horizontally polarized
antenna mounted on the side
of a hill compare with the
same antenna mounted on
flat ground?
The biggest effect on antenna system

efficiency at HF is usually the losses in
nearby ground, grounded structures, or
the antenna’s ground system. The
radiation pattern of an antenna over real
ground is always affected by the
electrical conductivity and dielectric
constant of the soil, and most importantly
by the height of a horizontally polarized
antenna over ground. Signals reflected
from the ground combine with the
signals radiated directly from the
antenna. If the signals are in phase when
they combine, the signal strength will be
increased but if they are out of phase, the
strength will be decreased. These
ground reflections affect the radiation
pattern for many wavelengths from the
antenna.
This is especially true of the far-field
pattern measured many wavelengths
from a vertically polarized antenna
operating at HF frequencies. In theory,
this type of antenna should produce a
major lobe at a low vertical angle —
good for DX! Losses caused by low
conductivity in the soil near the antenna
dramatically reduce signal strength at
low angles, however. [E9A11] For
example, the low-angle radiation from a
vertically polarized antenna mounted
over seawater will be much stronger
than for a similar antenna mounted over
rocky soil. [E9C11] The far-field, low-
angle radiation pattern for a horizontally
polarized antenna is not as significantly
affected, however.
For antennas that have a ground
connection or use a ground system as
part of the antenna, the ground
resistance can be a significant
contributor to antenna system losses —
even if the antenna itself is constructed
from low-loss materials.
In the case of a 1⁄4-wavelength vertical
antenna, with one conductor of the feed
line connected to ground, the ground
resistance is usually not negligible. To
be efficient, this type of antenna requires
a ground system of radial wires to
reduce losses that would otherwise
result from current flowing in the lossy
soil. [E9A10]
Height Above Ground

The height at which an antenna is
mounted above ground can also have a
large effect on an antenna’s radiation
pattern. First, by moving the antenna
away from ground, the amount of power
dissipated in the Earth (ground losses)
will be reduced. Second, reflections of
the radiated signal from the ground will
reinforce the direct radiation from the
antenna at lower vertical angles,
resulting in a stronger low-angle signal.
In general, raising an antenna lowers the
vertical takeoff angle of peak radiation.
Horizontally polarized antennas, such
as dipoles and Yagis, have less ground
loss than ground-mounted vertical
antennas. As they are raised, ground
losses drop to negligible levels. As such
an antenna is raised, the vertical angle of
maximum radiation drops until a height
of 1⁄2 wavelength is reached. Raising the
antenna farther causes additional lobes
to appear in the elevation pattern above
the main lobe, which continues to
become lower. Figure 9.6 shows an
example of these additional lobes. In
general, mounting horizontally polarized
antennas as high as possible gives the
strongest signal at low vertical angles.
[E9C13]
Terrain
The terrain on which an antenna is
mounted affects both the azimuthal and
elevation pattern of an antenna. Over flat
ground and without nearby obstructions
the radiation patterns for the antenna
will resemble those in the antenna
design books. Once buildings and
uneven terrain enter the picture however,
the results can be much more
complicated!
Nearby buildings can serve as
“passive” reflectors (or absorbers) of
radio waves, most strongly at VHF and
higher frequencies. This can be used to
advantage, for example, by aiming an
antenna to reflect a signal off a building
toward a distant station. (Take care, of
course, to avoid exposing the inhabitants
to excessive levels of RF.) At HF, small
buildings are less of a problem but large
buildings can have the same effect as on
the higher bands.
Hills and slopes have an effect on both
the azimuthal and elevation patterns. A
hilltop is highly sought after for radio
work because the reflections from the
ground’s surface are either reduced or
are more likely to reinforce the signal at
low takeoff angles. This is particularly
true for horizontally-polarized antennas;
the major lobe’s takeoff angle will
typically be lower in the direction of a
downward slope. [E9C14]
GROUND CONNECTIONS
conductors would be best for
minimizing losses in a
station’s RF ground system?
would provide the best RF
ground for your station?
It is important to understand the

difference between electrical safety
grounding, lightning protection
grounding, and bonding equipment
together. In most cases, there really isn’t
a point of zero RF voltage — an “RF
ground” — to connect to. See the Safety
chapter for more about the different
types of ground or earth connections. In
the station, equipment should be bonded
together to minimize RF voltages
between them that create “hot spots” or
unwanted RF current flowing on cables.
See the ARRL Handbook or the ARRL’s
Grounding and Bonding for the Radio
Amateur for more information about
safety and RF grounding.
Conductors used for lightning
protection grounds have several basic
requirements: they must be electrically
short to avoid acting like an antenna
themselves; they must be as straight as
possible to avoid creating unnecessary
inductance; and they must be a type of
conductor that has low RF impedance.
Wide, flat copper straps are the standard
for this type of ground connection.
[E9D11] Heavy copper wires also work
well.
Once the ground connection reaches the
Earth, an RF connection is different than
a power system’s safety ground. A single
ground rod at doesn’t offer enough
surface area to guarantee a low-
impedance connection to the Earth.
Several interconnected ground rods
(three or four is a good compromise)
make a much better connection. [E9D12]
9.2 Practical Antennas

Armed with a better theoretical
understanding of what affects antenna
system efficiency, you are now ready to
consider practical antenna systems.
Rarely does an antenna get installed in a
location without compromises. What
happens if the number of radials
available for an HF vertical antenna
can’t be as many as you’d like? What
would be the effect of a beam antenna
being close to the roof? How will that
nearby hill or building affect your
signal? These are all questions that
amateurs have to deal with every time an
antenna is erected.
DIPOLE VARIATIONS
E9C05 — Which of the following is a
type of OCFD antenna?
E9C07 — What is the approximate
feed point impedance at the
center of a two-wire folded
dipole antenna?
E9C08 — What is a folded dipole
antenna?
describes a G5RV antenna?
describes a Zepp antenna?
describes an Extended
Double Zepp antenna?
There are many different variations of

the dipole antenna used on the HF bands.
Let’s meet some of the common designs.
Folded Dipole
A folded dipole antenna in Figure 9.7
is a 1⁄2-wavelength dipole with an
additional closely-spaced parallel wire
connecting the two ends at B and C to
form a narrow loop. [E9C08] The
antenna is fed in the middle of one side
of the loop. The antenna is 1⁄2 λ long from
end to end, thus the name “folded
dipole.” The folded dipole has the same
directional characteristics as a regular
dipole, but its feed point impedance is
four times that of a regular dipole and its
SWR bandwidth is wider than for the
single-conductor antenna. The higher
impedance is useful when it is desirable
to feed the antenna with ladder line or
twin lead transmission line.
The two wires act as two dipoles
connected in parallel. Because of the
close spacing the current in each is
equal. If the total power at the feed
point, P, is the same as for a single
dipole, but with only half the current, the
folded dipole’s feed point impedance, P
/ I2, must be four times that of the single-
conductor dipole: 4 × 73 = 292 Ω, a
fairly close match to 300-Ω twin lead or
open-wire transmission line. [E9C07]
Zepp and Extended Double Zepp
Antennas
The original Zepp antenna in Figure
9.8A is named for the Zeppelin airship
where it was originally used, hanging
below the airship. The Zepp is simply a
half-wave dipole with an open-wire
feed line connected at one end. [E9C10]
A common term for this antenna today is
the end-fed half-wave or EFHW. The
end of a half-wave wire is a point of
high-impedance so the length of feed line
was chosen to present a lower
impedance at the transmitter, generally a
quarter-wavelength was used.
The high feed point impedance could
be reduced by lengthening the dipole
until it was approximately 5⁄8
wavelengths long creating the extended
Zepp. Two extended Zepps can also be
connected together as in Figure 9.8B.
This creates the extended double Zepp
(EDZ) antenna which is 2 × 5⁄8 = 1.25
wavelengths long. Fed in the center, a
short section of open-wire feed line is
used to create a point at which the
impedance is approximately 50 Ω. At
that point a choke balun is used to allow
a coaxial cable to be attached. The EDZ
is really a collinear array of two half-
wave dipoles with their currents in-
phase so the pattern is bidirectional,
broadside to the antenna. [E9C12]
G5RV Antenna
A variation on the extended Zepp, the
design invented by G5RV is shown in
Figure 9.9. The length of open-wire line
is selected to produce a low impedance
on at least one band so that a 1:1 choke
balun can be used for attaching 50-Ω
coax. [E9C09] The antenna may be used
from 3.5 through 30 MHz, although the
use of an antenna tuner should be
expected on any band except 14 MHz.
On its fundamental frequency, the G5RV
has a four-lobed pattern that is
somewhat more omnidirectional than
either dipole or doublet. There are a
number of variations on this basic
antenna configuration that are referred to
as “G5RV” antennas. The common
features are center-feed with a short
length of open-wire line terminated in a
choke balun for attachment to coaxial
cable.
Off-Center Fed Dipole (OCFD)

While usually fed in the center, a 1⁄2-
wavelength dipole will accept energy
from a feed point anywhere along its
length. If the feed point is moved away
from the center of the dipole as in
Figure 9.10, the impedance rises
because current is dropping while
voltage is rising along the antenna. The
off-center-fed dipole or OFCD takes
advantage of placing the feed point
where the impedance is similar on more
than one band, generally in the
neighborhood of 150 – 300 Ω. A
suitable matching device such as a 4:1
impedance transformer is then used to
reduce the feed point impedance to
something closer to 50 Ω. [E9C05]
LOADED WHIPS
E9D03 — Where should a high-Q
loading coil be placed to
minimize losses in a
shortened vertical antenna?
E9D04 — Why should an HF mobile
antenna loading coil have a
high ratio of reactance to
resistance?
E9D06 — What happens to the SWR
bandwidth when one or more
loading coils are used to
resonate an electrically
short antenna?
E9D07 — What is an advantage of
using top loading in a
shortened HF vertical
antenna?
E9D09 — What is the function of a
loading coil as used as part
of an HF mobile antenna?
E9D10 — What happens to feed-point
impedance at the base of a
fixed length HF mobile
antenna when operated
below its resonant
frequency?
The most difficult place to achieve

effective HF antenna performance is a
mobile station. Not only is the antenna
system exposed to the mobile
environment’s vibration, temperature
extremes and corrosion, but the
antenna’s size is quite limited by the
constraints on vehicle size and
maneuverability. The 10 and 12 meter
bands are the only bands on which “full-
sized” 1⁄4-wavelength ground-plane
antennas can realistically be used for a
mobile station.
Practically, mobile antennas for HF are
almost all some variation on the whip —
a flexible, vertical conductor attached to
the vehicle with a threaded or magnetic
mount. The vehicle acts as a ground-
plane for the antenna. Whips are usually
8 feet or less in length. At 21 MHz and
lower frequencies, the antenna is
“electrically short,” meaning less than
1⁄4-wavelength long. As the operating
frequency is lowered, the feed point
impedance of such an antenna is a
decreasing radiation resistance in series
with an increasing capacitive reactance
as shown by the equivalent circuit in
Figure 9.11. [E9D10] A full-size 1⁄4-
wavelength whip’s radiation resistance
is approximately 36 Ω.
To tune out the capacitive reactance
and resonate the antenna, a series
inductive reactance, or loading coil is
used. (Remember that resonance occurs
when the feed point impedance is
entirely resistive.) [E9D09] The amount
of inductance required is determined by
the desired operating frequency and
where the coil is placed along the
antenna. Figure 9.12 shows the loading
coil as an inductance in series with the
whip.
Base loading (placing the loading coil
at the feed point, assumed to be at the
base of the antenna) requires the lowest
value of inductance for a given antenna
length. As the coil is moved along the
whip farther from the feed point, the
required amount of inductance increases.
This is because the amount of capacitive
reactance increases as the feed point
moves closer to the end of the whip. The
tradeoff of using loading coils in a
shortened antenna is that the SWR
bandwidth of the antenna is reduced.
[E9D06] The reduction in bandwidth
occurs because reactance of the tuned
system increases more rapidly away
from the resonant frequency than does
the feed point reactance of a full-size
antenna.
One advantage of placing the coil at
least part way up the whip, however, is
that the current distribution along the
antenna is improved, and that increases
the radiation resistance. The major
disadvantage is that the requirement for
a larger loading coil means that the coil
losses will be greater, although this is
offset somewhat by lower current
through the larger coil and is the reason
loading coils should have a high Q (ratio
of reactance to resistance). [E9D04]
Assuming a high-Q coil, center loading
offers the best compromise for
minimizing losses in an electrically-
short vertical antenna. [E9D03]
Figure 9.13 shows a typical center-
loaded whip antenna suitable for
operation in the HF range. The antenna
could also be mounted directly on the
car body (such as a fender or trunk lid).
The base spring acts as a shock absorber
for the base of the whip, since continual
flexing would weaken the antenna. A
short, heavy, mast section is mounted
between the base spring and loading
coil. Some models have a mechanism
that allows the antenna to be tipped over
for adjustment or for fastening to the roof
of the car when not in use. Optional guy
lines can be used to stabilize the antenna
while in motion.
The popular mobile “Hamstick”
antenna consists of a two-section tubular
fiberglass base helically wound with the
antenna conductor and topped with a
short metal whip. The entire base
becomes the loading coil. These
inexpensive antennas work on a single
band, requiring multiple antennas to be
carried for operation on multiple bands.
They give good performance for their
modest price. At the other end of the
price scale are the tunable
“screwdriver” antennas similar to that in
Figure 9.13 but with a loading coil
inductance that can be adjusted from
inside the vehicle. (The name derives
from the small dc motor used to tune the
coil, similar to those found in electric
screwdrivers.)
Losses in the loading coil can be
reduced if the required loading coil
inductance is reduced, allowing a
smaller coil. To use a smaller coil, the
capacitive reactance that must be tuned
out must also be reduced. One method of
decreasing capacitive reactance is to
increase capacitance. The top loading
method is one such technique.
Top loading adds a “capacitive hat”
above the loading coil, either just above
the coil or near the top of the whip. The
“hat” usually consists of short wires
perpendicular to the whip, often with the
ends of the wires connected by a metal
ring for additional strength. The added
capacitance reduces the resonating value
of inductance and the size of the loading
coil. Using a smaller loading inductor
reduces the loading coil’s resistive loss
and improves the antenna radiation
efficiency. [E9D07]
TRAVELING WAVE ANTENNAS

E9C04 — What happens to the
radiation pattern of an
unterminated long wire
antenna as the wire length is
increased?
E9C06 — What is the effect of adding
a terminating resistor to a
rhombic antenna?
E9H01 — When constructing a
Beverage antenna, which of
the following factors should
be included in the design to
achieve good performance at
the desired frequency?
E9H02 — Which is generally true for
low band (160 meter and 80
meter) receiving antennas?
So far, the antennas you’ve studied for

your license exams have been resonant
antennas, based on 1⁄2-λ or 1⁄4-λ elements.
Another class of antennas lets the power
flow along elements up to several
wavelengths long, being dissipated as it
goes. These are traveling wave
antennas.
The most common traveling wave
antenna is the long-wire antenna. Long
wires, as the name implies, are just,
well, long wires — one wavelength long
or longer. They can be fed anywhere
along their length, but typically 1⁄4 λ from
one end as a dipole with one end
extended. The radiation pattern for such
an antenna is shown at the left in Figure
9.14. The feed point impedance of the
long-wire antenna varies dramatically as
a consequence of the changing current
patterns with frequency.
The long wire has four major lobes
(and several minor lobes). The longer
the wire, the closer to the direction of
the wire the lobes become. [E9C04] If
two long wires are combined as shown
in the figure, and fed out-of-phase with a
single transmission line where the wires
come together, their major lobes will
coincide in two directions, creating the
pattern shown at the right of the figure.
This is the antenna known as the Vee
beam. The open wire ends reflect any
power that hasn’t been dissipated back
toward the feed point, creating the
“backward” major lobe of the radiation
pattern.
Rhombic Antennas
Vee beams can be combined as well,
creating the rhombic antenna, shown in
Figure 9.15. The diamond-shaped
rhombic antenna can be considered as
two Vee beams placed end-to-end; it has
four equal-length legs and the opposite
angles are equal so the antenna is
symmetrical. Each leg is at least one
wavelength long. Rhombic antennas are
installed horizontally with supports at
the four corners.
The radiation pattern of a rhombic is

bidirectional as shown by the arrows in
Figure 9.15. There are minor lobes in
other directions; their number and
strength depend on the length of the legs.
Notice that the wires at the end opposite
the feed point are open. Just as for Vee
beams, the open wire ends reflect power
that’s not dissipated back toward the
feed point and create the second major
lobe.
In Figure 9.15B, a terminating resistor
has been added to form the terminated
rhombic. The main effect of adding a
terminating resistance is to change the
pattern to unidirectional by absorbing
the power that would have been
reflected to create the unwanted second
major lobe. [E9C06] The loss of power
as heat (about a third of the input power)
does not result in lower gain in the
desired direction, however.
Beverage Antennas
Nearly every antenna installed by radio
amateurs is used for both receiving and
transmitting. One common exception is
the traveling wave receive antenna
invented by H.H. Beverage and shown in
Figure 9.16. The Beverage antenna acts
like a long transmission line, with one
lossy conductor (the Earth) and one good
conductor (the wire). As for the
terminated rhombic antenna, a Beverage
antenna has a terminating resistor to
ground at the end farthest from the radio.
The terminating resistor absorbs the
power of signals arriving from the
unwanted direction instead of allowing
them to be reflected back toward the
feed point.
Beverage antennas are effective

directional antennas for 160 meters and
80 meters. They are less effective at
higher frequencies, however, and are
seldom used on 40 meters and shorter
wavelength bands. Beverage antennas
should be at least one wavelength long at
the lowest operating frequency. [E9H01]
Longer antennas provide increased gain
and directivity. Beverage antennas are
installed at relatively low heights,
normally 8 to 10 feet above ground.
They should form a relatively straight
line extending from the feed point
toward the preferred direction.
The Beverage’s chief benefit is in
rejecting noise from unwanted
directions, not in having high gain. In
fact, the Beverage is rather lossy! In
general, atmospheric noise is high
enough on the lower bands that antenna
gain is not important. [E9H02] The
improvement in signal-to-noise ratio,
however, can be dramatic.
PHASED ARRAYS
E9C01 — What is the radiation
pattern of two 1⁄4-
wavelength vertical
antennas spaced 1⁄2-
wavelength apart and fed
180 degrees out of phase?
wavelength vertical
wavelength apart and fed 90
degrees out of phase?
wavelength vertical
wavelength apart and fed in
phase?
E9E08 — What is a use for a
Wilkinson divider?
E9E11 — What is the primary purpose
of phasing lines when used
with an antenna having
multiple driven elements?
Various pattern shapes can be obtained

using an antenna system that consists of
two vertical antennas fed with various
phase relationships. These are examples
of phased arrays in which the phase
differences of the signals that the
antennas receive or transmit create the
desired radiation pattern.
Figure 9.17 illustrates the basics of
how a phased array pattern is created. In
Figure 9.17A, a single antenna (oriented
so that the current, I, is flowing
perpendicularly to the page) is radiating
a signal as shown by the different
circles, representing the positive and
negative peaks of the signal. When a
second antenna is added at Figure
9.17B, the spacing of the antennas
causes the signals to reinforce at some
angles to the array and cancel at others.
The resulting radiation pattern is shown
at Figure 9.17C.
The relative phase between the
antennas can be varied by changing their
physical spacing or by changing the
electrical phase of the currents that feed
the antenna. Figure 9.18 shows patterns
for a number of common spacings and
current phases. The patterns assume that
the antennas are identical 1⁄4-wavelength
verticals and are fed with equal
magnitudes of current. As in Figure 9.17,
the currents in both antennas are
perpendicular to the page. The antennas
themselves are aligned along a vertical
line from top to bottom of the figure. The
antenna toward the top of the pattern has
the lagging current phase.
By studying the patterns shown in
Figure 9.18 you can see that when the
two antennas are fed in phase, a pattern
that is broadside to the elements always
results. If the antennas are 1⁄4 wavelength
apart and fed in phase, the pattern is
elliptical, like a slightly flattened circle.
This system is substantially
omnidirectional. If the antennas are 1⁄2
wavelength apart and fed in phase the
pattern is a figure-8 that is broadside to
the antennas. [E9C03]
At spacings of less than 5⁄8 wavelength,
with the elements fed 180° out of phase,
the maximum radiation lobe is in line
with the antennas. This is an end-fire
array. For example, if the antennas are
1⁄8wavelength, 1⁄4 wavelength or 1⁄2
wavelength apart and fed 180° out of
phase the pattern is a figure-8 that is in
line with the antennas. [E9C01]
With intermediate amounts of phase
difference, the results cannot be stated
so simply. Patterns evolve that are not
symmetrical in all four quadrants. If the
antennas are 1⁄4 wavelength apart and fed
90° out of phase, an interesting pattern
results. (See the middle pattern of the
second row from the left in Figure 9.15.)
This is a unidirectional cardioid
pattern. [E9C02] A more complete table
of patterns is given in The ARRL
Antenna Book.
These arrays are constructed by using
physically identical antennas that are fed
with phasing lines that create the
necessary phase differences between
them. This ensures that each element
radiates a signal with the necessary
phase to create the desired antenna
pattern. [E9E11] When the antennas are
identical and being fed with identical
currents, such as any of the “in-phase”
designs with φ = 0°, a Wilkinson power
divider can be used to split the power
from the transmitter into equal portions
while preventing changes in the loads
from affecting power flow to the other
loads. [E9E08]
ANTENNAS FOR SPACE

COMMUNICATIONS
E9D01 — How much does the gain of
an ideal parabolic dish
antenna change when the
operating frequency is
doubled?
E9D02 — How can linearly polarized
Yagi antennas be used to
produce circular
polarization?
Previous chapters discuss amateur

radio satellites and their operation. In
this section, we consider the gain and
polarization requirements for antennas
used in space radio communications.
Gain and Antenna Size

At VHF and UHF, Yagi-style antennas
are the most common for satellite and
EME contacts. For a properly designed
Yagi, the longer the boom, the greater the
gain. At microwave frequencies, though,
a dish antenna may be required because
of the higher path loss at these
frequencies and the difficulty of
constructing Yagis with enough gain.
Parabolic dish antennas are so named
because the cross section of the dish is a
parabola with the feed point at its focus.
While these antennas can be quite large
at frequencies of more than a few GHz,
at 10 GHz and up, they are quite
reasonably sized. For example, at 10
GHz a typical dish antenna need only be
a bit more than a foot wide to develop
substantial amounts of gain. The gain of
a parabolic antenna is directly
proportional to the square of the dish
diameter and directly proportional to the
square of the frequency. That means the
gain will increase by 6 dB if either the
dish diameter or the operating frequency
is doubled. [E9D01]
Effects of Polarization
Best results in space radio
communication are obtained not by using
horizontal or vertical polarization, but
by using a combination of the two called
circular polarization. When two equal
waves, one horizontally polarized and
one vertically polarized, are combined
with a phase difference of 90°, the result
is a circularly polarized wave.
A circularly polarized antenna can be
constructed from two dipoles or Yagis
mounted at 90° with respect to each
other and fed 90° out of phase. [E9D02]
circularly polarized antenna made from
two Yagi antennas. The two driven
elements must be at the same position
along the boom for this antenna. The
driven elements are in the same plane,
which is perpendicular to the boom and
to the direction of maximum signal.
RECEIVING LOOP ANTENNAS
FOR DIRECTION FINDING
E9H03 — What is Receiving
Directivity Factor (RDF)?
E9H04 — What is an advantage of
placing a grounded
electrostatic shield around a
small loop direction-finding
antenna?
E9H05 — What is the main drawback
of a small wire-loop antenna
for direction finding?
E9H06 — What is the triangulation
method of direction finding?
E9H07 — Why is RF attenuation used
when direction-finding?
E9H08 — What is the function of a
sense antenna?
E9H09 — What is a Pennant antenna?
E9H10 — How can the output voltage
of a multiple-turn receiving
loop antenna be increased?
E9H11 — What feature of a cardioid
pattern antenna makes it
useful for direction finding?
A simple receiving antenna at MF and

HF is a small loop antenna consisting of
one or more turns of wire wound in the
shape of a large open inductor or coil.
The loop is usually tuned to resonance
with a capacitor. The loop must be small
compared to the wavelength — in a
single-turn loop, the conductor should be
less than 0.08 wavelength long.
Loops used for receiving and radio
direction finding (RDF) are used for
their noise rejection and nulls rather than
their gain, which is often quite low. The
nulls can be used to reject a local source
of noise or interference or they can be
used to indicate the direction to a signal
source.
An ideal loop antenna has maximum
response in the plane of the loop, as
Figure 9.20 shows. The ideal loop has
deep nulls at right angles to its plane.
Because there are two nulls, the pattern
is bidirectional. Such an antenna is a
simple one to construct, but the
bidirectional pattern is a major
drawback for direction finding. You
can’t tell which of the two directions
points to the signal source! Thus, a
single null reading with a small loop
antenna will not indicate the exact
direction toward the transmitter — only
the line along which it lies. [E9H05]
If the loop is not balanced with respect
to ground (meaning that voltages from
vertically polarized electric fields will
not cancel), it will exhibit two modes of
operation. One is the mode of the true
loop while the other is that of an
omnidirectional, small vertical antenna.
This second mode of operation is
sometimes called antenna effect. An
electrostatic balance can be obtained by
shielding the loop. This reduces
unbalanced capacitive coupling to the
loop’s surroundings, eliminating the
antenna effect so that the response is
quite close to the ideal pattern of Figure
9.20A, giving deeper, sharper nulls.
[E9H04]
For direction finding, it is better for the
receiving antenna pattern to have just
one null, so there is no question about
where the transmitter’s true direction
lies. A loop may be made to have a
single null if a second antenna element,
called a sense antenna, is added.
[E9H08] The sense antenna must be
omnidirectional, such as a short vertical.
If the signals from the loop and the sense
antenna are combined with a 90° phase
shift between the two, a cardioid
radiation pattern results, similar to that
of Figure 9.20D. This pattern has a
single large lobe in one direction, with a
deep, narrow null in the opposite
direction. The deep null can help
pinpoint the direction of the desired
signal.
The loop and sensing-element patterns
combine to form the cardioid pattern
which has a very sharp single null.
[E9H11] For the best null in the
composite pattern, the signals from the
loop and the sensing antenna must be of
equal amplitude so that they can cancel
completely in the direction of the null.
The null of the cardioid will be 90°
away from the nulls of the loop, so it is
customary to first use the loop alone to
obtain a precise bearing line, then
switch in the sensing antenna to resolve
the ambiguity.
For general receiving on the lower-
frequency bands, small, single-turn
loops are generally not sensitive enough
to be effective. Therefore, multi-turn
loops, such as shown in Figure 9.21, are
often used. This loop may also be
shielded and if the total conductor length
remains below 0.08 wavelength, the
pattern is that of the single-turn loop.
The voltage generated by the loop is
proportional to the strength of the
magnetic component of the radio wave
passing through the coil and to the
number of turns in the coil. The action is
much the same as in the secondary
winding of a transformer. The output
voltage of the loop can be increased by
increasing the number of turns in the
loop or the loop area. [E9H10]
Larger single-turn receiving loops
known as pennants and flags have
become popular on the lower-frequency
bands. Figure 9.22 shows several
configurations of these antennas. All are
less than 0.1 wavelength in
circumference and are typically installed
vertically, sometimes even rotatable, and
terminated with around 900 Ω. [E9H09]
They have a cardioid-type pattern with a
modest null to reject noise.
All of these receiving antennas,

including Beverage antennas discussed
previously, are used because of their
ability to reject unwanted noise (or
signals) away from a preferred
direction. The result is an improved
signal-to-noise ratio, even if the amount
of signal is lower. This ability is
measured by the figure of merit called
receiving directivity factor (also called
relative directivity factor). It is equal to
the antenna’s gain in the forward
direction divided by the gain in all other
directions. [E9H03] This factor is
calculated by antenna modeling software
and can be used to compare and
optimize antenna designs. (RDF, the
factor, should not be confused with RDF,
the activity.)
The equipment required for a radio
direction finding system is a directive
antenna and a device for detecting the
radio signal. The signal detector is
usually a receiver with a meter to
indicate signal strength. Some form of
RF attenuation is desirable to allow
proper operation of the receiver under
high signal conditions, such as when
zeroing-in on the transmitter at close
range. Otherwise the strong signals may
overload the receiver and reduce the
pattern nulls. [E9H07]
If two or more RDF bearing
measurements are made at several
locations separated by a significant
distance, the bearing lines can be drawn
from those positions as represented on a
map as in Figure 9.23. This technique is
called triangulation. [E9H06] It is
important that the two DF sites not be on
the same straight line with the signal you
are trying to find. The point where the
lines cross (assuming the bearings are
not the same or 180° apart) will indicate
a “fix” of the approximate transmitter
location.
The effects of refraction and reflection
from terrain are shown in Figure 9.23.
At A, the signal is actually arriving from
a direction different from the true
direction of the transmitter. This happens
because the wave is refracted at the
shoreline. Even the most sophisticated
equipment will not indicate the true
bearing in this instance, as the equipment
can only show the direction from which
the signal is arriving.
9.3 Antenna Systems

An antenna system is much more than
the pieces of metal dangling from a
tower or tied off to the local trees. It
consists of the antenna, the supports, the
connection to the feed line, the feed line
itself, plus any metering and impedance-
matching devices. Gain and radiated
power calculations must include the feed
line and antenna gain, as well. System
topics like these are the subjects of this
section.
EFFECTIVE RADIATED POWER

E9A02 — What is the effective
radiated power relative to a
dipole of a repeater station
with 150 watts transmitter
power output, 2 dB feed line
loss, 2.2 dB duplexer loss,
and 7 dBd antenna gain?
dipole of a repeater station
with 200 watts transmitter
power output, 4 dB feed line
loss, 3.2 dB duplexer loss, 0.8
dB circulator loss, and 10
dBd antenna gain?
isotropic radiated power of a
repeater station with 200
watts transmitter power
output, 2 dB feed line loss,
2.8 dB duplexer loss, 1.2 dB
circulator loss, and 7 dBi
antenna gain?
E9A13 — What term describes station
output, taking into account
all gains and losses?
When evaluating total station

performance, accounting for the effects
of the entire system is important,
including antenna gain. This allows you
to evaluate the effects of changes to the
station. Transmitting performance is
usually computed as effective radiated
power (ERP). ERP is calculated with
respect to a reference antenna system —
usually a dipole but occasionally an
isotropic antenna — and answers the
question, “How much power does my
station radiate as compared to that if my
antenna was a simple dipole?” Effective
isotropic radiated power (EIRP) results
when an isotropic antenna is used as the
reference. If no antenna reference is
specified, assume a dipole reference
antenna.
ERP is especially useful in designing
and coordinating repeater systems. The
effective power radiated from the
antenna helps establish the coverage
area of the repeater. In addition, the
height of the repeater antenna as
compared to buildings and mountains in
the surrounding area (height above
average terrain, or HAAT) has a large
effect on the repeater coverage. In
general, for a given coverage area, with
a greater antenna HAAT, less effective
radiated power (ERP) is needed. A
frequency coordinator may even specify
a maximum ERP for a repeater, to help
reduce interference between stations
using the same frequencies.
ERP calculations begin with the
transmitter power output (TPO). (This
is assumed to be the output of the final
power amplification stage if an external
power amplifier is used.) Then the
system gain of the entire antenna system
including the transmission line and all
transmission line components is applied
to TPO to compute the entire station’s
output power. [E9A13]
There is always some power lost in the
feed line and often there are other
devices inserted in the line, such as a
filter or an impedance-matching
network. In the case of a repeater
system, there is usually a duplexer so the
transmitter and receiver can use the
same antenna and perhaps a circulator to
reduce the possibility of intermodulation
interference. These devices also
introduce some loss to the system. The
antenna system then usually returns some
gain to the system.
ERP = TPO × System (Equation

Gain 9.4A)
Since the system gains and losses are

usually expressed in decibels, they can
simply be added together, with losses
written as negative values. System gain
must then be converted back to a linear
value from dB to calculate ERP.
Remember that log-1 is usually called the
anti- or inverse-log on calculators.
It is also common to work entirely in
dBm and dB until the final result for
ERP is obtained and then converted back
to watts.
ERP (in dBm) = TPO (in (Equation

dBm) + System Gain (in dB) 9.4C)
Suppose we have a repeater station that

uses a 50 W transmitter and a feed line
with 4 dB of loss. There is a duplexer in
the line with 2 dB of loss and a
circulator that adds another 1 dB of loss.
This repeater uses an antenna that has a
gain of 6 dBd. Our total system gain is
then:
System gain = –4 dB + –2 dB + –1 dB +
6 dBd = –1 dB
Note that this is a loss of 1 dB total for
the system from TPO to radiated power.
The effect on the 50 W of TPO results
in:
This is consistent with the expectation

that with a 1 dB system loss we would
have somewhat less ERP than transmitter
output power.
As another example, suppose we have
a transmitter that feeds a 100 W output
signal into a feed line that has 1 dB of
loss. The feed line connects to an
antenna that has a gain of 6 dBd. What is
the effective radiated power from the
antenna? To calculate the total system
gain (or loss) we add the decibel values
given:
System gain = – 1 dB + 6 dBd = 5 dB
and
The total system has positive gain, so

we should have expected a larger value
for ERP than TPO. Keep in mind that the
gain antenna concentrates more of the
signal in a desired direction, with less
signal in undesired directions. So the
antenna doesn’t really increase the total
available power. If directional antennas
are used, ERP will change with
direction.
Example 9.4
What is the effective radiated power of
a repeater station with 150 W transmitter
power output, 2 dB feed line loss, 2.2
dB duplexer loss and 7 dBd antenna
gain? [E9A02]
System gain = –2 dB – 2.2 dB + 7 dBd =
2.8 dB
Example 9.5
What is the effective radiated power of
a repeater station with 200 W transmitter
power output, 4 dB feed line loss, 3.2
dB duplexer loss, 0.8 dB circulator loss
and 10 dBd antenna gain? [E9A06]
System gain = –4 – 3.2 – 0.8 + 10 = 2
dB
Example 9.6
What is the effective isotropic radiated
power of a repeater station with 200 W
transmitter power output, 2 dB feed line
loss, 2.8 dB duplexer loss, 1.2 dB
circulator loss and 7 dBi antenna gain?
[E9A07]
System gain = –2 – 2.8 – 1.2 + 7 = 1 dB
IMPEDANCE MATCHING
E9E01 — What system matches a
higher-impedance
transmission line to a lower-
impedance antenna by
connecting the line to the
driven element in two places
spaced a fraction of a
wavelength each side of
element center?
E9E02 — What is the name of an
antenna matching system
that matches an unbalanced
feed line to an antenna by
feeding the driven element
both at the center of the
element and at a fraction of
a wavelength to one side of
center?
E9E03 — What is the name of the
matching system that uses a
section of transmission line
connected in parallel with
the feed line at or near the
feed point?
E9E04 — What is the purpose of the
series capacitor in a gamma-
type antenna matching
network?
E9E05 — How must an antenna’s
driven element be tuned to
use a hairpin matching
system?
E9E09 — Which of the following is
used to shunt-feed a
grounded tower at its base?
E9G05 — Which of the following is a
common use for a Smith
chart?
Through the hard work of antenna

designers over the years, there are many
techniques for matching transmission
lines to antennas. This section covers the
basic principles of the delta, gamma,
hairpin, and stub-matching systems. The
ARRL Antenna Book contains additional
information about these and other
impedance-matching techniques.
Matching the antenna feed point and
feed line impedances at the antenna
eliminates the need for an impedance
matching unit at the transmitter.
Impedance matching at the antenna is
often less expensive than a piece of
equipment. In a station with multiple
antennas, matching their impedances to
that of the feed line eliminates the need
to retune an impedance matching unit
when changing antennas.
The Delta Match

If you try to match a half-wave dipole
to open-wire feed line, you will face a
problem. The center impedance of the
dipole is too low to be matched directly
by any practical type of air-insulated
parallel-conductor line. The delta match
gives us a way to match a high-
impedance transmission line to a lower
impedance antenna. The line connects to
the driven element in two places, spaced
a fraction of a wavelength on each side
of the element center. [E9E01] The
connection points are separated until the
impedance between them matches that of
the feed line. The antenna is not broken
in the center, so there is no center
insulator. This principle is illustrated in
Figure 9.25. The fanned-out section of
feed line is triangular, similar to the
Greek letter ∆ (delta) that gives the
technique its name.
The Gamma Match
A commonly used method for matching
a coaxial feed line to the driven element
of a parasitic array is the gamma match.
Shown in Figure 9.26, and named for the
Greek letter Γ, the gamma match has
considerable flexibility in impedance
matching ratio. Because this match is
inherently unbalanced, a balun is not
required to use coaxial cable feed line.
The feed line attaches at the center of the
driven element and at a fraction of a
wavelength to one side of center.
[E9E02]
Electrically speaking, the gamma
conductor and the associated antenna
conductor can be considered as a section
of transmission line shorted at the end.
Since it is shorter than 1⁄4 wavelength the
gamma matching section has inductive
reactance. This means that if the antenna
itself is exactly resonant at the operating
frequency, the input impedance of the
gamma section will show inductive
reactance as well as resistance. The
reactance must be tuned out to present a
good match to the transmission line. This
can be done in two ways. The antenna
can be shortened so that its impedance
contains capacitive reactance to cancel
the inductive reactance of the gamma
section, or a capacitance of the proper
value can be inserted in series at the
input terminals as shown in Figure 9.26.
[E9E04]
Gamma matches have been widely
used for matching coaxial cable to
parasitic beams for a number of years.
Because this technique is well suited to
all-metal construction, the gamma match
has become quite popular for amateur
antennas. Gamma matches can also be
used at the base of a grounded tower to
be used as a vertical antenna. [E9E09]
Called shunt feeding, the gamma
matched driven element is turned on its
side with the missing half supplied by
the electrical image created by the
ground system.
Because of the system’s many variables
— driven-element length, gamma rod
length, rod diameter, spacing between
rod and driven element, and value of
series capacitance — a number of
combinations will provide the desired
match. A more detailed discussion of the
gamma match as well as design software
can be found in The ARRL Antenna
Book.
The Hairpin Match

The hairpin matching system is a
popular method of matching a feed line
to a Yagi antenna. Figure 9.27 illustrates
this technique. The hairpin match is also
referred to as a beta match. To use a
hairpin match, the driven element must
be split in the middle and insulated from
its supporting structure. The driven
element is tuned so it has a capacitive
reactance at the desired operating
frequency. [E9E05] (This means the
element is a little too short for
resonance.) The hairpin adds some
inductive reactance, transforming the
feed point impedance to that of the feed
line.
Figure 9.27B shows the equivalent
lumped-constant network for a typical
hairpin matching system for a 3-element
Yagi. RA and CA represent the antenna
feed point impedance. When the network
is redrawn, as shown in Figure 9.27C,
you can see that the circuit is the
equivalent of an L network with the
hairpin supplying the inductance, L. The
center point of the hairpin is electrically
neutral and is often attached to an
antenna’s metal boom for mechanical
stability.
The Stub Match

In some cases, it is possible to match a
transmission line and antenna by
connecting an appropriate reactance in
parallel with them at the antenna feed
point. Reactances formed from sections
of transmission line are called matching
stubs. Those stubs are designated either
as open or closed, depending on whether
the free end is an open or short circuit.
Using a stub in this way is called a stub
match. [E9E03]
An impedance match can also be
obtained by connecting the feed line at
an appropriate point along the matching
stub, as shown in Figure 9.28. The
universal stub system illustrated here is
used mostly at VHF and higher
frequencies where the lengths of
transmission lines are more manageable.
A stub match can also be made with
coaxial cable, as illustrated in Figure
9.29. By varying the length and
termination for the stub, it can present a
wide variety of impedances at the end
connected to the main feed line. By
choosing the right position in the main
feed line, the impedance of the added
stub can transform the impedance to a
desired value. The challenge is to find
the right stub impedance and the right
point in the main feed line to attach it.
The Smith chart described in the next
section is a tool you can use to
determine the length and position of the
required impedance matching stub.
[E9G05] There are a number of
software utilities and online services
that help design stub matching systems.
9.4 Transmission Lines
As you’ve already noticed from
operating radio equipment, transmission
lines or feed lines seem to make up a
significant portion of a radio station!
And while they are the “silent partners”
in the antenna system, not turning like
antennas or pumping out power like a
transmitter, every signal you send and
receive goes through them. It pays to
understand the basics of how they work!
VELOCITY FACTOR AND

ELECTRICAL LENGTH
E9F01 — What is the velocity factor
of a transmission line?
E9F02 — Which of the following has
the biggest effect on the
velocity factor of a
transmission line?
E9F03 — Why is the physical length
of a coaxial cable
transmission line shorter
than its electrical length?
physical length of a solid
polyethylene dielectric
coaxial transmission line that
is electrically 1⁄4 wavelength
long at 14.1 MHz?
physical length of an air-
insulated, parallel conductor
transmission line that is
electrically 1⁄2 wavelength
long at 14.10 MHz?
physical length of a foam
polyethylene dielectric
coaxial transmission line that
is electrically 1⁄4 wavelength
long at 7.2 MHz?
An ac voltage applied to a feed line

gives rise to the sort of current shown in
Figure 9.30. If the frequency of the ac
voltage is 10 MHz, each cycle will take
0.1 microsecond. Therefore, a complete
current cycle will be present along each
30 meters of line (assuming free-space
velocity). This distance is one
wavelength.
Current observed at B occurs just one
cycle later in time than the current at A.
To put it another way, the current
initiated at A does not appear at B, one
wavelength away, until the applied
voltage has had time to go through a
complete cycle.
In Figure 9.30, the series of drawings
shows how the instantaneous current
might appear if we could take snapshots
of it at quarter-cycle intervals in time.
The current travels out from the input
end of the line in waves. At any selected
point on the line, the current goes
through its complete range of ac values
in the time of one cycle just as it does at
the input end.
In the previous example, we assumed
that energy traveled along the line at the
velocity of light. The actual velocity is
very close to that of light if the insulation
between the conductors of the line is
solely air. The presence of dielectric
materials other than air reduces the
velocity since electromagnetic waves
travel more slowly in materials other
than in a vacuum. [E9F02] Because of
this, the length of line that makes one
wavelength will depend on the velocity
of the wave as it moves along the line.
The ratio of the actual velocity at which
a signal travels along a line to the speed
of light in a vacuum is called the
velocity factor. [E9F01]
where VF is the velocity factor.
The velocity factor is also related to
the dielectric constant, ε, by:
(Equation 9.6)
For example, several popular types of

coaxial cable have a solid polyethylene
dielectric, which has a dielectric
constant of 2.3. For those types of
coaxial cable, we can use Equation 9.6
to calculate the velocity factor of the
line.
Because of the slower velocity of

propagation, the electrical length of a
transmission line (or antenna) is not the
same as its physical length. The
electrical length is measured in
wavelengths at a given frequency. Waves
move slower in the line than in air, so
the physical length of line will always
be shorter than its electrical length.
[E9F03] To calculate the physical length
of a transmission line that is electrically
one wavelength, use the formulas:
or
where:
f = operating frequency (in MHz).
VF = velocity factor.
Suppose you want a section of RG-8
coaxial cable that is 1⁄4 wavelength long
at 14.1 MHz. What is its physical
length? The answer depends on the
dielectric used in the coaxial cable. RG-
8 is manufactured with polyethylene or
foamed polyethylene dielectric; velocity
factors for the two versions are 0.66 and
0.80, respectively. We’ll use the
polyethylene line with a velocity factor
of 0.66 for our example. The physical
length in meters of 1 wavelength of feed
line is given by Equation 9.7:
To find the physical length for a 1⁄4-

wavelength section of line, we must
divide this value by 4. A 1⁄4-wavelength
section of this coax is 3.52 meters.
[E9F05]
Example 9.7
What would be the physical length of a
typical foam-dielectric coaxial
transmission line that is electrically 1⁄4
wavelength long at 7.2 MHz? (Assume a
velocity factor of 0.80.)
To find the length of the 1⁄4 -wavelength

line, divide by 4 = 8.3 meters. [E9F09]
Table 9.1 lists velocity factors and
other characteristics for some other
common feed lines. You can calculate
the physical length of a section of any
type of feed line, including twin lead and
ladder line, at some specific frequency
as long as you know the velocity factor.
You may have noted in the table that
some of the parallel conductor lines
have velocity factors closer to 1 than
those of coaxial cables. The air
insulation used in the open-wire and
ladder lines has a value for ε much
closer to vacuum. This means that the
electrical and physical lengths are more
nearly equal in these feed lines.
Example 9.8
What is the physical length of a
parallel conductor feed line that is
electrically 1⁄2 wavelength long at 14.1
MHz? (Assume a velocity factor of
0.95.)
To find the length of the 1⁄2-wavelength
line, divide by 2, so the length is 10
meters. [E9F06]
FEED LINE LOSS

E9F07 — How does ladder line
compare to small-diameter
coaxial cable such as RG-58
at 50 MHz?
E9F08 — Which of the following is a
significant difference
between foam dielectric
coaxial cable and solid
dielectric cable, assuming all
other parameters are the
same?
When selecting a feed line, you must

consider some conflicting factors and
make a few trade-offs. For example,
most amateurs want to use a relatively
inexpensive feed line. We also want a
feed line that does not lose an
appreciable amount of signal energy. For
many applications, coaxial cable seems
to be a good choice but parallel-
conductor feed lines generally have
lower loss and may provide some other
advantages such as being able to operate
with high SWR on the line.
Matched line loss (the loss without
taking into account any additional loss
resulting from SWR) increases as the
operating frequency increases, so on the
lower-frequency HF bands you may
decide to use a less-expensive coaxial
cable with a higher loss than you would
on 10 meters. Open-wire or ladder-line
feed lines generally have lower loss than
coaxial cables at any frequency.
[E9F07] Table 9.1 includes approximate
loss values for 100 feet of the various
feed lines at 100 MHz. Again, these
values vary significantly as the
frequency changes. Note that there will
be minor variations in specifications for
similar cable types from different
manufacturers.
While you’re looking at Table 9.1 note
the difference in maximum rated voltage
between the coaxial cables with PE
(solid polyethylene) and FPE (foamed
polyethylene) dielectrics. The addition
of air to the dielectric reduces loss and
increases velocity factor but the tradeoff
is a considerably lower ability to handle
high voltages. [E9F08]
High SWR results in higher signal
losses in the feed line as the power is
reflected back and forth between the
transmitter and the antenna. Eventually,
the power will be transferred to the
antenna, but each trip along the feed line
results in some additional loss. The
higher the matched line loss, the greater
the additional loss will be due to
impedance mismatches at the antenna.
Remember that an impedance matching
unit at the transmitter does not reduce the
SWR in the feed line to the antenna!
REFLECTION COEFFICIENT AND

SWR
E9E07 — What parameter describes
the interactions at the load
end of a mismatched
transmission line?
The voltage reflection coefficient is

the ratio of the reflected voltage at some
point on a feed line to the incident
voltage at the same point. It is also equal
to the ratio of reflected current to
incident current at the same point on the
line. The reflection coefficient is
determined by the relationship between
the feed line characteristic impedance,
Z0, and the actual load impedance, ZL.
The reflection coefficient is a good
parameter to describe the interactions at
the load end of a mismatched
transmission line. [E9E07]
The reflection coefficient is a complex
quantity, having both a magnitude and
phase. It is generally designated by the
lower-case Greek letter ρ (rho),
although some professional literature
uses the capital Greek letter Γ (gamma).
The formula for reflection coefficient is:
(Equation 9.9)
where:
Z0 is the line’s characteristic
impedance
ZL is the impedance of the load.
Evaluate this equation when ZL = Z0 or
0 Ω (shorted) or ∞ Ω (open). The only
situation where ρ = 0, meaning no power
is reflected and is all delivered to the
load, occurs for ZL = Z0.
SWR is related to the magnitude of the
reflection coefficient by:
(Equation 9.10)
and conversely the reflection coefficient

magnitude may be defined from a
measurement of SWR as
(Equation 9.11)
When both the line and load

impedances are purely resistive, SWR
can be computed directly from the
impedances of the line and load:
POWER MEASUREMENT
E4B06 — How much power is being
absorbed by the load when a
directional power meter
connected between a
transmitter and a
terminating load reads 100
watts forward power and 25
watts reflected power?
E4B09 — What is indicated if the
current reading on an RF
ammeter placed in series
with the antenna feed line of
a transmitter increases as
the transmitter is tuned to
resonance?
You can use a variety of instruments to

tell your relative power output. For
example, as you tune a transmitter or
antenna tuning unit, the increasing
brightness of a neon bulb connected
across the feed line or an increased
current reading of an RF ammeter tells
you that more power is going into the
antenna. [E4B09]
It is much more convenient, however,
to read the forward and reflected power
directly, by using a directional RF
wattmeter or power meter. This type of
meter can determine total power flowing
in either direction in the transmission
line. This allows you to adjust an
impedance-matching network by
observing reflected power.
The reflection coefficient can also be
computed from the forward and reflected
power:
(Equation 9.13)
where:
PR = power in the reflected wave
PF = power in the forward wave.
Whatever the reflected and forward
power may be, the difference between
them is the net amount of power being
transferred to the load; PLOAD = PF – PR.
Both forward and reflected power can
be measured with a directional power
meter or directional wattmeter in the
transmission line. Remember that the net
forward power (PF – PR) is the power
delivered to the load.
Example 9.9
How much power is being absorbed by
the load when a directional wattmeter
connected between a transmitter and a
terminating load reads 100 W forward
power and 25 W reflected power?
[E4B06]
PLOAD = PF – PR = 100 – 25 = 75 W
SMITH CHART
E9G01 — Which of the following can
be calculated using a Smith
chart?
E9G02 — What type of coordinate
system is used in a Smith
chart?
E9G03 — Which of the following is
often determined using a
Smith chart?
E9G04 — What are the two families
of circles and arcs that make
up a Smith chart?
E9G06 — On the Smith chart shown
in Figure E9-3, what is the
name for the large outer
circle on which the
reactance arcs terminate?
E9G07 — On the Smith chart shown
in Figure E9-3, what is the
only straight line shown?
E9G08 — What is the process of
normalization with regard to
a Smith chart?
E9G09 — What third family of circles
is often added to a Smith
chart during the process of
solving problems?
E9G10 — What do the arcs on a
Smith chart represent?
E9G11 — How are the wavelength
scales on a Smith chart
calibrated?
Before discussing the Smith chart, let’s

back up a step. All impedances consist
of two components: resistance and
reactance. Graphically, these
components are represented as a pair of
axes — the rectangular coordinate
system for graphing impedance. The
horizontal axis represents resistance —
positive to the right of the origin and
negative to the left. The vertical axis
represents reactance — positive
(inductive) above the origin and
negative (capacitive) below.
All possible impedances can be plotted
as one point (Z) on that graph,
corresponding to the values of resistance
and reactance. Those two values are the
rectangular coordinates of the
impedance. When an impedance is
connected to a transmission line and a
signal of some frequency is applied to
the other end of the line, the interaction
between the energy in the line and that
terminating impedance results in energy
being reflected back and forth in the
transmission line.
The ratios of voltage and current (that’s
the definition of impedance) also turn
out to change with position along the
line. So, if an impedance-measuring
meter is inserted at different points along
the line, it would observe different
values of impedance because of the
different values of voltage and current.
Starting at the terminating impedance
itself, as it moved farther and farther
away along the line, the impedance
measured by the meter would change
until at 1⁄2 wavelength away from the
terminating impedance, it would again
report the terminating impedance’s
actual value and the cycle would begin
again.
Smith Chart Construction

Plotted on rectangular coordinates, the
path of that impedance measurement as
the meter’s position changed would be
pretty messy, described by a fairly
involved mathematical equation. What
Phillip Smith discovered was that if you
distort the rectangular graph in a certain
way (called a mapping), the path of the
impedance point along the transmission
line becomes a circle! That concept is
shown graphically on a Smith chart.
Imagine the Smith chart as a fun house
mirror in reverse. Instead of taking your
handsome image and distorting it to look
bizarre, it takes the bizarre path of the
impedance on the rectangular graph and
makes a lovely circle out of it! This is a
lot easier to work with. For this reason,
the Smith chart is used, among other
things, to calculate impedances and
SWR anywhere along a transmission
line. [E9G01, E9G03]
What is this magic mapping? Imagine
yourself standing at the origin of the
rectangular graph with the positive
resistance axis in front of you and the
negative behind. The positive reactance
axis starts at your feet and goes straight
up and the negative straight down. All of
the axes extend to infinity.
Now imagine reaching up over your
head and bending the positive reactance
axis down in front of you in a semicircle
whose far end meets up with the far end
of the positive resistance axis. Do the
same for the negative reactance axis,
bending it up instead. The negative
resistance axis still extends behind you,
as straight as ever. This process is
sketched in Figure 9.31.
You have created a circle from the two
reactance axes, bisected by the only
straight line on the chart, the horizontal
resistance axis through the center.
[E9G07] The infinity points join
together with the infinite point of the
positive resistance axis at the right of the
chart. All of the points that were once in
the right-hand side of the rectangular
graph are now somewhere inside or on
the boundary of that circle. Points on the
left-hand side of the rectangular graph
are now spread outside the circle.
Nothing has been lost, just squashed or
stretched.
The Smith chart shown in Figure 9.32
only contains the circle and what’s
inside. It ignores everything outside the
circle because of the negative resistance
value of those points originally. They
were on the left side of the graph,
remember? Those impedances cannot be
present in a transmission line.
The circles and arcs on the Smith chart
show what happens to straight lines on
the rectangular graph after remapping.
Lines of constant resistance, originally
vertical and on which all points had the
same value of resistance, are now nested
constant-resistance circles that come
together at the far right of the Smith
chart. That should make sense because
all of those straight lines originally went
where? To infinity — which is now the
point at the right side of the Smith chart.
Horizontal constant-reactance lines that
represented all the points having the
same reactance are now bent into
constant-reactance arcs with one end
on the outer circle (the reactance axis)
and the other end at infinity! [E9G02,
E9G04, E9G06, E9G10] This
distortion results in the path of the
impedance point becoming a circle on
the Smith chart as we look at each point
along the line.
Normalization
Take a close look at the Smith chart in
Figure 9.32. If you look for the
impedance point of 50 + j0 Ω, you will
find it squashed way over in the nest of
circles at the right-hand side of the chart
— not very easy to use. Smith avoided
the problem of big numbers by
normalizing all of the coordinates to the
characteristic impedance of the line, Z0.
That impedance point is the prime
center of the Smith chart.
Normalization reassigns the values of
all points according to their ratio to Z0 at
the prime center, in this case dividing
them by 50 Ω. [E9G08] So instead of 50
Ω being over in the hard-to-read section
at the right, it’s right in the middle of the
chart at 1.0. Much better! From here on,
all of the values you plot on the Smith
chart will be the value you read on the
meter divided by 50 Ω.
Constant-SWR Circles
If you take all of the normalized
impedance points on the Smith chart that
create a certain value of SWR in a 50-Ω
transmission line, you will find that the
points make a circle centered on the
point Z = 1.0 + j0 that is at the center of
the chart. This is called a constant-SWR
circle. [E9G09] Lower SWR makes
smaller and smaller circles until at SWR
= 1.0, the circle is merely the point at the
prime center of the chart, meaning that
the terminating impedance is equal to Z0
= 50 Ω.
As SWR increases, the circles increase
in size until at SWR = ∞, the circle is the
outside edge of the chart. The SWR
caused by any impedance can be found
by measuring the distance from the
center of the chart to the impedance
point, then translating that distance onto
the linear SWR scale at the bottom of the
chart. These scales are called radially-
scaled because they represent
measurements made radially from the
center of the chart.
Wavelength Scales
Look carefully at the left side of the
Smith chart along the rim and you will
see two arrows pointing in opposite
directions, labeled “Wavelengths
Toward Generator” and “Wavelengths
Toward Load.” The chart’s outer scale,
the reactance axis, is marked to show
movement in wavelengths along the
transmission line.
There are two scales, one starting at 0
and increasing clockwise and the other
starting at 0.5 and decreasing clockwise.
Both are calibrated in fractions of
electrical wavelength inside the
transmission line. [E9G11] These are
used to work out problems that involve
the changing impedance along a
transmission line as described in the
next section.
TRANSMISSION LINE STUBS AND

TRANSFORMERS
E9E06 — Which of these feed line
impedances would be
suitable for constructing a
quarter-wave Q-section for
matching a 100-ohm loop to
50-ohm feed line?
E9E10 — Which of these choices is an
effective way to match an
antenna with a 100-ohm feed
point impedance to a 50-ohm
coaxial cable feed line?
E9F04 — What impedance does a 1⁄2-
wavelength transmission line
present to a generator when
the line is shorted at the far
end?
end?
the line is open at the far
end?
the line is open at the far
end?
end?
In a transmission line, when a wave of

RF voltage and current encounters an
impedance different from the
characteristic impedance of the
transmission line, Z0, some of the energy
in the wave is reflected back toward the
wave’s source. The phase of the voltage
and currents making up the reflected
wave will differ from those in the
incoming or incident wave depending on
the value of the impedance causing the
reflection.
The incident and reflected voltage and
current waves combine at every point
along the line. At each point, the
combination results in voltage and
current with a phase relationship
different from either the incident or
reflected waves. It is as if the same
energy in the line had been applied to an
impedance with values of resistance and
reactance that create the same phase
relationship. For the Extra class exam
we’ll examine what impedance an
impedance-meter would “see” if it is
connected a transmission line with the
other end shorted or open.
The first and easiest rule to remember
is that if any transmission line is any
integer multiple of 1⁄2 wavelength long,
the impedance at one end will be the
same as at the other. It doesn’t matter
what the terminating impedance is, how
many 1⁄2 wavelengths of line are
involved (neglecting line loss), or even
what the characteristic impedance of the
line is! Every 1⁄2 wavelength along the
line, impedance repeats. If the
terminating impedance is a short circuit,
the impedance meter will see a short
every 1⁄2 wavelength away and the same
situation applies to an open circuit
termination. [E9F04] You can see this on
the Smith chart because the impedance
point travels in one complete circle
around the chart every 1⁄2 wavelength.
The second rule, almost as easy to
remember, is that if the transmission line
is an odd multiple of 1⁄4 wavelength long,
the impedance at one end is inverted
from that at the other end. If the
terminating impedance is an open, the
impedance 1⁄4 wavelength away will be a
short, and vice versa. [E9F12, E9F13]
This behavior repeats at 3⁄4 wavelength,
11⁄4 wavelengths, 13⁄4 wavelengths away,
and so forth.
The remaining cases for 1⁄8-wavelength
lines are not so easy to remember but
with a little study, you’ll be able to
figure them out. Let’s start with an open-
circuited transmission line that is very,
very short. An impedance meter will
view this short piece of transmission
line as an open circuit. As the line is
lengthened it will exhibit a small
capacitive reactance because that’s what
it is — a small capacitor formed by the
inner and outer conductors. When the
line reaches 1⁄8 wavelength, the
capacitive reactance will reach the
value of –jZ0. In other words, a 1⁄8-
wavelength piece of open 50-Ω
transmission line will have an
impedance of –j50 Ω at the other end.
[E9F11]
Working with the opposite case, a
shorted line, the impedance of the very,
very short short-circuited line looks like
— this shouldn’t surprise you — a short-
circuit. As the line is lengthened, it
exhibits inductive reactance because the
loop of inner and outer conductor form
an inductor. When the line reaches 1/8
wavelength long, the impedance meter
will read +jZ0 Ω of inductive reactance.
[E9F10]
Figures 9.33 and 9.34 illustrate the
behavior of open and shorted
transmission lines up to 1 λ long. You
can clearly see the cyclic behavior of the
impedances in the line. The impedance
“seen” looking into various lengths of
feed line is indicated directly above the
chart. Curves above the axis marked
with R, XL and XC indicate the relative
value of the impedance presented at the
input of the line. Circuit symbols
indicate the equivalent circuits for the
lines at that particular length. Standing
waves of voltage (E) and current (I) are
shown above each line. Remember that
Z = E / I, by Ohm’s Law, so you can use
the curves above each piece of line to
estimate the input impedance of a given
line length.
Synchronous Transformers
There is one special technique of
impedance matching using transmission
lines that every Extra class ham should
learn — the synchronous transformer
shown in Figure 9.35. This method of
matching involves setting up a series of
reflections of just the right magnitude
and phase so that two transmission lines
or a transmission line and a load of two
different impedances can be connected
together without creating any standing
waves in the transmission lines!
To match two different impedances
such as the transmission line and load
shown in the figure, Z0 and ZLOAD, a 1⁄4-
wavelength section of transmission line
with a characteristic impedance, Z1,
equal to the geometric mean of Z0 and
ZLOAD. In mathematical form:
(Equation 9.14)
The transformer is called synchronous

because it must be a certain fraction of a
wavelength long (1⁄4 λ) to function. For
example, to match a 50-Ω transmission
line to a quad antenna with a feed point
impedance of 100 Ω, the transmission
line used for the synchronous
transformer should have a characteristic
impedance of:
A section of 75-Ω RG-59/U cable will

work quite well in this application.
[E9E06, E9E10] The load impedance to
be matched can also be the characteristic
impedance of another transmission line.
Other forms of synchronous transformers
with different lengths can match different
levels of impedances, too.
SCATTERING (S) PARAMETERS

E4B03 — Which S parameter is
equivalent to forward gain?
E4B04 — Which S parameter
represents input port return
loss or reflection coefficient
(equivalent to VSWR)?
E4B07 — What do the subscripts of S
parameters represent?
Scattering parameters or S parameters

are a way of characterizing a circuit,
transmission line, or antenna in terms of
voltage waves that are incident,
reflected, and transmitted at the
connections to the circuit, called ports.
S parameters assume there are two ports
as shown in Figure 9.36. The voltage
waves are defined with the letters a1,
b1, a2, and b2. The a waves are
considered to be incident waves on the
ports and are the independent variables.
The b waves are the result of reflection
or “scattering.” The subscripts of the
parameter show which port received the
input wave and which port was the
source of the reflected wave. For
example, S12 is the parameter that shows
the wave from port 1 that was caused by
the incident wave at port 2. [E4B07]
The two most important S parameters
used by amateurs are S11 — the ratio of
the reflected wave to the incident wave
at the input, port 1. This is the input port
reflection coefficient. [E4B04] (See the
earlier discussion on reflection
coefficient.) S11 can be converted to
return loss (RL — see below) or SWR
and vice versa. Most instruments that
measure antenna or transmission line
impedance can provide values of S11,
RL, or SWR.
Similarly, S21 is the voltage wave
emanating from the output, port 2, as the
result of an incident wave at the network
input, port 1. In other words, S21
represents a forward gain. [E4B03]
A closely related measurement
provided by transmission line analyzers
and used by RF professionals is return
loss (RL). Return loss and SWR measure
the same thing — how much of the
incident power, PINC, in the transmission
line is transferred to the load and how
much is reflected by it, PREFL — but
state the result differently.
(Equa
ANTENNA AND NETWORK

ANALYZERS
E4A07 — Which of the following is an
advantage of using an
antenna analyzer compared
to an SWR bridge to
measure antenna SWR?
measures SWR?
E4A11 — How should an antenna
analyzer be connected when
measuring antenna
resonance and feed point
impedance?
E4B05 — What three test loads are
used to calibrate an RF
vector network analyzer?
E4B11 — Which of the following can
be measured with a vector
network analyzer?
The antenna analyzer has made

measuring impedance and SWR a simple
task since its introduction to amateur
radio in the 1990s. The analyzer consists
of a tunable RF source, a frequency
counter, an impedance bridge, displays
and a microprocessor to run them. It is
capable of measuring impedance, SWR,
reactance, and frequency. [E4A08]
Figure 9.37 shows a typical model.
Analyzers are battery powered and
small enough to be taken into the field or
up on an antenna tower.
The analyzer is used by connecting it

directly to the impedance to be
measured. [E4A11] The impedance can
be a component, a circuit (with power
removed), a transmission line or an
antenna. Since the analyzer contains its
own low-power signal source, it is not
necessary to use a transmitter for testing
antennas (as you would when an SWR
meter is used). [E4A07] By using your
knowledge of transmission lines (and the
device’s user manual), an antenna
analyzer can be used to measure
transmission line length and
characteristic impedance. If a defective
line is suspected, the analyzer can be
used to find the location of a short or
open circuit, as well. These handy
accessories have become a fixture of
ham radio test instrumentation.
A related but more powerful instrument
is the vector network analyzer or VNA
The VNA can not only measure complex
impedance, S11 and return loss, or SWR
at a single port, but it can measure the
input and output impedance of a circuit
or transmission line, as well. [E4B11] A
VNA can measure all four S parameters
by using two ports while an antenna
analyzer measures just S11.
For either the antenna or network
analyzer, it is a good idea to have
calibrated loads, such as a 50 Ω dummy
load, on-hand to check their
performance. Network analyzers use
three known loads of 0 Ω (short circuit),
50 Ω, and an open circuit to calibrate
themselves. [E4B05]
9.5 Antenna Design

The power of personal computers
makes it possible to design and analyze
antennas by mathematically modeling the
antenna. Computer analysis allows us to
study how performance changes as the
height of the antenna changes or what
effects different ground conditions will
have. The antenna’s characteristics can
be adjusted until the design meets
expectations. The accuracy of the
programs is excellent in the hands of a
reasonably skilled modeler. This saves a
lot of time over the cut-and-try method!
ANTENNA MODELING AND
DESIGN
E9B09 — What type of computer
program technique is
commonly used for modeling
antennas?
E9B10 — What is the principle of a
Method of Moments
analysis?
E9B11 — What is a disadvantage of
decreasing the number of
wire segments in an antenna
model below 10 segments
per half-wavelength?
E9D05 — What usually occurs if a
Yagi antenna is designed
solely for maximum forward
gain?
There are a number of programs in

common use for antenna analysis. Most
of them are derived from a program
developed at US government
laboratories, called NEC, short for
Numerical Electromagnetics Code. This
complex program, originally written for
mainframe computers, uses a modeling
technique called the method of moments.
[E9B09]
In the method of moments, the antenna
wires (or tubing elements) are modeled
as a series of segments and a uniform
value of current in each segment is
computed. [E9B10] The field resulting
from the RF current in each segment is
evaluated, along with the effects from
other mutually coupled segments. The
higher the number of segments, generally
the more accurate the modeling results
will be. However, most programs have a
limit on the number of segments in a
particular antenna because of the amount
of memory and processing time required
to perform the necessary calculations. A
lower number of segments will reduce
the time required for model calculations
but the outputs, such as pattern shape or
feed point impedance, will not be as
accurate. [E9B11]
The result of an antenna model can take
several forms. Of primary interest to
most amateurs is the radiation pattern of
the antenna. These are given in the
standard polar plot format for far-field
elevation and azimuthal patterns. Many
programs provide a three-dimensional
view of the pattern, as well. The
programs compute, at a minimum,
antenna gain, beamwidth, all the pattern
ratios, feed point impedance, and SWR
versus frequency “sweep” graphs.
Example outputs from the EZNEC
program by Roy Lewallen, W7EL are
Along with single-parameter graphs
versus frequency, the software can
perform advanced evaluations of the
antenna pattern. For example, receiving
directivity factor that was discussed in
the section on receiving antennas would
be very difficult to calculate by hand or
from sets of radiation patterns. The
ability to define and calculate new ways
of evaluating performance is an
important way that modeling allows
amateurs to experiment and innovate in
antenna design.
DESIGN TRADEOFFS AND

OPTIMIZATION
Any antenna design represents some
compromises. You may be able to
modify the design of a particular antenna
to improve some desired characteristic,
if you are aware of the trade-offs. As
mentioned earlier, the method of
moments computer modeling techniques
that have become popular can be a great
help in deciding which design
modifications will produce the “best”
antenna for your situation.
When you evaluate the gain of an
antenna, you (or the computer modeling
program) will have to take into account
a number of parameters. You will have
to include the antenna feed point
impedance, any loss resistance in the
elements and impedance-matching
components, as well as the E-field and
H-field radiation patterns.
You should also evaluate the antenna
across the entire frequency band for
which it is designed. You may discover
that gain may change rapidly as you
move away from its design frequency.
(You may be willing to make that trade-
off if all your operating on that band is
within a narrow frequency range.) You
may also discover that the feed point
impedance varies widely as you change
frequency across the band, making it
difficult to design a single impedance-
matching system for the antenna. You
may also discover that the front-to-back
ratio varies excessively across the band,
resulting in too much variation in the
rearward pattern lobes.
The forward gain of a Yagi antenna can
be increased by using a longer boom,
spreading the elements farther apart or
adding more elements. Of course, there
are practical limitations on how long
you can make the boom for any antenna!
The element lengths will have to be
adjusted to retune them as the boom
length changes.
You may decide to optimize a Yagi
antenna for maximum forward gain, but
in that case the front-to-back ratio
usually decreases, feed point impedance
becomes very low, and the SWR
bandwidth will decrease. [E9D05]
Optimizing performance for one
parameter often leads to a reduction in
performance in other parameters. In
general, the interdependency of gain,
SWR bandwidth, and pattern ratios
requires compromises by the antenna
modeler to achieve realistic goals.
• Electromagnetic waves
• Solar effects on propagation
• Ground-wave and sky-wave
• Long-path and gray-line
• The radio horizon
• Tropospheric and transequatorial
propagation
• Auroral, meteor scatter, and Earth-
Moon-Earth (moonbounce)
What happens after the signal leaves

the antenna? Everything between the
transmit and receive antennas involves
propagation — a great deal of radio’s
magic! This chapter is a collection of
short discussions on various aspects of
radio propagation at different
frequencies. Following a short
introduction to electromagnetic waves,
we move on to a review of solar
phenomena that affect terrestrial radio
propagation. The chapter then covers
topics that matter most at HF and those
of interest primarily at VHF and higher
frequencies. There are a few questions
about all three subjects in the Extra class
exam. You can check your understanding
of propagation by being able to answer
all of the questions listed at the end of
each topic.
10.1 Electromagnetic
Waves
E3A14 — What is meant by circularly
polarized electromagnetic
waves?
While the exam only has one question

on electromagnetic or EM waves,
becoming acquainted with their
fundamentals will help the material on
propagation make a lot more sense. EM
waves (what we fondly call radio
waves) are created when an electric
field or magnetic field changes. These
waves move or propagate through space
carrying both electric and magnetic
energy. The electric and magnetic fields
in the wave are oriented at right angles
to each other as shown by Figure 10.1A
and vary with time in a sinusoidal
pattern.
The direction of the right angle from
the positive direction of the electric
field to that of the magnetic field is
determined by the direction in which the
wave travels, as illustrated in the figure.
The term “lines of force” in the figure
means the direction in which a force
would be felt by an electron (from the
electric field) or by a magnet (from the
magnetic field).
An important point about
electromagnetic waves: The electric and
magnetic fields making up the wave are
not just perpendicular electric and
magnetic fields that happen to be in the
same place at the same time. The fields
are coupled; they are both aspects of the
same thing — the electromagnetic wave
— created by the motion of electrons,
such as in a transmitting antenna. The
fields cannot be separated although the
energy in the wave can be detected as
either electric or magnetic force.
In free space, the waves move at the
speed of light, approximately 300
million meters per second (3 × 108 m/s).
(Light is an electromagnetic wave of
extremely high frequency — many
thousands of GHz.) In general, the speed
at which electromagnetic waves travel
or propagate depends on the
characteristics of the medium through
which they travel. The speed of light is
highest in the vacuum of free space and
only slightly lower in air. In materials
such as glass or plastic, however,
velocity can be quite a bit lower. For
example, in polyethylene (commonly
used as a center insulator in coaxial
cable), the velocity of propagation is
about two-thirds (67%) of that in free
space.
WAVEFRONTS
To an observer staying in one place,
such as a fixed station’s receiving
antenna, the electric and magnetic fields
of the wave appear to oscillate as the
wave passes. That is, the fields create
forces on electrons in the antenna that
increase and decrease in a sine wave
pattern. Some of the energy in the
propagating wave is transferred to the
electrons as the forces from the changing
fields cause them to move. This creates
a sine wave current in the antenna with a
frequency determined by the rate at
which the field strength changes in the
passing wave.
If the observer is moving along with
the wave at the same speed, however,
the strength of the fields will not change.
To that observer, the electric and
magnetic field strengths are fixed, as in a
photograph. This is a wavefront of the
electromagnetic wave — a flat surface
or plane moving through space on which
the electric and magnetic fields have a
constant value as illustrated in Figure
10.1.
Just as an ac voltage is made up of an
infinite sequence of instantaneous
voltages, each slightly larger or smaller
than the next, an infinite number of
wavefronts make up an electromagnetic
wave, one behind another like a deck of
cards. The direction of the wave is the
direction in which the wavefronts move.
The fields on each successive wavefront
have a slightly different strength, so as
they pass a fixed location, the detected
field strength changes, too. The result is
that the fixed observer “sees” fields with
strengths varying as a sine wave.
Figure 10.1B is a drawing of what
would happen if we could suddenly
freeze all of the wavefronts in Figure
10.1A and measure the electric and
magnetic field strengths of each all along
the direction the wave is traveling. In
this example, the electric field is
oriented vertically and the magnetic
field horizontally. (Each of the vertical
lines in the electric field can be thought
of as representing an individual
wavefront.) All of the wavefronts are
moving in the direction indicated — the
whole set of them moves together at the
same speed. As the wavefronts move
past the receive antenna, the varying
field strengths are perceived as a
continuously changing wave moving
through space.
POLARIZATION
The orientation of the pair of fields in
an electromagnetic wave can have any
orientation with respect to the surface of
the Earth, but the electric and magnetic
fields will always be at right angles to
each other. The orientation of the wave’s
electric field determines the polarization
of the wave. If the electric field’s lines
of force are parallel to the surface of the
Earth (meaning those of the magnetic
field are perpendicular to the Earth), the
wave is horizontally polarized.
Conversely, if the electric field’s lines
of force are perpendicular to the surface
of the Earth, the wave is vertically
polarized. Knowing the polarization of
the wave allows the receiving antenna to
be oriented so that the passing wave's E-
field results in the most current in the
antenna, maximizing received signal
strength.
For the most part, the wave’s
polarization is determined by the type of
transmitting antenna and its orientation.
For example, a Yagi antenna with its
elements parallel to the Earth’s surface
transmits a horizontally polarized wave.
On the other hand, an amateur mobile
whip antenna, mounted vertically on an
automobile, radiates a vertically
polarized wave. If a vertically polarized
antenna is used to receive a horizontally
polarized radio wave (or vice versa),
received signal strength can be reduced
by more than 20 dB as compared to
using an antenna with the same
polarization as the wave. This is called
cross-polarization. The polarization of
radio waves can be altered by being
refracted (bent) or reflected so antenna
orientation may not have to always
match for signals to be received.
It is also possible to generate
electromagnetic waves in which the
orientation of successive wavefronts —
both the electric and magnetic fields —
rotates around the direction of travel.
This is called circular polarization.
[E3A14] Imagine the wave of Figure
10.1B being twisted so at one point the
direction of the electric field is
horizontal and a bit further along the
wave it is vertical. As the twisted,
circularly polarized wave passes the
receiving antenna, the polarization of its
fields will appear to rotate. The rate at
which the polarization changes and the
direction or sense of the rotation —
right-handed (clockwise or CW as the
wave travels) or left-handed (counter-
clockwise or CCW) — is determined by
the construction of the transmitting
antenna. Note that the electric and
magnetic fields rotate together and the
right-angle between them remains fixed.
Polarization that does not rotate is called
linear polarization or plane
polarization. Horizontal and vertical
polarization are examples of linear
polarization.
To best receive a circularly polarized
wave, the sense of the receiving antenna
should match that of the transmitting
antenna. It is particularly helpful to use
circular polarization in satellite
communication, where polarization
tends to shift with the orientation of the
satellite and the path of its signal through
the atmosphere. Circular polarization is
usable with linearly polarized antennas
at one end of the signal’s path. There
will be some small loss in this case,
however.
10.2 Solar Effects

The Sun is the biggest source of effects
on radio wave propagation here on
Earth, even affecting UHF and
microwaves at times. HF propagation is
dominated by daily and seasonal effects,
as well as the 11-year sunspot cycle.
With plenty of data about solar activity
available on the internet, the radio
amateur has better tools to predict and
explain propagation than at any time in
the past. This section identifies some of
the most important measurements and
how they are used. A full treatment is
available in the ARRL Handbook and
from numerous online sources.
Most of the measurements are
available on websites like the NOAA
“Radio Communications Dashboard”
website at
swpc.noaa.gov/communities/radio-
communications. There are many such
websites, such as hfradio.org and
spaceweather.com. By bookmarking
one of these sites for your web browser
and visiting it regularly, you’ll stay up to
date on radio conditions and learn a lot
about the Sun, as well.
FLUX AND FLARES

descriptors indicates the
greatest solar flare
intensity?
E3C09 — How does the intensity of
an X3 flare compare to that
of an X2 flare?
E3C10 — What does the 304A solar
parameter measure?
Whether the Sun’s outer layers are

active or quiet, a great deal of energy is
radiated into space at various
wavelengths. The range of energies most
affecting amateurs is in the extreme
ultraviolet (EUV) spectrum at
wavelength of 10 – 120 nm (100 – 1200
angstroms). EUV light is completely
absorbed in the upper atmosphere,
creating the ionosphere.
A number of satellites observe the Sun
at many different wavelengths.
Photographs of the Sun at different
wavelengths show different features that
are used to evaluate solar activity. The
Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO)
shows a number of these photographs as
they are taken at
sdo.gsfc.nasa.gov/data. They are
labeled by the wavelength, such as the
AIA 304 image which shows the Sun at a
wavelength of 304 angstroms (30.4 nm).
[E3C10]
Since absorption by the atmosphere
makes it impossible to measure EUV
levels from the ground, several
observatories around the world measure
incoming energy at a wavelength of 10.7
cm (2.8 GHz). The level of 2.8 GHz
energy tracks the EUV levels well.
When you see data for solar flux it is an
averaged value from those
measurements. More solar flux means
higher levels of ionization in the
ionosphere.
Due to various processes on the
surface of the Sun, solar flares
sometimes occur, releasing large
amounts of energy from X rays through
EUV and beyond. When the energy
reaches Earth’s atmosphere a few
minutes later, it temporarily increases
ionization and can disrupt the
geomagnetic field. This also affects HF
and low VHF propagation, so amateurs
want to know when flares occur. Flares
are ranked by classes of intensity: A
(small), B, C, M, and X (very large).
[E3C07] M-class flares have a
moderate effect on HF propagation
while X-class flares can cause radio
blackouts and disturbances that last for
days. Within each class, increasing
numeric values such as X1, X2, X3, and
so on correspond to increasing intensity.
For example, an X3 flare is 50 percent
more intense than an X2 flare. [E3C09]
GEOMAGNETIC FIELD
E3C02 — What is indicated by a rising
A or K index?
E3C04 — What does the value of Bz
(B sub Z) represent?
E3C05 — What orientation of Bz (B
sub z) increases the
likelihood that incoming
particles from the sun will
cause disturbed conditions?
E3C08 — What does the space
weather term “G5” mean?
Once solar energy or charged particles

reach the Earth, their energy disturbs the
Earth’s upper atmosphere and
geomagnetic field (GMF). Disturbances
of the GMF and ionosphere also disrupts
the refraction of radio waves that travel
through it. When the GMF is highly
disturbed worldwide, that is called a
geomagnetic storm. HF propagation
through the auroral zones is particularly
sensitive to this type of disturbance.
There are several parameters that
amateurs use to assess HF propagation:
• BZ — a measurement of the intensity
and orientation of the interplanetary
magnetic field (IMF) generated by the
Sun. [E3C04] If BZ is negative, the
direction of the IMF is aligned
southward (north-to-south). That
direction is also aligned with the Earth’s
GMF so it is easier for charged particles
from the Sun to enter and disrupt the
GMF. [E3C05]
• K index — an evaluation of how
disturbed the GMF is at a particular
location with a value of 0 (quiet) to 9
(very major storm). The KP index is an
average of reported values worldwide.
• A index — derived from the K index
with a wider range of 0 to 400 for the
same conditions. Increasing values of the
A and K indices indicate increasing
disruption of the GMF. [E3C02]
• G index— geomagnetic storminess
with levels of 0 (none), 1 (minor), 2
(moderate), 3 (strong), 4 (severe), and 5
(extreme), based on the value of the A
and K indices. [E3C08]
There is a great deal of literature about
the effects of solar weather on
propagation. Along with the NOAA
website, the ARRL’s Technical
Information Service (www.arrl.org/tis)
offers numerous articles on propagation
and ARRL members can subscribe to a
free weekly propagation bulletin with
up-to-date information and propagation
predictions.
10.3 HF Propagation
In nearly all cases, HF signals make the
journey between stations by either
traveling along the surface of the Earth
(ground-wave) or by being returned to
Earth after encountering the upper layers
of the ionosphere (sky-wave or skip).
The differences in frequency between
the lowest current amateur band (1.8
MHz) and the highest HF band (28 MHz)
cause the behavior of these modes of
propagation to be quite different across
the HF spectrum.
GROUND-WAVE PROPAGATION
E3C12 — How does the maximum
range of ground-wave
propagation change when
the signal frequency is
increased?
E3C13 — What type of polarization is
best for ground-wave
propagation?
The direction of waves of all types can

be changed by both diffraction and
refraction. Diffraction is created by the
construction and reinforcement of
wavefronts after the radio wave
encounters a reflecting surface’s corners
or edges. Refraction is a gradual
bending of the wave because of changes
in the velocity of propagation in the
medium through which the wave travels.
There is a special form of diffraction
that primarily affects vertically
polarized radio waves at HF and lower
frequencies. This type of diffraction
results from the lower part of the wave
losing energy because of currents
induced in the ground. This slows the
lower portion of the wave, causing the
entire wave to tilt forward slightly,
following the curvature of the Earth.
This tilting results in ground-wave
propagation, allowing low-frequency
signals to be heard over distances well
beyond line of sight. Although the term is
often applied to any short-distance
communication, the actual mechanism is
unique to signals with longer
wavelengths. Ground-wave propagation
is most noticeable at LF, MF (AM
broadcast, 160 meters), and the lower
HF bands (80 meters) Practical ground-
wave communication distances on these
MF and HF bands is in the range of 50 –
100 miles.
Ground-wave propagation is lossy
because the vertically polarized portion
of the wave’s electric field that extends
into the ground is mostly absorbed. Over
distance, the signal traveling along the
ground is increasingly absorbed until the
signal is too weak to be received. This
loss increases significantly with
frequency until at 28 MHz (10 meters),
the maximum range of ground-wave is
only a few miles. [E3C12] Figure 10.2
shows typical ground-wave range at
different frequencies.
Ground-wave propagation is most
useful during the day at 1.8 and 3.5
MHz, when losses in the lower
ionosphere make sky-wave propagation
impossible. Vertically polarized
antennas provide the best results.
[E3C13] Ground-wave losses are
reduced considerably over saltwater and
are highest over dry and rocky land.
One simple way to observe the effects
of ground-wave propagation is to listen
to stations on the AM broadcast band.
During the day you will regularly hear
high-power stations from 100 to 150
miles away. You won’t hear stations
much farther than 200 miles, however.
At night, when sky-wave propagation
becomes possible, you will begin to
hear stations several hundred miles
away. Of course, high-power AM
broadcast stations usually have vertical
antennas with excellent ground systems
to radiate a strong signal!
SKY-WAVE PROPAGATION
E3A06 — What might help to restore
contact when DX signals
become too weak to copy
across an entire HF band a
few hours after sunset?
E3B10 — Why is chordal hop
propagation desirable?
E3B12 — What is the primary
characteristic of chordal hop
propagation?
Signals that travel into the ionosphere
can be refracted (bent) by ionized gas in
the ionosphere’s E and F regions,
returning to Earth some distance away.
This refraction occurs because the
region of ionized gases causes the radio
wave to slow down, and this bends the
wave. Refraction is primarily a
propagation mode below VHF. Signals
that follow a path away from the surface
of the Earth are called sky waves. The
path of a wave that returns to Earth after
being bent by the ionosphere is called a
hop.
The maximum one-hop skip distance
for high-frequency radio signals via the
F layer is usually considered to be about
2500 miles. (Skip via the E layer can
extend to around 1500 miles.) Most HF
communication beyond that distance
takes place by means of several
ionospheric hops in which the surface of
the Earth reflects the signals back into
the ionosphere for another hop. It is also
possible that signals may reflect
between the E and F regions, or even be
reflected several times within the F
region. When the wave makes two
successive reflections from the
ionosphere without an intervening
reflection from the ground, that is called
a chordal hop. Avoiding a lossy ground
reflections means the signal will be
stronger at the receiving end of the path.
[E3B10, E3B12]
Every day there are big changes as
night turns to day and vice versa. Bands
open and close quickly, sometimes in
minutes. By knowing the “band basics”
you can plan your operating periods and
react to the conditions you find on the
air. For example, if you’re making HF
contacts with stations in Europe after
sunset, soon the signals all across the
band will start to get weaker. When the
band is about to close, signals will begin
to exhibit the rapid fading that gives
them a distinctive fluttery sound. What
can you do to keep making those
contacts? By learning how HF
propagation works, you know that the
MUF between your station and Europe is
dropping. In response, change to a
lower-frequency band. [E3A06] This is
called “following the bands” and it
works in reverse as the MUF moves
higher through the morning.
Ordinary and Extraordinary Waves

E3B04 — What is meant by the terms
“extraordinary” and
“ordinary” waves?
E3B07 — What happens to linearly
polarized radio waves that
split into ordinary and
extraordinary waves in the
ionosphere?
An interesting thing happens when a

radio wave enters the ionosphere: It
divides into two waves polarized at
right angles to each other. The ordinary
wave or o-wave E field is parallel to the
Earth’s magnetic field. The
extraordinary wave or x-wave E field is
perpendicular to the Earth’s magnetic
field. [E3B04] The waves travel at
slightly different speeds, creating a
phase difference between them. The
result is that a linearly polarized wave
becomes elliptically polarized. [E3B07]
At high frequencies (10 MHz and higher)
both waves travel almost identical paths.
On the 7 MHz and lower bands,
however, the waves may travel along
very different paths and in very different
directions.
Propagation studies suggest radio
waves may at times propagate for some
distance through the uppermost F2
region of the ionosphere. In this type of
propagation, a signal radiated at a
medium elevation angle sometimes is
returned to Earth at a greater distance
than a wave radiated at a lower angle.
The higher-angle wave, called the
Pedersen ray, is believed to penetrate to
the F2 region, farther than lower-angle
rays. In the less-densely ionized F2
region, the amount of refraction is less,
nearly equaling the curvature of the
region itself as it encircles the Earth.
Figure 10.3 shows how the Pedersen ray
could provide propagation beyond the
normal single-hop distance. The
Pedersen ray theory is further supported
by studies of propagation times and
signal strengths for signals that travel
completely around the Earth. The time
required is significantly less than would
be necessary to hop between the Earth
and the ionosphere 10 or more times
while circling the Earth.
Predicting Propagation
E3C01 — What does the radio
communication term “ray
tracing” describe?
E3C11 — What does VOACAP
software model?
Models of propagation have been

developed based on measurements of the
ionosphere throughout the year and over
complete sunspot cycles. These have
been incorporated into software such as
VOACAP to predict HF propagation
between locations. [E3C11] VOACAP is
available as an online website
(www.voacap.com/prediction.html) so
you can experiment with your own
propagation questions at any time. These
programs show that there are often
multiple paths radio waves can take as
they travel. Waves can reflect between
layers and in different directions before
reaching a destination. Following the
possible paths through the ionosphere a
wave might take is called ray tracing.
[E3C01] HF propagation is still full of
surprises, however, regardless of model
sophistication. There is no substitute for
actually transmitting a signal to see
where it is received!
Absorption
signal paths is most likely to
experience high levels of
absorption when the A index
or K index is elevated?
E3C15 — What might be indicated by
a sudden rise in radio
background noise across a
large portion of the HF
spectrum?
The lowest of the ionosphere’s layers
is the D layer, occupying from around 35
to 60 miles above the Earth’s surface.
The D layer exists in a relatively dense
region, compared to the rest of the
ionosphere. This means the ionized
atoms and molecules are closer together
and recombine quickly. As a result, the
D layer is present only when illuminated
by the Sun. Created at sunrise and
reaching its strongest around local noon,
the D layer disappears quickly after
sunset.
When a passing wave causes D layer
electrons to move, they collide with
other electrons and ions so frequently
that a great deal of the wave’s energy is
dissipated as heat. This is called
ionospheric absorption. The longer the
wavelength of the radio wave, the
farther the electron travels under
influence of the wave and the greater the
portion of the wave’s energy lost as heat.
This means absorption eliminates long-
distance sky-wave propagation on the
1.8 and 3.5 MHz bands during the day,
especially during periods of high solar
activity. NVIS (near vertical incidence
sky-wave) and ground-wave propagation
can be used during daylight hours on
these bands, however.
Geomagnetic disturbances and solar
flares also increase absorption.
Disruptions in the ionosphere from a
changing magnetic field cause more of a
radio wave’s energy to be dissipated as
heat. As the A and K indices rise, so
does absorption, particularly along polar
paths that travel through the auroral
zones where most charged particles from
the Sun enter the Earth’s atmosphere.
[E3C03] The large pulse of X-ray and
UV energy generated by a solar flare
raises ionization in the entire upper
atmosphere, increasing dissipation of
lower-frequency radio waves on the
Earth’s daylight side facing the Sun. If
you are on the air when a solar flare
occurs, noise levels on the HF bands
slowly increase as signals fade.
[E3C15] The effects last for several
hours until ionization levels return to
normal.
LONG-PATH AND GRAY-LINE

PROPAGATION
E3B05 — Which amateur bands
typically support long-path
propagation?
amateur bands most
frequently provides long-
path propagation?
Most of the time, HF signals propagate

over a great circle path between the
transmitter and receiver. The great circle
path is illustrated in Figure 10.4. A
careful inspection shows that there are
really two great circle paths, one shorter
than the other. The longer of the two
paths may also be useful for
communications when conditions are
favorable. This is called long-path
propagation. Both stations must have
directional antennas, such as beams, that
can be pointed in the long path direction
to make the best use of this propagation.
The long- and short-path directions
usually differ by 180°.
Long-path propagation can occur on
any band with sky-wave propagation, so
you may hear long-path signals on the
160 to 10 meter bands. [E3B05] (Six
meter long-path has occurred on rare
occasions.) Long-path enhancement
occurs most often on the 20 meter band.
[E3B06] All it takes to make long-path
QSOs is a modest beam antenna with a
relatively high gain compared to a
dipole, such as a three-element beam.
The antenna should be at a height above
ground that allows low takeoff angles.
For paths less than about 6000 miles,
the short-path signal will almost always
be stronger because of the increased
losses caused by multiple-hop ground-
reflection losses and ionospheric
absorption over the long path. When the
short-path is more than 6000 miles,
however, long-path propagation usually
will be observed either along the gray
line (the terminator between darkness
and light that runs completely around the
Earth) or over the nighttime side of the
Earth.
The gray line is a band along the
terminator that extends to either side for
a number of miles. Figure 10.5
illustrates the gray line. Notice that on
one side of the Earth, the gray line is
coming into daylight (sunrise) and on the
other side it is coming into darkness
(sunset).
Gray line or grayline propagation,
often via long path, occurs between two
stations that are simultaneously near
sunrise and sunset. Gray line
propagation can be quite effective
because the D layer, which absorbs HF
signals, disappears rapidly on the sunset
side of the gray line before it has had
time to build up on the sunrise side.
Meanwhile, the E and F layers, being at
higher altitudes, are still illuminated and
providing propagation. Signals may
travel along the terminator but often
travel from the gray line region through
darkness via a skewed path to the
receiving station that may or may not be
in its own gray line region. This type of
propagation lasts until somewhere along
the path D layer absorption or the loss of
F layer refraction prevent the signal
from reaching the receiving station.
Look for gray-line propagation around
sunrise and sunset. If you have a beam,
aim it along the terminator. 160 through
20 meters are the most likely to
experience gray-line enhancement
because they are the most affected by D
layer absorption.
Figure 10.6 illustrates the changing the
tilt of the gray line. The tilt angle will be
between these extremes during the rest
of the year. Knowledge of the tilt angle
will be helpful in determining what
directions are likely to provide gray line
propagation on a particular day.
10.4
VHF/UHF/Microwave
Propagation
Without regular and dependable sky-
wave propagation, VHF and UHF
operators utilize alternative modes of
propagation to make contacts. There are
plenty of options — more than on HF, in
fact — and many support
communications over very long
distances. This section touches on a
number of interesting propagation modes
that you’re likely to encounter, should
you decide to try using SSB, CW or one
of the digital modes above 30 MHz.
For signals that travel essentially in a
straight line between the transmitter and
the receiver (also known as space-wave
propagation), antennas that are low-
angle radiators (concentrate signals
toward the horizon) are best. Remember
that the polarization of both the receiving
and transmitting antennas should be the
same for VHF and UHF operation
because the polarization of a space
wave remains constant as it travels.
RADIO HORIZON
E3C06 — By how much does the
VHF/UHF radio horizon
distance exceed the
geometric horizon?
E3C14 — Why does the radio-path
horizon distance exceed the
geometric horizon?
In the early days of VHF amateur

communications, it was generally
believed that communications required
direct line-of-sight paths between the
antennas of the communicating stations.
After some experiments with good
equipment and antennas, however, it
became clear that VHF radio waves are
bent or scattered in several ways,
making communications possible with
stations beyond the visual or geometric
horizon. The farthest point to which
radio waves will travel directly via
space-wave propagation is called the
radio horizon.
Under normal conditions, density
variations in the atmosphere near the
Earth cause radio waves to bend into a
curved path that keeps them nearer to the
Earth than true straight-line travel
would. Figure 10.7 shows how this
bending of the radio waves causes the
distance to the radio horizon to exceed
the distance to the visual horizon.
[E3C14] The radio horizon is
approximately 15% farther than the
geometric horizon as shown graphically
in Figure 10.8. [E3C06]
The distance to the radio horizon is
assumed to be to a point on the ground.
An antenna that is on a high hill or tall
building well above any surrounding
obstructions has a much farther radio
horizon than an antenna located in a
valley or shadowed by other
obstructions. If the receiving antenna is
also elevated, the maximum space-wave
distance between the two antennas is
equal to the sum of the distance to the
radio horizon from the transmitting
antenna plus the distance to the radio
horizon from the receiving antenna.
Figure 10.9 illustrates this principle.
Unless the two stations are identical,
each will have a different radio horizon.
Multipath
A common cause of fading is an effect
known as multipath. Several
components of the same transmitted
signal may arrive at the receiving
antenna from different directions. The
phase relationships between the multiple
signals may cause them to cancel or
reinforce each other. This effect is
illustrated in Figure 10.10. Multipath
effects can occur whenever the
transmitted signal follows more than one
path to the receiving station. Multipath
and the distortion it causes to the
received signal is a major challenge to
providing high-speed digital service via
wireless systems.
TROPOSPHERIC PROPAGATION
E3A04 — What do Hepburn maps
predict?
E3A05 — Tropospheric propagation of
microwave signals often
occurs in association with
what phenomenon?
E3A07 — Atmospheric ducts capable
of propagating microwave
signals often form over what
geographic feature?
E3A10 — Which type of atmospheric
structure can create a path
for microwave propagation?
E3A11 — What is a typical range for
tropospheric propagation of
microwave signals?
At times, weather conditions such as
temperature inversions and warm or
cold fronts can create sharp transitions
between air layers. These transitions can
reflect or guide VHF, UHF, and
microwave radio waves, forming ducts
in the troposphere (lower layers of the
atmosphere), similar to propagation in a
waveguide. This form of propagation is
called tropospheric ducting. [E3A05,
E3A10]
The possibility of propagation via
tropospheric ducting increases with
frequency. Ducting is rare on 50 MHz,
fairly common on 144 MHz and more
common on higher frequencies. Because
ducts often form over water, Gulf Coast
states experience it often, and the
Atlantic Seaboard, Great Lakes and
Mississippi Valley areas less frequently,
usually in September and October.
[E3A07] Ducting can support
microwave propagation over 100 – 300
miles with progressively longer
distances achieved at lower frequencies.
[E3A11]
Because these inversions are invisible
to the eye, it can be difficult to tell when
propagation is likely to occur. You just
have to get on the air and try! The
likelihood of tropospheric propagation
can be estimated from weather
conditions, however. William Hepburn
developed a technique for creating a
map of locations over which
tropospheric propagation was likely.
These are called “Hepburn maps” and
are available online
(www.dxinfocentre.com/tropo_wam.htm
for amateurs to use. [E3A04]
SPORADIC E PROPAGATION
E3B09 — At what time of year is
sporadic E propagation most
likely to occur?
E3B11 — At what time of day can
sporadic E propagation
occur?
Sporadic E (Es or E-skip) consists of

propagation from thin, highly ionized
layers that form temporarily in the E
layer of the ionosphere. The process of
how these layers form is not entirely
clear. Es commonly propagates 28, 50,
and 144 MHz radio signals between 500
and 2300 km (300 and 1400 miles).
Signals are apt to be exceedingly strong,
allowing even modest stations to make
Es contacts. Mid-latitude Es events may
last only a few minutes or can persist for
many hours.
Sporadic E at mid latitudes (roughly
15° to 45°) may occur at any time, but it
is most common in the Northern
Hemisphere around the summer solstice
during May, June and July, with a less-
intense season around the winter solstice
at the end of December and early
January. [E3B09] Its appearance is
independent of the solar cycle. Sporadic
E propagation can occur at any time
through the day but is most likely to
occur from 9 AM to noon local time and
again early in the evening between 5 PM
and 8 PM. [E3B11]
TRANSEQUATORIAL
PROPAGATION
E3B01 — What is transequatorial
propagation?
E3B02 — What is the approximate
maximum range for signals
using transequatorial
propagation?
E3B03 — What is the best time of day
for transequatorial
propagation?
Transequatorial propagation (TE) is a

form of F layer ionospheric propagation
discovered by amateurs in the late
1940s. Amateurs on all continents
reported the phenomenon almost
simultaneously on various north-south
paths on 50 MHz during the evening
hours. At that time, the maximum
predicted MUF was around 40 MHz for
daylight hours. Research carried out by
amateurs has shown that the TE mode
works on 144 MHz and even to some
degree at 432 MHz. TE occurs between
mid-latitude stations approximately the
same distance north and south of the
Earth’s magnetic equator. [E3B01]
Figure 10.11 shows the paths of a
number of contacts made on 144 MHz
using TE propagation.
You might expect the ionization of the

ionosphere’s upper layers to be at a
maximum over the equator around the
vernal (spring) and autumnal (fall)
equinoxes. In fact, at the equinoxes there
is not a single area of maximum
ionization, but two. These maxima form
in the morning, are well established by
noon and last until after midnight. The
high-density-ionization regions form
approximately between 10° and 15° on
either side of the Earth’s magnetic
equator — not the geographic equator —
forming a pair of regions able to reflect
VHF and even UHF signals.
As the relative position of the Sun
moves away from the equator, the
ionization levels in the Northern and
Southern Hemispheres become
unbalanced, lowering the MUF for TE
propagation. So the best time of year to
look for transequatorial propagation is
around March 21 and September 21. The
MUF for TE will also be higher during
solar activity peaks. The best conditions
for TE exist when the Earth’s magnetic
field is quiet, as well.
TE also enables very strong signals on
the HF bands during the afternoon and
early evening, so these are the best times
to look for this propagation mode.
[E3B03] Later at night, and sometimes
in the early morning as well, you will
hear weak and watery signals arriving
by TE.
As the signal frequency increases, the
communication zones become more
restricted to those equidistant from, and
perpendicular to, the magnetic equator.
In addition, the duration of the opening
tends to be shorter and closer to 8 PM
local time. The rate of flutter fading and
the degree of frequency spreading
increase with signal frequency. TE range
extends to approximately 5000 miles —
2500 miles on each side of the magnetic
equator. [E3B02]
AURORAL PROPAGATION
E3A12 — What is the cause of auroral
activity?
E3A13 — Which of these emission
modes is best for auroral
propagation?
Auroral propagation occurs when
VHF radio waves are reflected from the
ionization created by an auroral curtain.
It is a VHF and UHF propagation mode
that allows contacts up to about 1400
miles. Auroral propagation occurs for
stations near the northern and southern
polar regions but the discussion here is
limited to auroral propagation in the
Northern Hemisphere.
Aurora results from a large-scale
interaction between the ionosphere and
magnetic field of the Earth and
electrically charged particles of the
solar wind, ejected from the surface of
the Sun. Visible aurora, often called the
northern lights or aurora borealis, is
caused by the collision of these solar-
wind particles with oxygen and nitrogen
molecules in the E layer. [E3A12] These
collisions partially ionize the molecules,
creating a conductive region capable of
reflecting radio waves.
When the electrons that were knocked
loose from the oxygen and nitrogen
recombine with the molecules, light is
produced. The extent of the ionization
determines how bright the aurora will
appear. At times, the ionization is so
strong that it is able to reflect radio
signals with frequencies as low as 20
MHz. This ionization occurs at an
altitude of about 70 miles in the E layer
of the ionosphere. Not all auroral
activity is intense enough to reflect radio
signals, so a distinction is made between
a visible aurora and a radio aurora.
Figure 10.12 shows the relatively
likelihood of auroral propagation at
different latitudes in North America.
Using Auroral Propagation

Most common on 10, 6, and 2 meters,
auroral contacts have been made on
frequencies as high as 222 and 432
MHz. The number and duration of
openings decreases rapidly as the
operating frequency rises.
The reflecting properties of an aurora
vary rapidly, so signals received via this
mode are badly distorted, making CW
the most effective mode for auroral
work. [E3A13] CW signals most often
have a buzzing or raspy sound rather
than a pure tone as reflection from the
aurora makes them appear modulated by
white noise. SSB is usable for 6 meter
auroral contacts if signals are strong;
voices are often intelligible if the
operator speaks slowly and distinctly.
SSB is rarely usable at 2 meters or
higher frequencies.
Stations should point their antennas
toward the Geomagnetic North Pole
during the aurora and, in effect,
“bounce” their signals off the auroral
zone as illustrated by Figure 10.13. The
optimum antenna heading varies with the
position of the aurora and may change
rapidly, just as the visible aurora does.
Constant probing with the antenna is
recommended to peak signals, especially
for high-gain antennas with narrow
beamwidths.
Since auroras are associated with solar
disturbances, you often can predict one
by monitoring websites that publish
geomagnetic data as discussed in the
first section of this chapter. In particular,
K index values of 3 and rising indicate
that conditions associated with auroral
propagation may be present. Maximum
occurrence of radio aurora is for K
index values of 7 to 9. The same
websites also publish real-time maps of
aurora location and intensity.
METEOR SCATTER
COMMUNICATIONS
digital modes is designed for
meteor scatter
communications?
E2D02 — Which of the following is a
good technique for making
meteor scatter contacts?
E3A08 — When a meteor strikes the
Earth’s atmosphere, a
cylindrical region of free
electrons is formed at what
layer of the ionosphere?
frequency ranges is most
suited for meteor-scatter
communications?
Meteoroids are particles of mineral or

metallic matter that travel in highly
elliptical orbits around the Sun. Most of
these are microscopic in size. Every day
hundreds of millions of these meteoroids
enter the Earth’s atmosphere. Attracted
by the Earth’s gravitational field, they
attain speeds from 6 to 60 mi/s (22,000
to 220,000 mi/h).
As a meteoroid speeds through the
upper atmosphere, it heats up and begins
to vaporize as it collides with air
molecules. This action creates heat and
light and leaves a trail of free electrons
and positively charged ions called a
meteor. Trail size is directly dependent
on particle size and speed. A typical
meteoroid the size of a grain of sand
creates a trail about 3 feet in diameter
and 12 miles or longer, depending on
speed.
Meteor showers greatly enhance
meteor-scatter communications at VHF.
The degree of enhancement depends on
the time of day, shower intensity and the
frequency in use. The largest meteor
showers of the year are the Perseids in
August and the Geminids in December.
Table 10.1 is a partial list of meteor
showers throughout the year.
Radio waves can be reflected by the

ionized trail of a meteor. The ability of a
meteor trail to reflect radio signals
depends on electron density. Greater
density causes greater reflecting ability
and reflection at higher frequencies. The
electron density in a typical meteor trail
will strongly affect radio waves on the
upper HF and lower VHF bands. Signal
frequencies as low as 20 MHz and as
high as 432 MHz will be usable for
meteor-scatter communication at times.
The best range of frequencies for
amateur meteor scatter communications
is from 28 to 148 MHz. [E3A09]
Meteor trails are formed at
approximately the altitude of the
ionospheric E layer, 50 to 75 miles
above the Earth. [E3A08] That means
the range for meteor-scatter propagation
is about the same as for single-hop E (or
sporadic E) skip — a maximum of
approximately 1200 miles, as Figure
10.14 shows.
Meteor Scatter Techniques

The secret to successful meteor scatter
communication is short transmissions.
An entire QSO with information
exchanged and confirmed in both
directions may last only a few seconds!
A single meteor may produce a strong
enough path to sustain communication
long enough to complete a short QSO. At
other times multiple bursts are needed to
complete the QSO, especially at higher
frequencies. In response, amateurs
developed an operating protocol based
on 15-second transmissions that
alternated between station locations.
Eventually, a burst of characters would
get through. Another convention, once a
meteor trail was present and reflecting
signals, was to use short transmissions
with rapidly repeated call signs and
signal reports that could be copied
before the trail disappeared.
MSK144, part of the WSJT-X software
suite, was written specifically for
amateur meteor-scatter communications.
[E2D01, E2D02] In this mode, the
stations make repeated short
transmissions of specially formatted
packets to take advantage of any short
meteor “burn” within range of both
stations. See the Modulation, Protocols,
and Modes chapter for more information
on WSJT-X.
EARTH-MOON-EARTH
COMMUNICATIONS
digital modes is especially
useful for EME
communications?
E2D05 — What is one advantage of
the JT65 mode?
describes a method of
establishing EME contacts?
E3A01 — What is the approximate
maximum separation
measured along the surface
of the Earth between two
stations communicating by
EME?
E3A02 — What characterizes
libration fading of an EME
signal?
E3A03 — When scheduling EME
contacts, which of these
conditions will generally
result in the least path loss?
The concept of Earth-Moon-Earth

(EME) communications, popularly
known as moonbounce, is
straightforward: Stations that can
simultaneously see the Moon
communicate by reflecting VHF or UHF
signals off the lunar surface. Those
stations may be separated by nearly half
the circumference of the Earth — a
distance of nearly 12,000 miles — as
long as they can both “see” the Moon.
[E3A01] This is called their mutual
lunar window in which the Moon is
above the “radio horizon” for both
stations at the same time.
Since the Moon’s average distance
from Earth is 239,000 miles, path losses
are huge when compared to “local” VHF
paths. (Path loss refers to the total signal
loss between the transmitting and
receiving stations relative to the total
radiated signal energy. Path loss is
lowest when the Moon is at perigee —
closest to the Earth). [E3A03]
Nevertheless, for any type of amateur
communication over a distance of 500
miles or more at 432 MHz, for example,
moonbounce comes out the winner over
terrestrial propagation paths when all
the factors limiting propagation are taken
into account.
One of the most troublesome aspects of
receiving a moonbounce signal, besides
the enormous path loss and Faraday-
rotation fading in the ionosphere, is
libration (pronounced lie-BRAY-shun)
fading. Librations are short-term
oscillations in the apparent motion of the
Moon relative to Earth. Libration fading
of an EME signal is experienced as
fluttery, rapid, irregular fading not unlike
that observed in tropospheric-scatter
propagation. [E3A02] Librations cause
fading combined with multipath
scattering of the radio waves from the
very large (2000-mile diameter) and
rough lunar surface.
For analog or digital mode EME
contacts, the round-trip time and
extremely weak signals make the usual
call-and-answer method impractical. In
response, amateurs have developed a
standard calling procedure for CW and
SSB that uses alternating sequences of
transmissions. Digital EME uses a
special mode, JT65, that also uses
alternating, time-synchronized
transmissions. [E2D03, E2D06] The
transmitted messages of JT65 use
advanced coding techniques that allow
signals to be decoded at extremely low
signal-to-noise ratios. [E2D05] JT65 is
part of the WSJT-X software suite that is
discussed in the Modulation, Protocols,
and Modes chapter.
• Hazardous substances that may be
found in the ham station
• Ionizing and non-ionizing radiation
• Power density, duty cycle and
absorption limits
• Controlled and uncontrolled
environments
• Evaluating RF exposure
• Steps you can take to minimize RF
exposure
• Grounding and bonding in your
station
Amateur radio is not a hazardous

undertaking! Like driving a car, building
and maintaining a station presents
opportunities to act in an unsafe manner,
but that doesn’t mean the hazards are
unavoidable. Quite the contrary!
Learning about the hazards is the first
step and that’s why the question pool
touches on several topics involving
hazardous materials, RF exposure, and
electrical safety. The ARRL Handbook
contains a chapter on safety, as does The
ARRL Antenna Book. RF exposure is
covered thoroughly in the ARRL’s RF
Exposure and You, as well. We
recommend having a copy of each in
your ham radio library!
11.1 Hazardous
Materials
E0A07 — How may dangerous levels
of carbon monoxide from an
emergency generator be
detected?
E0A09 — Which insulating material
commonly used as a thermal
conductor for some types of
electronic devices is
extremely toxic if broken or
crushed and the particles are
accidentally inhaled?
E0A10 — What toxic material may be
present in some electronic
components such as high
voltage capacitors and
transformers?
There aren’t many materials

considered hazardous that are required
to communicate using amateur radio. To
be realistic, you probably have more
hazardous materials in your garage and
in your cleaning supplies than any ham
station ever will. Nevertheless, here are
three that you ought to know about.
PCBs
Not printed-circuit boards, of course,
but polychlorinated biphenyls, are the
PCBs referred to by this section. You
may have heard about PCBs
contaminating industrial sites or
locations where waste oils were
dumped. PCBs are an additive to
insulating oils once commonly used in
electrical equipment. PCBs helped the
oil retain its insulating properties
without breaking down and so became
widely used until the hazard they
presented became known. PCBs are
known carcinogens — exposure to them,
even in small amounts, elevates the risk
of certain types of cancer.
In the ham station, PCBs may be found
in older oil-filled high-voltage
capacitors and sometimes utility-style
high-voltage transformers referred to as
“pole pigs.” [E0A10] These were used
in dc power supplies for tube-type RF
amplifiers. Since any component
containing PCBs would have to be fairly
old, it is a good idea to replace it with a
new one. If you are unsure whether a
component does or doesn’t contain
PCBs, you can contact the manufacturer
with the model number (if the
manufacturer is known and still in
business).
If you find such a component or remove
one from equipment, wear protective
gloves and wipe down the outside of the
case with a paper towel. Place the paper
towel and the component in a plastic bag
or wrap it in plastic and take it to your
local electric utility. They have
procedures for safely and properly
disposing of PCBs and may be able to
handle it for you at no charge. Some
local governments also have regular
toxic-disposal opportunities and you can
get rid of the component there, as well.
BERYLLIUM AND BERYLLIUM

OXIDE
Beryllium copper is found in spring
contacts and other flexible metal items
that need to be both conductive and
mechanically strong. In this form (or
even as pure metal) beryllium is not
dangerous. It is the dust and small
particles that present a hazard and then
only from chronic, extended exposure.
To be safe, do not grind, weld, or file
metal containing beryllium in an
unventilated area.
The oxide of beryllium (BeO) is a
tough, durable ceramic that has the rare
combination of being an excellent
electrical insulator and an excellent
thermal conductor
(en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beryllium_oxide
It is used inside some power
semiconductors to insulate the transistor
structure from the case and conduct heat
away from the transistor. It is also used
in larger vacuum tubes as a thermally
conductive insulator. In general, BeO is
only found inside the envelopes of tubes
and inside transistor packages. Handling
BeO in solid form is not dangerous but if
a tube or package is broken, BeO pieces
could become cracked or produce dust.
The dust is toxic if inhaled. [E0A09]
It is difficult to tell whether a white
ceramic is BeO or a more benign form
of ceramic, so treat all such materials
with caution. Vacuum any possible dust
or small particles with a vacuum cleaner
using HEPA-rated bags, place the
vacuum cleaner bag in a sealed plastic
bag, and contact your local recycling or
solid waste disposal service for
instructions.
CARBON MONOXIDE
The use of fossil fuel-powered
generators and heaters during emergency
and portable operation is becoming
increasingly common. This presents
several hazards of which the amateur
should be aware, including electrical,
fire, and fuel storage hazards. A
particularly worrisome hazard is caused
by the carbon monoxide (CO) emitted by
these devices.
Carbon monoxide is an odorless and
colorless gas, so there is no warning
detectable by humans that concentrations
of CO have risen to dangerous levels.
For that reason, it is important for
generators and heaters (including wood-
burning stoves) to only be used in well-
ventilated areas away from people. The
only reliable method of sensing the
presence of excessive levels of CO is by
using a carbon monoxide detector — a
smoke alarm will not respond to CO
alone. [E0A07] A CO detector should
be placed in any area occupied by
people in which CO from generator
exhaust or heater vent can build up.
11.2 RF Exposure
E0A02 — When evaluating RF
exposure levels from your
station at a neighbor’s home,
what must you do?
E0A03 — Over what range of
frequencies are the FCC
human body RF exposure
limits most restrictive?
E0A06 — Why are there separate
electric (E) and magnetic
(H) field MPE limits?
E0A08 — What does SAR measure?
injuries can result from using
high-power UHF or
microwave transmitters?
You’ve been exposed (so to speak) to

various safety topics regarding exposure
to RF in the Technician and General
license exams. The Extra class exam
reviews familiar topics and introduces a
couple of new ones. Although some of
this material may be familiar from
earlier exam studies (we hope!), it is
worth covering again.
Let’s start with a reminder that RF
exposure at low levels — even
continuously — is not hazardous in any
way. It is only when the level of
exposure is high enough to affect the
temperature of the body that hazards
occur. Although the power emitted by an
antenna is called “radiation” and a
hazard from RF exposure may be
referred to as a “radiation hazard,” it is
not the same as radiation from a
radioactive source. At RF, radiation
does not have sufficient energy to break
apart atoms and molecules — it can only
cause heating. Radiation from
radioactive sources does and that is why
it is referred to as ionizing radiation.
RF radiation is nonionizing radiation
and is many orders of magnitude weaker
than ionizing radiation in this regard.
Exposure to RF at low levels is not
hazardous. At high power levels, for
some frequencies the amount of energy
that the body absorbs can be a problem.
For example, exposure to high-power
UHF or microwave RF can cause
localized heating of the body. [E0A11]
There are a number of factors to
consider along with the power level,
including frequency, average exposure,
duty cycle of the transmission, and so
forth. The two primary factors that
determine how much RF the body will
absorb are power density and frequency.
This section discusses how to take into
account the various factors and arrive at
a reasonable estimate of what RF
exposure results from your transmissions
and whether any safety precautions are
required.
POWER DENSITY
Heating from exposure to RF signals is
caused by the body absorbing RF energy.
The intensity of the RF energy is called
power density and it is measured in
mW/cm2 (milliwatts per square
centimeter) which is power per unit of
area. For example, if the power density
in an RF field is 10 mW/cm2 and your
hand’s surface area is 75 cm2, then your
hand is exposed to a total of 10 × 75 =
750 mW of RF power in that RF field.
Power density is highest near antennas
and in the directions in which antennas
have the most gain. Increasing
transmitter power increases power
density around the antenna. Increasing
distance from an antenna lowers power
density.
While RF exposure is measured in
mW/cm2 for most amateur requirements,
the body’s response to both E and H
fields suggest that the RF exposure can
also be measured in V/m (for the E
field) and A/m (for the H field).
Depending on the source of the RF and
the environment, either of these
measurements may be more appropriate
than power density. For example, around
reflecting surfaces or conducting
materials, the intensity of the E and H
fields can peak in different locations.
Under and near antennas, ground
reflections and scattering can make the
field impedance (the ratio of E field to H
field strength) vary with location, as
well. [E0A06]
ABSORPTION AND LIMITS

The rate at which energy is absorbed
from the power to which the body is
exposed is called the Specific
Absorption Rate (SAR). [E0A08] SAR
is the best measure of RF exposure for
amateur operators. The SAR varies with
frequency, power density, average
amount of exposure, and the duty cycle
of transmission. Injury is only caused
when the combination of frequency and
power cause too much energy to be
absorbed in too short a time.
SAR depends on the frequency and the
size of the body or body part affected
and is highest where the body and body
parts are naturally resonant. The limbs
(arms and legs) and torso have the
highest SAR for RF fields in the VHF
spectrum from 30 to 300 MHz. The head
is most sensitive at UHF frequencies
from 300 MHz to 3 GHz and the eyes are
most affected by microwave signals
above 1 GHz. The frequencies with
highest SAR are between 30 and 1500
MHz. At frequencies above and below
the ranges of highest absorption, the
body responds less and less to the RF
energy, just like an antenna responds
poorly to signals away from its natural
resonant frequency.
Safe levels of SAR based on
demonstrated hazards have been
established for amateurs by the FCC in
the form of Maximum Permissible
Exposure (MPE) limits that vary with
frequency as shown in Figure 11.1 and
Table 11.1. These take into account the
different sensitivity of the body to RF
energy at different frequencies.
As you can see from the graph, safe
exposure levels are much lower above
30 MHz. MPE limits are the lowest
between 30 and 300 MHz. [E0A03]
This means extra caution is required
around high-power RF sources in the
amateur VHF, UHF, and microwave
bands. Of particular concern are
amplifiers operating at these
frequencies. Legal-limit power levels on
these bands can create a significant
hazard. When testing such equipment,
take extra precautions to prevent
accidental exposure, either near the
transmitter or from an antenna. Radiation
leaks above the MPE limits from
klystron and magnetron transmitters, in
particular, can present a significant
hazard because of the power levels they
can develop.
AVERAGING AND DUTY CYCLE

Exposure to RF energy is averaged
over fixed time intervals because the
response of the body to heating is
different for short duration and long
duration exposures. Time-averaging
evaluates the total RF exposure over a
fixed time interval. In addition, there are
two types of environments with different
averaging periods: controlled and
uncontrolled.
Controlled and Uncontrolled

Environments
People in controlled environments are
considered to be aware of their exposure
and are expected to take reasonable
steps to minimize exposure. Examples of
controlled environments are transmitting
facilities (including amateur radio
stations) and areas near antennas. In a
controlled environment, access is
restricted to authorized and informed
individuals. The people expected to be
in controlled environments would be
station employees, licensed amateurs,
and the families of licensed amateurs.
Uncontrolled environments are areas
where the general public has access,
such as public roads and walkways,
homes and schools, and even unfenced
personal property. The homes of your
neighbors are uncontrolled
environments. [E0A02] People in
uncontrolled environments are not aware
of their exposure but are much less
likely to receive continuous exposure.
As a result, RF power density limits are
higher for controlled environments and
the averaging period is longer for
uncontrolled environments. The
averaging period is 6 minutes for
controlled environments and 30 minutes
for uncontrolled environments.
Duty Cycle
Duty cycle is the ratio of transmitter on
time to total time during the exposure.
Duty cycle has a maximum of 100%.
(Duty factor is the same as duty cycle
expressed as a fraction instead of
percent. For example, a duty cycle of
25% is equivalent to a duty factor of
0.25.) The lower the transmission duty
cycle (the less the transmitter is on), the
lower the average exposure. A lower
transmission duty cycle permits greater
short-term exposure levels for a given
average exposure. This is the
operational duty cycle. For most
amateur operation listening and
transmitting time are about the same, so
operational duty cycle is rarely higher
than 50%.
Along with operational duty cycle, the
different modes themselves have
different emission duty cycles as shown
in Table 11.2. For example, a normal
SSB signal without speech processing to
raise average power is considered to
have an emission duty cycle of 20%. In
contrast, FM is a constant-power mode
so its emission duty cycle is 100%.
Transmitter PEP multiplied by the
emission duty cycle multiplied by the
operating duty cycle gives the average
power output.
For example, if a station is using SSB
without speech processing, transmitting
and listening for equal amounts of time
and with a PEP of 150 W, then the
average power output is 150 W × 20% ×
50%, or 15 W.
For the AM entries, note that the table
assumes the same PEP for all signals. If
PEP is the same, an AM signal with 50%
modulation has a higher duty factor
(more carrier, less sidebands) than for a
signal with 100% modulation. Because
the average power of the signal depends
on modulation, the duty cycle can range
from 25% to 100%.
ANTENNA SYSTEM
You must also take into account the
amount of gain provided by your antenna
and any significant losses from the feed
line. High gain antennas increase a
signal’s average power considerably.
For example, let’s modify the previous
example by using an antenna with 6 dB
of gain. If the transmitter PEP is
increased from 150 W to 600 W by the 6
dB antenna gain, the average power is
600 W × 20% × 50%, or 60 W.
Including antenna gain in the field
strength calculation is required only
when the evaluation is being performed
in the antenna’s far field. The far field
begins approximately 10 wavelengths or
so from the antenna and is generally
considered to be the region in which the
antenna’s radiation pattern has assumed
its final shape and does not change with
increasing distance from the antenna. If
the evaluation is to be performed in the
near field (anything closer than the far
field distance), then a different measure
of antenna gain must be used.
ESTIMATING EXPOSURE AND
STATION EVALUATION
E0A04 — When evaluating a site with
multiple transmitters
operating at the same time,
the operators and licensees
of which transmitters are
responsible for mitigating
over-exposure situations?
E0A05 — What is one of the potential
hazards of operating in the
amateur radio microwave
bands?
All fixed amateur stations must

evaluate their capability to cause RF
exposure, no matter whether they use
high or low power. (Mobile and
handheld transceivers are exempt from
having to calculate exposure because
they do not stay in one location.) A
routine evaluation must then be
performed if the transmitter PEP and
frequency are within the FCC rule limits.
The limits vary with frequency and PEP
as shown in Table 11.3. You are
required to perform the RF exposure
evaluation only if your transmitter output
power exceeds the levels shown for any
band. For example, if your HF
transmitter cannot output more than 25
W, you are exempt from having to
evaluate exposure caused by it.
You can perform the evaluation by
actually measuring the RF field strength
with calibrated field strength meters and
calibrated antennas. You can also use
computer modeling to determine the
exposure levels. However, it’s easiest
for most hams to use the tables provided
by the ARRL (www.arrl.org/rf-
exposure) or an online calculator, such
as the one listed on the ARRL website.
If you choose to use the ARRL tables
or calculators, you will need to know:
• Power at the antenna, including
adjustments for duty cycle and feed line
loss
• Antenna type (or gain) and height
above ground
• Operating frequency
The ARRL tables are organized by
frequency, antenna type, and antenna
height. They show the distance required
from the antenna to comply with MPE
limits for certain levels of transmitter
output power.
Exposure can be evaluated in one of
two ways. The first way is to determine
the power density at a known distance to
see if exposure at that distance meets the
MPE limit. The second way is to
determine the minimum distance from
your antenna at which the MPE limit is
satisfied. Either way, the goal is to
determine if your station meets MPE
limits for all controlled and uncontrolled
environments present at your station.
If you make changes to your station,
such as changing to a higher power
transmitter, increasing antenna gain, or
changing antenna height, then you must
reevaluate the RF exposure from your
station. If you reduce output power
without making any other changes to a
station already in compliance, you need
not make any further changes.
In a multi-transmitter environment, such
as at a commercial repeater site, each
transmitter operator may be jointly
responsible (with all other site
operators) for ensuring that the total RF
exposure from the site does not exceed
the MPE limits. Any transmitter
(including the antenna) that produces
more than 5% of the total permissible
exposure limit for transmissions at that
frequency must be included in the site
evaluation. (This is 5% of the permitted
power density or 5% of the square of the
E or H-field MPE limit. It is not 5% of
the total exposure, which sometimes can
be unknown.) [E0A04] The situation
described by this question is common
for amateur repeater installations, which
often share a transmitting site.
EXPOSURE SAFETY MEASURES

The measures you can take if your
evaluation results exceed MPE limits
are summarized in Figure 11.2. These
are all “good practice” suggestions that
can save time and expense if they are
followed before doing your evaluation.
• Locate or move antennas away from
where people can get close to them and
be exposed to excessive RF fields.
Raise the antenna or place it away from
where people will be. Keep the ends
(high voltage) and center (high current)
of antennas away from people where
people could come in contact with them.
Locate the antenna away from property
lines and place a fence around the base
of ground-mounted antennas. This
prevents people from encountering RF in
excess of the MPE limits.
• Don’t point gain antennas where
people are likely to be. Use beam
antennas to direct the RF energy away
from people. Remember that high-gain
antennas have a narrower beam, but
exposure in the beam will be more
intense. Take special care with high-gain
VHF/UHF/microwave antennas (such as
Yagis and dishes used for EME) and
transmitters — don’t transmit when you
or other people are close to the antenna
or the antenna is pointed close to the
horizon. [E0A05]
• If you have to use stealth or attic
antennas, carefully evaluate whether
MPE limits are exceeded in your home’s
living quarters.
• On VHF and UHF, place mobile
antennas on the roof or trunk of the car to
maximize shielding of the passengers.
Use a remote microphone to hold a
handheld transceiver away from your
head while transmitting.
• When using microwave signals, take
extra care around the high-gain antennas
used on these frequencies. Even modest
transmitter powers can result in
significant RF levels when focused by a
dish with more than 20 dB of gain! This
is a particular concern when operating in
a portable or rover configuration where
antennas may not be far off the ground.
• From the transmitter’s perspective,
use a dummy load or dummy antenna
when testing a transmitter. You can also
reduce the power and duty cycle of your
transmissions. This is often quite
effective and has a minimal effect on
your signal.
11.3 Grounding and

Bonding
Hams are concerned with several kinds
of things called “ground,” even if they
really aren’t a connection to the Earth.
These are easily confused because we
call each of them “ground.” Three of
these ideas are covered here:
1) Electrical safety ground
2) Protection from lightning and
transient voltages
3) Common reference potential
(chassis ground)
This brief discussion is only intended
to introduce three different types of
connections referred to under the general
idea of grounding. For a more complete
discussion and suggestions for building a
station, see the ARRL Handbook or the
ARRL’s Grounding and Bonding for the
Radio Amateur.
ELECTRICAL SAFETY GROUND

An ac power ground is required by
building codes to ensure the safety of
life and property. The NEC or National
Electrical Code also requires that all
grounds be bonded together; this is a
very important safety feature as well as
an NEC requirement. Bonding means
connecting two points together so they
are at the same electrical potential or
voltage.
“Electrical safety ground” is the usual
term used for the “third wire” or “green-
wire ground.” The purpose of the non-
load current-carrying wire is to provide
a path to ensure that the circuit’s
overcurrent protection will trip and
remove power in the event of a line-to-
enclosure short circuit in a piece of
equipment. This could either be a fuse or
circuit breaker at the main service panel.
Fuses inside the equipment offer another
layer of protection.
The conductive enclosure of equipment
is required to be connected to the
bonding system, which is also connected
to earth ground at the service entrance.
This prevents someone from getting
shocked who is connected to “earth” (for
example, standing in bare feet on a
concrete floor) and touches the exposed
enclosure.
An effective safety ground system is
necessary for every amateur station, and
the NEC requires that all the “grounds”
be bonded together to provide a common
reference potential for all parts of the ac
system. This is not sufficient for
lightning protection or RF management.
An effective bonding conductor at 60 Hz
may present very high impedance at RF
because of its length or the inductance
may be too high for effective lightning
protection.
LIGHTNING DISSIPATION
GROUND
E0A01 — What is the primary
function of an external earth
connection or ground rod?
Lightning dissipation grounding is

intended to allow charge from a
lightning strike to dissipate in the
surrounding earth and to prevent large
voltage differences between parts of the
ground system. Since the lightning pulse
has RF components at and above 1 MHz,
it is an RF signal, and low inductance is
needed as well as low resistance.
A lightning ground needs to handle a
peak current of tens of kiloamperes.
Large conductors are used in lightning
grounds to reduce inductance, to handle
the mechanical forces from high
currents, and for ruggedness to prevent
inadvertent breakage. A large diameter
wire, or even better, a wide flat strap,
has the lowest inductance and makes the
best ground connection.
The primary function of ground rods is
making a suitable earth connection for
lightning protection of both ac power
systems and antenna systems. [E0A01]
Vertical antenna radial systems and
buried radials connected to a grounded
tower also act as earth connections to
dissipate charge from a lightning strike.
COMMON REFERENCE
POTENTIAL
The typical ham station includes a lot
of circuits that are sensitive to
interfering signals at millivolt levels,
such as audio signals to and from sound
cards. To keep from contaminating these
small signals with RF, we shouldn’t be
using the equipment enclosures or
shielding conductors as part of the RF
circuit.
Instead, we design our stations to
create a common reference potential,
called the “reference plane” or “RF
bonding” and we work to keep
equipment connected to the reference
plane at a common potential. This
minimizes RF current that would flow
between pieces of equipment. The
general idea of an RF bonding bus is
All grounds, including safety, RF,

lightning protection and commercial
communications such as cable TV and
telephone cables, must be bonded
together in order to prevent significant
voltages between them. The NEC
requires that antenna grounds be bonded
to the other grounds in the system. An
overview of this type of whole-building
ground system is shown in Figure 11.4.
Remember that the focus of the electrical
code bonding requirement is safety in the
event of a power distribution fault or
transient, such as a direct or nearby
lightning strike.
The glossary in this edition is
primarily focused on words
associated with abbreviations or
acronyms along with uncommon
words. For words and phrases not
listed here, please check the index.
A
A index — A geomagnetic-field measurement
used to indicate HF propagation conditions.
Rising values generally indicate disturbed
conditions while falling values indicate
improving conditions. See also K index.
Admittance (Y) — The reciprocal of
impedance.
Alpha (α) — The ratio of transistor collector
current to emitter current. It is between 0.92
and 0.98 for a bipolar junction transistor.
Amplitude modulation (AM) — A method of
superimposing an information signal on an
RF carrier wave in which the amplitude of the
RF envelope (carrier and sidebands) is varied
in relation to the information signal strength.
Analog-to-digital converter (ADC) — A
circuit that converts analog signals to digital
values.
Anode — The terminal connected to the
positive supply for current to flow through a
device.
ASCII — American National Standard Code
for Information Interchange
ATV (amateur television) — A fast-scan TV
system that can use commercial transmission
standards on the 70-cm band and higher
frequencies.
Audio FSK (AFSK) — Generating a frequency
shift keying (FSK) signal by inputting tones
to the transmitter through the audio or
microphone input.
Automatic Link Enable (ALE) — A digital
mode that uses automatic control to find
frequencies at which two stations can
communicate.
Automatic Packet Reporting System
(APRS) — A system of sending location and
other data over packet radio to a common
website for tracking and recording purposes.
AX.25 — The amateur implementation of the
X.25 communications protocol, used for
packet radio.
B
B Z — The B index is a measurement of the
Earth’s geomagnetic field’s strength and
orientation with three-dimensional values:
BX, BY, and BZ. BZ indicates the strength of
the north-south field.
Bandwidth (BW) — (1) The frequency range
over which a signal or the output of a circuit
is within 3 dB of its peak strength within that
range. (2) The frequency range over which a
circuit or antenna meets a specified
performance requirement.
Baseband — (1) The information that
modulates a carrier or that is recovered from
a modulated signal. (2) A video signal with its
lowest frequency component at or near dc.
Baud — A unit of signaling speed equal to the
number of discrete conditions or events per
second. (For example, if an FSK signal
changes frequency every 3.33 milliseconds,
the signaling or baud rate is 300 bauds or the
reciprocal of 0.00333 seconds.) Baud is
equivalent to symbol rate.
Beta (β) — Current gain of a bipolar transistor,
the ratio of collector to base current.
BiCMOS — A digital logic family that
combines bipolar and CMOS technology in a
single integrated circuit.
Bipolar junction transistor (BJT) — A
transistor made of three layers of alternating
type material (N or P) creating two PN
semiconductor junctions between them.
C
Cabrillo format — A standardized digital file
format for submitting information in a
contest log.
Cardioid (radiation pattern) — A heart-
shaped antenna pattern characterized by a
single main lobe and a deep, narrow null in
the opposite direction.
Cathode — The terminal connected to the
negative supply for current to flow through a
device.
CEPT (European Conference of Postal and
Telecommunications Administrations)
agreement — A multilateral operating
arrangement that allows US amateurs to
operate in many European countries, and
amateurs from many European countries to
operate in the US.
Certificate of Successful Completion of
Examination (CSCE) — A document issued
by a Volunteer Examiner Team to certify that
a candidate has passed specific exam
elements at their test session. If the candidate
qualified for a license upgrade at the exam
session, the CSCE provides the authority to
operate using the newly earned license
privileges, with special identification
procedures.
Chroma (chrominance) — Information in a
composite video signal that carries the color
information. A chroma burst is a short period
of signal used to synchronize color
processing circuitry.
Circulator — A passive device with three or
more ports that allows radio waves to travel
between ports in only one direction.
CMOS — Complementary metal oxide
semiconductor (digital logic family)
Code division multiple access (CDMA) — A
method of using spread spectrum techniques
to share a common frequency range by
assigning each signal a different spreading
code.
Common — In a transistor circuit (common-
emitter/collector/base/source/gate/drain), the
transistor electrode that is shared or used as a
reference for both input and output circuits.
Complementary metal-oxide
semiconductor (CMOS) — A type of
construction used to make digital integrated
circuits with both N-channel and P-channel
MOS devices on the same chip.
Conductance (G) — The reciprocal of
resistance. The real part of complex
admittance.
Cross-modulation — See intermodulation
distortion.
Cross-polarized — Antennas or signals that
are aligned with their polarization at right
angles.
Cutoff frequency (fC) — The frequency at
which (1) the output power of a passive
circuit is reduced to half of its input or (2)
the power gain of an active circuit is one-half
its peak gain.
D
Decibel (dB) — A logarithm of the ratio of
two power levels: dB = 10 log (P2/P1).
Power gains and losses are expressed in
decibels.
Depletion mode — Type of FET in which
drain-source current is reduced by reverse
bias on the gate.
Dielectric — An insulating material in which
energy can be stored by an electric field.
Dielectric constant (k) — Also known as an
insulating material’s relative permittivity
compared to that of free space. See also
permittivity.
Digital-to-analog converter (DAC) — A
circuit that converts digital values to analog
signals.
Digital Amateur Television (DATV) —
Amateur television that uses commercial
digital television modulation techniques and
equipment.
Digital multimeter (DMM) — An instrument
with a digital display that measures voltage,
current, and resistance.
Digital Radio Mondiale (DRM) — A digital
modulation method used to transfer audio and
data on HF bands.
DIP — dual in-line package. A type of
integrated circuit package with two parallel
rows of pins.
Direct digital conversion (DDC) — In a
software defined radio (SDR) the conversion
of RF directly to and from digital data
without an intermediate frequency conversion
step.
Direct digital synthesizer (DDS) — The
technique of generating a signal from a
sequence of digital values stored in a table.
Direct FSK — Generating a frequency shift
keying (FSK) signal by shifting the
transmitter frequency directly under the
control of a digital signal.
Direct sequence (DS) — A spread-spectrum
communications system in which a very fast
binary bit stream is used to shift the phase of
an RF carrier.
DSB-SC — Double-sideband, suppressed
carrier
DX — Distance. On HF, often used to describe
stations in countries outside your own.
E
E plane — The plane of the electric field of an
antenna’s radiation.
Effective radiated power (ERP) — A
measure of the power radiated from an
antenna system. ERP takes into account
transmitter output power, feed line losses and
other system losses, and antenna gain as
compared to a dipole. Effective isotropic
radiated power (EIRP) is the same as ERP
except the reference antenna is an isotropic
radiator.
Electromagnetic (EM) waves — Energy
moving through space or materials in the
form of changing electric and magnetic
fields.
EME — Earth-Moon-Earth (see also
moonbounce)
Enhancement mode — An FET in which
drain-source current is increased by forward
bias on the gate.
Error correction — see Forward error
correction
Extraordinary or X wave — The cross-
polarized component of a radio wave that
splits in two upon encountering the
ionosphere. See also ordinary wave.
F
Fast-scan TV (FSTV) — See ATV.
Field-effect transistor (FET) — A
semiconductor device that uses voltage to
control output current.
Finite Impulse Response (FIR) filter — A
digital filter with a response to an impulse
signal that lasts for a finite amount of time.
See also Infinite Impulse Response (IIR)
filter.
Forward error correction (FEC) — The
method of adding special codes to a data
stream so that a receiving system can detect
and correct certain types of transmission
errors.
Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) —
Combining more than one stream of
information in a single transmitted signal by
using different modulating frequencies.
Frequency hopping (FH) — A spread-
spectrum communications system in which
the center frequency of a conventional carrier
is altered many times a second in accordance
with a pseudorandom list of channels.
Frequency modulation (FM) — A method of
RF carrier wave in which the instantaneous
frequency of an RF carrier wave is varied in
relation to the information signal strength.
Frequency shift keying (FSK) — A method
of digital modulation in which individual bit
values are represented by specific
frequencies. If two frequencies are used, one
is called mark and one space.
Frequency standard — A circuit or device
used to produce a highly accurate reference
frequency. The frequency standard may be a
crystal oscillator in a marker generator or a
radio broadcast, such as from WWV, with a
carefully controlled transmit frequency.
Front-to-side (F/S)/back (F/B)/rear (F/R)
ratio — The ratio of field strength at the
peak of the major lobe to that in the specified
direction. Rear implies an average value over
a specified angle centered on the back
direction.
FT4, FT8 — Digital messaging protocols for
use at low signal-to-noise ratios. Part of the
WSJT-X software suite.
G
G index — An index indicating the impact of a
geomagnetic storm on propagation, ranging
from minor (G1) to extreme (G5).
G5RV antenna — A multi-band antenna
similar to a dipole that is fed in the middle
with a specific length of open-wire
transmission line to create a low impedance
suitable for connecting to a coaxial feed line.
Grid square locator — A 2° longitude by 1°
latitude rectangle identified by a four-
character label such as “EM48.” Grid square
locators are exchanged in some contests, and
are used as the basis for some VHF/UHF
awards.
H
H plane — The plane of the magnetic field of
an antenna’s radiation.
Height above average terrain (HAAT) —
The height of an antenna above an average
elevation of the surrounding terrain
determined by measurements along several
radial lines from the antenna.
I
IARP (International Amateur Radio
Permit) — A multilateral operating
arrangement that allows US amateurs to
operate in many Central and South American
countries, and amateurs from many Central
and South American countries to operate in
the US.
IF — Intermediate frequency.
Impedance (Z) — The general term for
opposition to current flow, either ac or dc.
Impedance is made up of resistance and
reactance.
Infinite impulse response (IIR) filter — A
digital filter with a response to an impulse
signal that persists forever. See also Finite
impulse response filter.
Intercept point (IP) — The level of a receiver
input signal at which distortion products
would be as strong as the desired output.
Intermodulation distortion (IMD) — A type
of interference that results from the
unwanted mixing of two strong signals,
producing a signal on an unintended
frequency. Often abbreviated as “intermod”.
Isolator — A passive attenuator in which the
loss in one direction is much greater than the
loss in the other.
Isotropic — The same in all directions.
J
Joule (J) — The unit of energy in the metric
system of measure.
Junction field-effect transistor (JFET) — A
field-effect transistor in which the gate
electrode and channel are in direct contact
and made of opposite types of semiconductor
materials (N or P).
JT65 — A multi-tone FSK mode used with
extremely low signal-to-noise ratios.
K
K index — A geomagnetic-field measurement
used to indicate HF propagation conditions.
Rising values generally indicate disturbed
conditions while falling values indicate
improving conditions. See also A index.
Keplerian elements — Parameters that
describe a satellite’s orbit such that it can be
located in the sky at any time.
L
Line A — A line parallel to and approximately
50 miles from the Canadian border, north of
which US amateurs may not transmit on 420
– 430 MHz because of interference with
Canadian stations.
LO — Local oscillator
Low Earth Orbit (LEO) — Orbits from 200
– 500 miles above the Earth. The
International Space Station is in LEO.
M
Maximum Permissible Exposure (MPE) —
The highest allowed level of exposure to RF.
Metal-oxide semiconductor FET
(MOSFET) — A field-effect transistor with
the gate insulated from the channel material.
Also called an IGFET or insulated gate FET.
Minimum discernible signal (MDS) — The
input signal level equal to the receiver’s
internal noise.
Monolithic microwave integrated circuit
(MMIC) — An integrated circuit designed
for operation at microwave frequencies.
MMICs usually provide simple functions
such as amplification.
Moonbounce — A common name for Earth-
Moon-Earth (EME) communication in which
signals are reflected from the Moon before
being received.
MSK144 — A digital mode designed for use
with meteor scatter propagation. Part of the
WSJT-X software suite.
N
Noise blanker (NB) — A circuit that removes
noise from the receiver output by muting the
receiver during a noise pulse.
Noise figure — The ratio in dB of the noise
output power to the noise input power with
the input termination at a standard
temperature of 290 K. It is a measure of the
noise generated in the receiver circuitry.
Noise factor is the same quantity expressed
as a linear ratio.
Noise reduction (NR) — A type of adaptive
filtering that removes unwanted noise in a
signal’s passband.
NTSC — National Television Standard
Committee. The US analog television
standard.
N-type material — Semiconductor material
that has been treated with impurities to give it
an excess of electrons.
O
OFCD (Off-center fed dipole) — A dipole
fed away from its center point to present a
similar feed point impedance on different
bands.
Ordinary or O wave — The component of a
radio wave that retains its original
polarization when it splits in two upon
encountering the ionosphere. See also
extraordinary wave.
Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (OFDM) — The technique of
transmitting digital data by modulating
multiple carriers separated to minimize
interference between them.
P
PCB (hazardous materials) —
Polychlorinated biphenyls, carcinogenic
hydrocarbons once added to insulating oils
Peak envelope power (PEP) — The
maximum average power level in a signal
during one cycle during a modulation peak.
(Used for modulated RF signals.)
Peak envelope voltage (PEV) — The
maximum voltage in a cycle at the peak of a
modulated signal envelope.
Peak inverse voltage (PIV) — The maximum
instantaneous anode-to-cathode reverse
voltage that may be applied to a diode without
damage.
Peak-to-peak (P-P) voltage — The
difference between the negative and positive
peak voltages of a waveform.
Pedersen ray — A high-angle radio wave that
penetrates deeper into the F region of the
ionosphere so the wave is bent less than a
lower-angle wave and thus travels for some
distance through the F region, returning to
Earth at a distance farther than normally
expected for single-hop propagation.
Period (T) — The time it takes to complete
one cycle of an ac waveform.
Permeability (µ) — The ability of a material
to store energy in a magnetic field.
Permittivity (ε) — The ability of a material to
store energy in an electric field.
Phase-locked loop (PLL) — A servo loop
consisting of a phase detector, low-pass
filter, dc amplifier and voltage-controlled
oscillator.
Phase modulation (PM) — A method of
RF carrier wave in which the phase of an RF
carrier wave is varied in relation to the
information signal strength.
Phase shift keying (PSK) — A method of
modulation in which the phase of a carrier
signal is varied to represent different digital
values.
PIN diode — A diode consisting of a relatively
thick layer of nearly pure semiconductor
material (intrinsic semiconductor) with a
layer of P-type material on one side and a
layer of N-type material on the other.
PN junction — The contact area between two
layers of opposite-type semiconductor
material.
PRB-1 — The FCC regulation requiring local
governments to make reasonable
accommodations for amateur radio in land-
use regulations.
Programmable logic device (PLD) — A
digital integrated circuit consisting of
individual logic circuit elements and
subsystems that can be connected together
(programmed) to implement a complex
function. If the logic elements are logic gates
the device is called a Programmable Gate
Array (PGA).
Pseudonoise (PN) — A binary sequence
designed to appear to be random (contain an
approximately equal number of ones and
zeros). Pseudonoise is generated by a digital
circuit and mixed with digital information to
produce a direct-sequence spread-spectrum
signal.
P-type material — A semiconductor material
that has been treated with impurities to give it
an electron shortage. This creates excess
positive charge carriers, or “holes.”
Q
Q — (circuit or component) A quality factor
describing how much energy is lost in a
component or circuit due to resistance
compared to energy stored in reactance.
(frequency response) The ratio of center
frequency of a filter to its bandwidth.
Q point — See operating point; also called
quiescent point.
Q section — A quarter-wave section of
transmission line used for impedance
matching.
R
RACES — Radio Amateur Civil Emergency
Service.
Radians — A unit of angular measurement.
There are 2π radians in a circle and 1 radian
= 57.3°
Reactance (X) — The opposition to ac current
due to capacitance or inductance. The
imaginary component of complex impedance.
Receiving directivity factor (RDF) — The
ratio of an antenna’s forward gain to its
average of gain over all directions, a figure of
merit for an antenna’s receiving directivity.
Reflection coefficient (ρ or Γ) — The ratio of
the reflected voltage at a given point on a
transmission line to the incident voltage at
the same point. The reflection coefficient is
also equal to the ratio of reflected and
incident currents.
Root-mean-square (RMS) voltage — A
measure of the effective value of an ac
voltage. The value of a dc voltage that would
produce the same amount of heat in a
resistance as the ac voltage.
S
S or scattering parameters — Ratios of
incident and reflected voltage waves at and
between the signal ports of a circuit. S
parameters are used to describe impedance,
gain, SWR, and other parameters of circuits
at RF.
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) — The numeric
ratio of signal power to noise power in a
given bandwidth. Signal-to-noise-plus-
distortion (SINAD) adds distortion product
power to the noise power.
Single-sideband, suppressed-carrier signal
(SSB) — A radio signal in which only one of
the two sidebands generated by amplitude
modulation is transmitted. The other sideband
and the RF carrier wave are removed before
the signal is transmitted.
Slow-scan television (SSTV) — A television
system used by amateurs to transmit pictures
within a voice signal’s bandwidth allowed on
the HF bands by the FCC. Each frame takes
several seconds to transmit.
Software defined radio (SDR) — A receiver
and/or transmitter based on DSP techniques
and with a modulation/demodulation
configuration determined entirely by
software.
Specific absorption rate (SAR) — The rate at
which the body absorbs electromagnetic
energy.
Sporadic E — A type of propagation for upper
HF, VHF, and lower UHF signals that occurs
when signals are reflected by highly-ionized
regions of the E layer.
Spread-spectrum (SS) communication — A
communications method in which the RF
bandwidth of the transmitted signal is much
larger than that needed for traditional
modulation schemes, and in which the RF
bandwidth is independent of the modulation
content. Increasing the bandwidth of the
signal by means of a randomizing sequence
(spreading code) is called spreading.
Surface-mount device (SMD) — An
electronic component without wire leads,
designed to be soldered directly to copper-
foil pads on a circuit board.
Surface-mount technology (SMT) — The
general term for methods and devices for
mounting components directly on printed-
circuit boards.
Susceptance (B) — The reciprocal of
reactance. The imaginary part of complex
admittance.
T
Time division multiplexing (TDM) —
Combining more than one stream of
information in a single transmitted signal by
using different time periods or “slots” for
each stream.
Transconductance (gm) — The ratio of output
current to input voltage, primarily used with
FETs and vacuum tubes.
Transequatorial propagation (TE) — A form
of F-layer ionospheric propagation, in which
signals of higher frequency than the expected
MUF propagate across the Earth’s magnetic
equator.
V
Vector network analyzer (VNA) — A test
instrument that measures complex
impedance, phase, and amplitude in circuits at
RF.
Velocity factor (VF, velocity of propagation)
— An expression of how fast a radio wave
will travel through a material or transmission
line. It is usually stated as a fraction of the
speed the wave would have in free space
(where the wave would have its maximum
velocity). Velocity factor is also sometimes
specified as a percentage of the speed of a
radio wave in free space.
Vertical interval signaling (VIS) — The
method of identifying the type of SSTV signal
by sending coded information during the
vertical synchronization period.
Vestigial sideband (VSB) — A signal-
transmission method in which one sideband,
the carrier and part of the second sideband
are transmitted.
VOACAP — A propagation prediction
program.
Volunteer Examiner (VE) — A licensed
amateur who is accredited by a Volunteer
Examiner Coordinator (VEC) to administer
amateur license exams.
Volunteer Examiner Coordinator (VEC) —
An organization that has entered into an
agreement with the FCC to coordinate
amateur license examinations.
Voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) — An
oscillator whose frequency is varied by
means of an applied control voltage.
W
WSJT-X — A suite of digital modes developed
by K1JT including FT8, FT4, JT65, MSK144,
and WSPR which are used at very low signal-
to-noise ratios and for scatter or EME
propagation.
WSPR — A digital mode that uses extremely
low power and advanced coding techniques
for evaluating propagation. Part of the WSJT-
X software suite.
Extra Class
(Element 4)
Syllabus
Effective July 1, 2020 to June 30, 2024
SUBELEMENT E1 — COMMISSION’S
RULES
Questions
E1A — Operating Standards: frequency
privileges; automatic message forwarding;
stations aboard ships or aircraft; power
restriction on 630 and 2200 meter bands
location; general operating restrictions;
spurious emissions; antenna structure
restrictions; RACES operations
E1C — Definitions and restrictions pertaining
to local, automatic and remote control
operation; IARP and CEPT licenses;
emission and bandwidth standards
E1D — Amateur space and Earth stations;
telemetry and telecommand rules;
identification of balloon transmissions;
one-way communications
definitions; qualifications; preparation and
administration of exams; accreditation;
question pools; documentation
requirements
E1F — Miscellaneous rules: external RF
power amplifiers; prohibited
auxiliary stations; Canadian amateurs
operating in the U.S.; special temporary
authority; control operator of an auxiliary
station
SUBELEMENT E2 — OPERATING
PROCEDURES
Questions
E2A — Amateur radio in space: amateur
satellites; orbital mechanics; frequencies
and modes; satellite hardware; satellite
operations
television standards and techniques; slow
scan television standards and techniques
E2C — Operating methods: contest and DX
operating; remote operation techniques;
Cabrillo format; QSLing; RF network
connected systems
E2D — Operating methods: VHF and UHF
digital modes and procedures; APRS;
EME procedures; meteor scatter
procedures
E2E — Operating methods: operating HF
digital modes
SUBELEMENT E3 — RADIO WAVE

PROPAGATION
Questions
E3A — Electromagnetic waves; Earth-Moon-
Earth communications; meteor scatter;
microwave tropospheric and scatter
propagation; aurora propagation;
ionospheric propagation changes over the
day; circular polarization
E3B — Transequatorial propagation; long-path;
ordinary and extraordinary waves; chordal
hop; sporadic E mechanisms
propagation prediction techniques and
modeling; effects of space weather
parameters on propagation
SUBELEMENT E4 — AMATEUR
PRACTICES
Questions
E4A — Test equipment: analog and digital
instruments; spectrum analyzers; antenna
analyzers; oscilloscopes; RF
measurements; computer-aided
measurements
limitations: instrument accuracy and
performance limitations; probes;
techniques to minimize errors;
measurement of Q; instrument calibration;
S parameters; vector network analyzers
E4C — Receiver performance characteristics:
phase noise, noise floor, image rejection,
MDS, signal-to-noise ratio, noise figure,
reciprocal mixing; selectivity; effects of
SDR receiver non-linearity; use of
attenuators at low frequencies
E4D — Receiver performance characteristics:
blocking dynamic range; intermodulation
and cross-modulation interference; third-
order intercept; desensitization;
preselector
E4E — Noise suppression and interference:
system noise; electrical appliance noise;
line noise; locating noise sources; DSP
noise reduction; noise blankers; grounding
for signals; common mode currents
SUBELEMENT E5 — ELECTRICAL
PRINCIPLES
Questions
E5A — Resonance and Q: characteristics of
resonant circuits: series and parallel
resonance; definitions and effects of Q;
half-power bandwidth; phase relationships
in reactive circuits
relationships: RL and RC time constants;
phase angle in reactive circuits and
components; admittance and susceptance
E5C — Coordinate systems and phasors in
electronics: rectangular coordinates; polar
coordinates; phasors
E5D — AC and RF energy in real circuits: skin
effect; electromagnetic fields; reactive
power; power factor; electrical length of
conductors at UHF and microwave
frequencies; microstrip
SUBELEMENT E6 — CIRCUIT
COMPONENTS
Questions
E6A — Semiconductor materials and devices:
semiconductor materials; germanium,
silicon, P-type, N-type; transistor types:
NPN, PNP, junction, field-effect
transistors: enhancement mode; depletion
mode; MOS; CMOS; N-channel; P-
channel
E6B — Diodes
E6C — Digital ICs: Families of digital ICs;
gates; Programmable Logic Devices
(PLDs)
E6D — Toroidal and Solenoidal Inductors:
permeability, core material, selecting,
winding; transformers; piezoelectric
devices
E6E — Analog ICs: MMICs, IC packaging
characteristics
photoconductivity; photovoltaic devices;
optical sensors and encoders; optical
isolation
SUBELEMENT E7 — PRACTICAL
CIRCUITS
Questions
principles and logic circuits; classes of
logic elements; positive and negative
logic; frequency dividers; truth tables
E7B — Amplifiers: Class of operation; vacuum
tube and solid-state circuits; distortion and
intermodulation; spurious and parasitic
suppression; microwave amplifiers;
switching-type amplifiers
E7C — Filters and matching networks: types
of networks; types of filters; filter
applications; filter characteristics;
impedance matching; DSP filtering
E7D — Power supplies and voltage regulators;
Solar array charge controllers
reactance, phase and balanced modulators;
detectors; mixer stages
E7F — DSP filtering and other operations;
software defined radio fundamentals; DSP
modulation and demodulation
E7G — Active filters and op-amp circuits:
active audio filters; characteristics; basic
circuit design; operational amplifiers
E7H — Oscillators and signal sources: types
of oscillators; synthesizers and phase-
locked loops; direct digital synthesizers;
stabilizing thermal drift; microphonics;
high-accuracy oscillators
SUBELEMENT E8 — SIGNALS AND

EMISSIONS
Questions
E8A — AC waveforms: sine, square, and
irregular waveforms; AC measurements;
average power and PEP of RF signals;
Fourier analysis; analog to digital
conversion: digital to analog conversion;
advantages of digital communications
modulation methods; modulation index
and deviation ratio; frequency and time
division multiplexing; Orthogonal
E8C — Digital signals: digital communication
modes; information rate vs. bandwidth;
error correction
E8D — Keying defects and overmodulation of
digital signals; digital codes; spread
spectrum
SUBELEMENT E9 — ANTENNAS AND

TRANSMISSION LINES
Questions
E9A — Basic Antenna parameters: radiation
resistance, gain, beamwidth, efficiency;
effective radiated power
E9B — Antenna patterns and designs: E and H
plane patterns; gain as a function of
pattern; antenna modeling
E9C — Practical wire antennas; folded dipoles;
phased arrays; effects of ground near
antennas
E9D — Yagi antennas; parabolic reflectors;
circular polarization; loading coils; top
loading; feed point impedance of
electrically short antennas; antenna Q; RF
grounding
E9E — Matching: matching antennas to feed
lines; phasing lines; power dividers
E9F — Transmission lines: characteristics of
open and shorted feed lines; coax versus
open-wire; velocity factor; electrical
length; coaxial cable dielectrics
E9H — Receiving Antennas: radio direction
finding antennas; Beverage antennas;
specialized receiving antennas; long-wire
receiving antennas
SUBELEMENT E0 — SAFETY
[1 exam question — 1 group] 11 Questions
E0A — Safety: RF radiation hazards; hazardous
materials; grounding
Element 4 — Extra Class
Question Pool
Effective for VEC examinations on July 1,
2020 through June 30, 2024
SUBELEMENT E1 —
COMMISSION RULES
[6 Exam Questions — 6
Groups]
E1A — Operating Standards:
frequency privileges; automatic
message forwarding; stations aboard
ships or aircraft; power restriction on
630 and 2200 meter bands
E1A01 E1A01
Which of the following carrier (A)
frequencies is illegal for LSB [97.305,
AFSK emissions on the 17 meter 97.307(b)]
band RTTY and data segment of Page 3-4
18.068 to 18.110 MHz?
A. 18.068 MHz
B. 18.100 MHz
C. 18.107 MHz
D. 18.110 MHz
E1A02 E1A02
When using a transceiver that (D)
displays the carrier frequency of [97.301,
phone signals, which of the 97.305]
following displayed frequencies Page 3-4
represents the lowest frequency
at which a properly adjusted LSB
emission will be totally within the
band?
A. The exact lower band edge
B. 300 Hz above the lower band
edge
C. 1 kHz above the lower band
edge
D. 3 kHz above the lower band
edge
E1A03 E1A03
What is the maximum legal (C)
carrier frequency on the 20 meter [97.305,
band for transmitting USB AFSK 97.307(b)]
digital signals having a 1 kHz Page 3-4
bandwidth?
A. 14.070 MHz
B. 14.100 MHz
C. 14.149 MHz
D. 14.349 MHz
E1A04 E1A04
With your transceiver displaying (C)
the carrier frequency of phone [97.301,
signals, you hear a DX station 97.305]
calling CQ on 3.601 MHz LSB. Is Page 3-4
it legal to return the call using
lower sideband on the same
frequency?
A. Yes, because the DX station
initiated the contact
B. Yes, because the displayed
frequency is within the 75
meter phone band segment
C. No, the sideband will extend
beyond the edge of the phone
band segment
D. No, U.S. stations are not
permitted to use phone
emissions below 3.610 MHz
E1A05 E1A05
What is the maximum power (C)
output permitted on the 60 meter [97.313]
band? Page 3-4
A. 50 watts PEP effective
radiated power relative to an
isotropic radiator
B. 50 watts PEP effective
dipole
C. 100 watts PEP effective
radiated power relative to the
gain of a half-wave dipole
D. 100 watts PEP effective
radiated power relative to an
isotropic radiator
E1A06 E1A06
Where must the carrier frequency (B)
of a CW signal be set to comply [97.303(h)
with FCC rules for 60 meter (1)]
operation? Page 3-4
A. At the lowest frequency of
the channel
B. At the center frequency of the
channel
C. At the highest frequency of
the channel
D. On any frequency where the
signal’s sidebands are within
the channel
E1A07 E1A07
What is the maximum power (C)
permitted on the 2200 meter [97.313(k)]
band? Page 3-5
A. 50 watts PEP
B. 100 watts PEP
C. 1 watt EIRP (Equivalent
isotropic radiated power)
D. 5 watts EIRP (Equivalent
isotropic radiated power)
E1A08 E1A08
If a station in a message (B)
forwarding system inadvertently [97.219]
forwards a message that is in Page 3-5
violation of FCC rules, who is
primarily accountable for the
rules violation?
A. The control operator of the
packet bulletin board station
B. The control operator of the
originating station
C. The control operators of all
the stations in the system
D. The control operators of all
the stations in the system not
authenticating the source from
which they accept
communications
E1A09 E1A09
What action or actions should you (A)
take if your digital message [97.219]
forwarding station inadvertently Page 3-6
forwards a communication that
violates FCC rules?
A. Discontinue forwarding the
communication as soon as you
become aware of it
B. Notify the originating station
that the communication does
not comply with FCC rules
C. Notify the nearest FCC Field
Engineer’s office
D. All these choices are correct
E1A10 E1A10
If an amateur station is installed (A)
aboard a ship or aircraft, what [97.11]
condition must be met before the Page 3-6
station is operated?
A. Its operation must be
approved by the master of the
ship or the pilot in command of
the aircraft
B. The amateur station operator
must agree not to transmit
when the main radio of the ship
or aircraft is in use
C. The amateur station must have
a power supply that is
completely independent of the
main ship or aircraft power
supply
D. The amateur operator must
have an FCC Marine or Aircraft
endorsement on his or her
amateur license
E1A11 E1A11
Which of the following describes (B)
authorization or licensing [97.5]
required when operating an Page 3-6
amateur station aboard a U.S.-
registered vessel in international
waters?
A. Any amateur license with an
FCC Marine or Aircraft
endorsement
B. Any FCC-issued amateur
license
C. Only General Class or higher
amateur licenses
D. An unrestricted
Radiotelephone Operator
Permit
E1A12 E1A12
What special operating frequency (C)
restrictions are imposed on slow Page 8-21
scan TV transmissions? E1A13
A. None; they are allowed on all
amateur frequencies
B. They are restricted to 7.245
MHz, 14.245 MHz, 21.345
MHz, and 28.945 MHz
C. They are restricted to phone
band segments
D. They are not permitted above
54 MHz
E1A13 (B)
Who must be in physical control [97.5]
of the station apparatus of an Page 3-6
amateur station aboard any vessel E1A14
or craft that is documented or
registered in the United States?
A. Only a person with an FCC
Marine Radio license grant
B. Any person holding an FCC
issued amateur license or who
is authorized for alien
reciprocal operation
C. Only a person named in an
amateur station license grant
D. Any person named in an
amateur station license grant or
a person holding an
unrestricted Radiotelephone
Operator Permit
E1A14 (D)
Except in some parts of Alaska, [97.313(l)]
what is the maximum power Page 3-6
permitted on the 630 meter E1B01
band?
A. 50 watts PEP
B. 100 watts PEP
C. 1 watt EIRP
D. 5 watts EIRP

location; general operating
restrictions; spurious emissions;
antenna structure restrictions;
RACES operations
E1B01 (D)
Which of the following [97.3]
constitutes a spurious emission? Page 3-7
A. An amateur station E1B02
transmission made without the
proper call sign identification
B. A signal transmitted to prevent
its detection by any station
other than the intended
recipient
C. Any transmitted signal that
unintentionally interferes with
another licensed radio station
D. An emission outside the
signal’s necessary bandwidth
that can be reduced or
eliminated without affecting
the information transmitted
E1B02 (A)
Which of the following is an [97.307(f)
acceptable bandwidth for Digital (2)]
Radio Mondiale (DRM) based Page 8-23
voice or SSTV digital E1B03
transmissions made on the HF
amateur bands?
A. 3 kHz
B. 10 kHz
C. 15 kHz
D. 20 kHz
E1B03 (A)
Within what distance must an [97.13]
amateur station protect an FCC Page 3-8
monitoring facility from harmful E1B04
interference?
A. 1 mile
B. 3 miles
C. 10 miles
D. 30 miles
E1B04 (C)
What must be done before placing [97.13,
an amateur station within an 1.1305-
officially designated wilderness 1.1319]
area or wildlife preserve, or an Page 3-8
area listed in the National
Register of Historic Places?
A. A proposal must be submitted
to the National Park Service
B. A letter of intent must be filed
with the Environmental
Protection Agency
C. An Environmental Assessment
must be submitted to the FCC
D. A form FSD-15 must be
submitted to the Department of
the Interior
E1B05 E1B05
What is the National Radio Quiet (C)
Zone? [97.3]
A. An area in Puerto Rico Page 3-20
surrounding the Arecibo Radio
Telescope
B. An area in New Mexico
surrounding the White Sands
Test Area
C. An area surrounding the
National Radio Astronomy
Observatory
D. An area in Florida surrounding
Cape Canaveral
E1B06 E1B06
Which of the following additional (A)
rules apply if you are installing an [97.15]
amateur station antenna at a site at Page 3-9
or near a public use airport?
A. You may have to notify the
Federal Aviation
Administration and register it
with the FCC as required by
Part 17 of the FCC rules
B. You must submit engineering
drawings to the FAA
C. You must file an
Environmental Impact
Statement with the EPA before
construction begins
D. You must obtain a
construction permit from the
airport zoning authority
E1B07 E1B07
To what type of regulations does (C)
PRB-1 apply? [97.15]
A. Homeowners associations Page 3-8
B. FAA tower height limits
C. State and local zoning
D. Use of wireless devices in
vehicles
E1B08 E1B08
What limitations may the FCC (D)
place on an amateur station if its [97.121]
signal causes interference to Page 3-7
domestic broadcast reception,
assuming that the receivers
involved are of good engineering
design?
A. The amateur station must
cease operation
B. The amateur station must
cease operation on all
frequencies below 30 MHz
C. The amateur station must
cease operation on all
frequencies above 30 MHz
D. The amateur station must
avoid transmitting during
certain hours on frequencies
that cause the interference
E1B09 E1B09
Which amateur stations may be (C)
operated under RACES rules? [97.407]
A. Only those club stations Page 3-6
licensed to Amateur Extra
Class operators
B. Any FCC-licensed amateur
station except a Technician
Class
C. Any FCC-licensed amateur
station certified by the
responsible civil defense
organization for the area served
D. Any FCC-licensed amateur
station participating in the
Military Auxiliary Radio
System (MARS)
E1B10 E1B10
What frequencies are authorized (A)
to an amateur station operating [97.407]
under RACES rules? Page 3-6
A. All amateur service
frequencies authorized to the
control operator
B. Specific segments in the
amateur service MF, HF, VHF
and UHF bands
C. Specific local government
channels
D. Military Auxiliary Radio
System (MARS) channels
E1B11 E1B11
What does PRB-1 require of (B)
regulations affecting amateur [97.15]
radio? Page 3-8
A. No limitations may be placed
on antenna size or placement
B. Reasonable accommodations
of amateur radio must be made
C. Amateur radio operations
must be permitted in any
private residence
D. Use of wireless devices in a
vehicle is exempt from
regulation
E1B12 E1B12
What must the control operator (A)
of a repeater operating in the 70 [97.303(b)]
cm band do if a radiolocation Page 3-19
system experiences interference
from that repeater?
A. Cease operation or make
changes to the repeater to
mitigate the interference
B. File an FAA NOTAM (Notice
to Airmen) with the repeater
system’s ERP, call sign, and
six-character grid locator
C. Reduce the repeater antenna
HAAT (Height Above Average
Terrain)
E1C — Rules pertaining to automatic

and remote control; band-specific
regulations; operating in, and
communicating with foreign countries;
spurious emission standards; HF
modulation index limit; bandwidth
definition
E1C01 E1C01
What is the maximum bandwidth (D)
for a data emission on 60 meters? [97.303]
A. 60 Hz Page 3-4
B. 170 Hz
C. 1.5 kHz
D. 2.8 kHz
E1C02 E1C02
Which of the following types of (C)
communications may be [97.117]
transmitted to amateur stations in Page 3-20
foreign countries?
A. Business-related messages
for non-profit organizations
B. Messages intended for users
of the maritime satellite
service
C. Communications incidental to
the purpose of the amateur
service and remarks of a
personal nature
E1C03 E1C03
How do the control operator (B)
responsibilities of a station [97.109(d)]
under automatic control differ Page 3-12
from one under local control?
A. Under local control there is
no control operator
B. Under automatic control the
control operator is not
required to be present at the
control point
C. Under automatic control
there is no control operator
D. Under local control a control
operator is not required to be
present at a control point
E1C04 E1C04
What is meant by IARP? (A)
A. An international amateur radio Page 3-21
permit that allows U.S.
amateurs to operate in certain
countries of the Americas
B. The internal amateur radio
practices policy of the FCC
C. An indication of increased
antenna reflected power
D. A forecast of intermittent
aurora radio propagation
E1C05 E1C05
When may an automatically (A)
controlled station originate third [97.221(c)
party communications? (1),
A. Never 97.115(c)]
B. Only when transmitting RTTY Page 3-12
or data emissions
C. When agreed upon by the
sending or receiving station
D. When approved by the
National Telecommunication
and Information
Administration
E1C06 E1C06
Which of the following is (C)
required in order to operate in Page 3-21
accordance with CEPT rules in
foreign countries where
permitted?
A. You must identify in the
official language of the country
in which you are operating
B. The U.S. embassy must
approve of your operation
C. You must bring a copy of FCC
Public Notice DA 16-1048
D. You must append “/CEPT” to
your call sign
E1C07 E1C07
At what level below a signal’s (D)
mean power level is its bandwidth [97.3(a)
determined according to FCC (8)]
rules? Page 3-4
A. 3 dB
B. 6 dB
C. 23 dB
D. 26 dB
E1C08 E1C08
What is the maximum permissible (B)
duration of a remotely controlled [97.213]
station’s transmissions if its Page 3-10
control link malfunctions?
A. 30 seconds
B. 3 minutes
C. 5 minutes
D. 10 minutes
E1C09 E1C09
What is the highest modulation (B)
index permitted at the highest [97.307]
modulation frequency for angle Page 8-4
modulation below 29.0 MHz?
A. 0.5
B. 1.0
C. 2.0
D. 3.0
E1C10 E1C10
What is the permitted mean (A)
power of any spurious emission [97.307]
relative to the mean power of the Page 3-7
fundamental emission from a
station transmitter or external RF
amplifier installed after January
1, 2003 and transmitting on a
frequency below 30 MHz?
A. At least 43 dB below
B. At least 53 dB below
C. At least 63 dB below
D. At least 73 dB below
E1C11 E1C11
Which of the following operating (A)
arrangements allows an FCC- [97.5]
licensed U.S. citizen to operate in Page 3-21
many European countries, and
alien amateurs from many
European countries to operate in
the U.S.?
A. CEPT agreement
B. IARP agreement
C. ITU reciprocal license
E1C12 E1C12
On what portion of the 630 (D)
meter band are phone emissions [97.305(c)]
permitted? Page 3-5
A. None
B. Only the top 3 kHz
C. Only the bottom 3 kHz
D. The entire band
E1C13 E1C13
What notifications must be given (C)
before transmitting on the 630 [97.303(g)]
meter or 2200 meter bands? Page 3-5
A. A special endorsement must
be requested from the FCC
B. An environmental impact
statement must be filed with
the Department of the Interior
C. Operators must inform the
Utilities Technology Council
(UTC) of their call sign and
coordinates of the station
D. Operators must inform the
FAA of their intent to operate,
giving their call sign and
distance to the nearest runway
E1C14 E1C14
How long must an operator wait (B)
after filing a notification with [97.303(g)]
the Utilities Technology Council Page 3-5
(UTC) before operating on the
2200 meter or 630 meter band?
A. Operators must not operate
until approval is received
B. Operators may operate after
30 days, providing they have
not been told that their station
is within 1 km of PLC
systems using those
frequencies
C. Operators may not operate
until a test signal has been
transmitted in coordination
with the local power company
D. Operations may commence
immediately, and may
continue unless interference
is reported by the UTC
E1D — Amateur space and Earth

stations; telemetry and telecommand
rules; identification of balloon
transmissions; one-way
communications
E1D01 E1D01
What is the definition of (A)
telemetry? [97.3]
A. One-way transmission of Page 3-12
measurements at a distance
from the measuring instrument
B. Two-way transmissions in
excess of 1000 feet
C. Two-way transmissions of
data
D. One-way transmission that
initiates, modifies, or
terminates the functions of a
device at a distance
E1D02 E1D02
Which of the following may (A)
transmit special codes intended [97.211(b)]
to obscure the meaning of Page 3-13
messages?
A. Telecommand signals from a
space telecommand station
B. Data containing personal
information
C. Auxiliary relay links carrying
repeater audio
D. Binary control characters
E1D03 E1D03
What is a space telecommand (B)
station? [97.3(a)
A. An amateur station located on (45)]
the surface of the Earth for Page 3-13
communication with other
Earth stations by means of
Earth satellites
B. An amateur station that
transmits communications to
initiate, modify or terminate
functions of a space station
C. An amateur station located in
a satellite or a balloon more
than 50 kilometers above the
surface of the Earth
D. An amateur station that
receives telemetry from a
satellite or balloon more than
50 kilometers above the
surface of the Earth
E1D04 E1D04
Which of the following is (A)
required in the identification [97.119(a)]
transmissions from a balloon- Page 3-12
borne telemetry station?
A. Call sign
B. The output power of the
balloon transmitter
C. The station’s six-character
Maidenhead grid locator
E1D05 E1D05
What must be posted at the (D)
station location of a station [97.213(d)]
being operated by telecommand Page 3-10
on or within 50 km of the earth’s
surface?
A. A photocopy of the station
license
B. A label with the name,
address, and telephone
number of the station licensee
C. A label with the name,
address, and telephone
number of the control
operator
E1D06 E1D06
What is the maximum permitted (A)
transmitter output power when [97.215(c)]
operating a model craft by Page 3-10
telecommand?
A. 1 watt
B. 2 watts
C. 5 watts
D. 100 watts
E1D07 E1D07
Which HF amateur bands have (A)
frequencies authorized for space [97.207]
stations? Page 3-13
A. Only the 40, 20, 17, 15, 12,
and 10 meter bands
B. Only the 40, 20, 17, 15, and
10 meter bands
C. Only the 40, 30, 20, 15, 12,
and 10 meter bands
D. All HF bands
E1D08 E1D08
Which VHF amateur bands have (D)
stations? Page 3-13
A. 6 meters and 2 meters
B. 6 meters, 2 meters, and 1.25
meters
C. 2 meters and 1.25 meters
D. 2 meters
E1D09 E1D09
Which UHF amateur bands have (B)
stations? Page 3-13
A. 70 cm only
B. 70 cm and 13 cm
C. 70 cm and 33 cm
D. 33 cm and 13 cm
E1D10 E1D10
Which amateur stations are (B)
eligible to be telecommand [97.211]
stations of space stations (subject Page 3-13
to the privileges of the class of
operator license held by the
control operator of the station)?
A. Any amateur station
designated by NASA
B. Any amateur station so
designated by the space station
licensee
C. Any amateur station so
designated by the ITU
E1D11 E1D11
Which amateur stations are (D)
eligible to operate as Earth [97.209]
stations? Page 3-13
A. Any amateur station whose
licensee has filed a pre-space
notification with the FCC’s
International Bureau
B. Only those of General,
Advanced or Amateur Extra
Class operators
C. Only those of Amateur Extra
Class operators
D. Any amateur station, subject
to the privileges of the class of
operator license held by the
control operator
E1D12 E1D12
Which of the following amateur (A)
stations may transmit one-way [97.207(e),
communications? 97.203(g)]
A. A space station, beacon Page 3-10
station, or telecommand
station
B. A local repeater or linked
repeater station
C. A message forwarding station
or automatically controlled
digital station

definitions; qualifications; preparation
and administration of exams;
accreditation; question pools;
documentation requirements
E1E01 E1E01
For which types of out-of-pocket (A)
expenses do the Part 97 rules [97.527]
state that VEs and VECs may be Page 3-17
reimbursed?
A. Preparing, processing,
administering, and coordinating
an examination for an amateur
radio operator license
B. Teaching an amateur operator
license examination
preparation course
C. No expenses are authorized
for reimbursement
D. Providing amateur operator
license examination
preparation training materials
E1E02 E1E02
Who does Part 97 task with (C)
maintaining the pools of [97.523]
questions for all U.S. amateur Page 3-16
license examinations?
A. The VEs
B. The FCC
C. The VECs
D. The ARRL
E1E03 E1E03
What is a Volunteer Examiner (C)
Coordinator? [97.521]
A. A person who has volunteered Page 3-14
to administer amateur operator
license examinations
B. A person who has volunteered
to prepare amateur operator
license examinations
C. An organization that has
entered into an agreement with
the FCC to coordinate, prepare,
and administer amateur
operator license examinations
D. The person who has entered
into an agreement with the FCC
to be the VE session manager
E1E04 E1E04
Which of the following best (D)
describes the Volunteer Examiner [97.509,
accreditation process? 97.525]
A. Each General, Advanced and Page 3-16
Amateur Extra Class operator
is automatically accredited as a
VE when the license is granted
B. The amateur operator applying
must pass a VE examination
administered by the FCC
Enforcement Bureau
C. The prospective VE obtains
accreditation from the FCC
D. The procedure by which a
VEC confirms that the VE
applicant meets FCC
requirements to serve as an
examiner
E1E05 E1E05
What is the minimum passing (B)
score on all amateur operator [97.503]
license examinations? Page 3-18
A. Minimum passing score of
70%
B. Minimum passing score of
74%
C. Minimum passing score of
80%
D. Minimum passing score of
77%
E1E06 E1E06
Who is responsible for the proper (C)
conduct and necessary [97.509]
supervision during an amateur Page 3-17
operator license examination
session?
A. The VEC coordinating the
session
B. The FCC
C. Each administering VE
D. The VE session manager
E1E07 E1E07
What should a VE do if a (B)
candidate fails to comply with the [97.509]
examiner’s instructions during an Page 3-17
amateur operator license
examination?
A. Warn the candidate that
continued failure to comply
will result in termination of the
examination
B. Immediately terminate the
candidate’s examination
C. Allow the candidate to
complete the examination, but
invalidate the results
D. Immediately terminate
everyone’s examination and
close the session
E1E08 E1E08
To which of the following (C)
examinees may a VE not [97.509]
administer an examination? Page 3-16
A. Employees of the VE
B. Friends of the VE
C. Relatives of the VE as listed
in the FCC rules
E1E09 E1E09
What may be the penalty for a VE (A)
who fraudulently administers or [97.509]
certifies an examination? Page 3-18
A. Revocation of the VE’s
amateur station license grant
and the suspension of the VE’s
amateur operator license grant
B. A fine of up to $1000 per
occurrence
C. A sentence of up to one year
in prison
E1E10 E1E10
What must the administering (C)
VEs do after the administration [97.509(h)]
of a successful examination for Page 3-18
an amateur operator license?
A. They must collect and send
the documents to the NCVEC
for grading
B. They must collect and submit
the documents to the
coordinating VEC for grading
C. They must submit the
application document to the
coordinating VEC according
to the coordinating VEC
instructions
D. They must collect and send
the documents to the FCC
according to instructions
E1E11 E1E11
What must the VE team do if an (B)
examinee scores a passing grade [97.509(m)]
on all examination elements Page 3-18
needed for an upgrade or new
license?
A. Photocopy all examination
documents and forward them
to the FCC for processing
B. Three VEs must certify that
the examinee is qualified for
the license grant and that they
have complied with the
administering VE
requirements
C. Issue the examinee the new
or upgrade license
D. All these choices are
correct
E1E12 E1E12
What must the VE team do with (A)
the application form if the [97.509(j)]
examinee does not pass the Page 3-18
exam?
A. Return the application
document to the examinee
B. Maintain the application form
with the VEC’s records
C. Send the application form to
the FCC and inform the FCC
of the grade
D. Destroy the application form
E1F — Miscellaneous rules: external

RF power amplifiers; prohibited
auxiliary stations; Canadian amateurs
operating in the U.S.; special
temporary authority; control operator
of an auxiliary station
E1F01 E1F01
On what frequencies are spread (B)
spectrum transmissions [97.305]
permitted? Page 3-21
A. Only on amateur frequencies
above 50 MHz
B. Only on amateur frequencies
above 222 MHz
C. Only on amateur frequencies
above 420 MHz
D. Only on amateur frequencies
above 144 MHz
E1F02 E1F02
What privileges are authorized in (C)
the U.S. to persons holding an [97.107]
amateur service license granted Page 3-21
by the government of Canada?
A. None, they must obtain a U.S.
license
B. All privileges of the Amateur
Extra Class license
C. The operating terms and
conditions of the Canadian
amateur service license, not to
exceed U.S. Amateur Extra
Class license privileges
D. Full privileges, up to and
including those of the Amateur
Extra Class license, on the 80,
40, 20, 15, and 10 meter bands
E1F03 E1F03
Under what circumstances may a (A)
dealer sell an external RF power [97.315]
amplifier capable of operation Page 3-19
below 144 MHz if it has not been
granted FCC certification?
A. It was purchased in used
condition from an amateur
operator and is sold to another
amateur operator for use at that
operator’s station
B. The equipment dealer
assembled it from a kit
C. It was imported from a
manufacturer in a country that
does not require certification
of RF power amplifiers
D. It was imported from a
manufacturer in another
country and was certificated by
that country’s government
E1F04 E1F04
Which of the following (A)
geographic descriptions [97.3]
approximately describes “Line Page 3-19
A”?
A. A line roughly parallel to and
south of the border between
the U.S. and Canada
B. A line roughly parallel to and
west of the U.S. Atlantic
coastline
C. A line roughly parallel to and
north of the border between the
U.S. and Mexico
D. A line roughly parallel to and
east of the U.S. Pacific
coastline
E1F05 E1F05
Amateur stations may not (D)
transmit in which of the following [97.303]
frequency segments if they are Page 3-19
located in the contiguous 48
states and north of Line A?
A. 440 MHz - 450 MHz
B. 53 MHz - 54 MHz
C. 222 MHz - 223 MHz
D. 420 MHz - 430 MHz
E1F06 E1F06
Under what circumstances might (A)
the FCC issue a Special [1.931]
Temporary Authority (STA) to an Page 3-21
amateur station?
A. To provide for experimental
amateur communications
B. To allow regular operation on
Land Mobile channels
C. To provide additional
spectrum for personal use
D. To provide temporary
operation while awaiting
normal licensing
E1F07 E1F07
When may an amateur station (D)
send a message to a business? [97.113]
A. When the total money Page 3-20
involved does not exceed $25
B. When the control operator is
employed by the FCC or
another government agency
C. When transmitting
international third-party
communications
D. When neither the amateur nor
his or her employer has a
pecuniary interest in the
communications
E1F08 E1F08
Which of the following types of (A)
amateur station communications [97.113(c)]
are prohibited? Page 3-20
A. Communications transmitted
for hire or material
compensation, except as
otherwise provided in the
rules
B. Communications that have
political content, except as
allowed by the Fairness
Doctrine
C. Communications that have
religious content
D. Communications in a
language other than English
E1F09 E1F09
Which of the following (D)
conditions apply when [97.311]
transmitting spread spectrum Page 3-21
emissions?
A. A station transmitting SS
emission must not cause
harmful interference to other
stations employing other
authorized emissions
B. The transmitting station must
be in an area regulated by the
FCC or in a country that
permits SS emissions
C. The transmission must not be
used to obscure the meaning of
any communication
E1F10 E1F10
Who may be the control operator (B)
of an auxiliary station? [97.201]
A. Any licensed amateur Page 3-18
operator
B. Only Technician, General,
Advanced or Amateur Extra
Class operators
C. Only General, Advanced or
Amateur Extra Class operators
D. Only Amateur Extra Class
operators
E1F11 E1F11
Which of the following best (D)
describes one of the standards [97.317]
that must be met by an external Page 3-19
RF power amplifier if it is to
qualify for a grant of FCC
certification?
A. It must produce full legal
output when driven by not more
than 5 watts of mean RF input
power
B. It must be capable of external
RF switching between its input
and output networks
C. It must exhibit a gain of 0 dB
or less over its full output
range
D. It must satisfy the FCC’s
spurious emission standards
when operated at the lesser of
1500 watts or its full output
power
SUBELEMENT E2
— OPERATING
PROCEDURES
[5 Exam Questions
— 5 Groups]
E2A — Amateur radio in space:
amateur satellites; orbital mechanics;
frequencies and modes; satellite
hardware; satellite operations
E2A01 E2A01
What is the direction of an (C)
ascending pass for an amateur Page 2-9
satellite? E2A02
A. From west to east
B. From east to west
C. From south to north
D. From north to south
E2A02 (D)
Which of the following occurs Page 2-11
when a satellite is using an
inverting linear transponder?
A. Doppler shift is reduced
because the uplink and
downlink shifts are in opposite
directions
B. Signal position in the band is
reversed
C. Upper sideband on the uplink
becomes lower sideband on the
downlink, and vice versa
E2A03 E2A03
How is the signal inverted by an (D)
inverting linear transponder? Page 2-11
A. The signal is detected and
remodulated on the reverse
sideband
B. The signal is passed through a
non-linear filter
C. The signal is reduced to I and
Q components and the Q
component is filtered out
D. The signal is passed through a
mixer and the difference rather
than the sum is transmitted
E2A04 E2A04
What is meant by the term (B)
“mode” as applied to an amateur Page 2-12
radio satellite?
A. Whether the satellite is in a
low earth or geostationary
orbit
B. The satellite’s uplink and
downlink frequency bands
C. The satellite’s orientation with
respect to the Earth
D. Whether the satellite is in a
polar or equatorial orbit
E2A05 E2A05
What do the letters in a satellite’s (D)
mode designator specify? Page 2-12
A. Power limits for uplink and
downlink transmissions
B. The location of the ground
control station
C. The polarization of uplink and
downlink signals
D. The uplink and downlink
frequency ranges
E2A06 E2A06
What are Keplerian elements? (A)
A. Parameters that define the Page 2-8
orbit of a satellite
B. Phase reversing elements in a
Yagi antenna
C. High-emission heater
filaments used in magnetron
tubes
D. Encrypting codes used for
spread spectrum modulation
E2A07 E2A07
Which of the following types of (D)
signals can be relayed through a Page 2-10
linear transponder?
A. FM and CW
B. SSB and SSTV
C. PSK and packet
E2A08 E2A08
Why should effective radiated (B)
power to a satellite that uses a Page 2-11
linear transponder be limited?
A. To prevent creating errors in
the satellite telemetry
B. To avoid reducing the
downlink power to all other
users
C. To prevent the satellite from
emitting out-of-band signals
D. To avoid interfering with
terrestrial QSOs
E2A09 E2A09
What do the terms “L band” and “S (A)
band” specify regarding satellite Page 2-12
communications?
A. The 23 centimeter and 13
centimeter bands
B. The 2 meter and 70
centimeter bands
C. FM and Digital Store-and-
Forward systems
D. Which sideband to use
E2A10 E2A10
What type of satellite appears to (B)
stay in one position in the sky? Page 2-8
A. HEO
B. Geostationary
C. Geomagnetic
D. LEO
E2A11 E2A11
What type of antenna can be used (B)
to minimize the effects of spin Page 2-9
modulation and Faraday rotation?
A. A linearly polarized antenna
B. A circularly polarized antenna
C. An isotropic antenna
D. A log-periodic dipole array
E2A12 E2A12
What is the purpose of digital (C)
store-and-forward functions on an Page 2-12
amateur radio satellite?
A. To upload operational
software for the transponder
B. To delay download of
telemetry between satellites
C. To store digital messages in
the satellite for later download
by other stations
D. To relay messages between
satellites
E2A13 E2A13
Which of the following (B)
techniques is normally used by Page 2-12
low Earth orbiting digital
satellites to relay messages
around the world?
A. Digipeating
B. Store-and-forward
C. Multi-satellite relaying
D. Node hopping

television standards and techniques;
slow scan television standards and
techniques
E2B01 E2B01
How many times per second is a (A)
new frame transmitted in a fast- Page 8-19
scan (NTSC) television system?
A. 30
B. 60
C. 90
D. 120
E2B02 E2B02
How many horizontal lines make (C)
up a fast-scan (NTSC) television Page 8-19
frame?
A. 30
B. 60
C. 525
D. 1080
E2B03 E2B03
How is an interlaced scanning (D)
pattern generated in a fast-scan Page 8-20
(NTSC) television system?
A. By scanning two fields
simultaneously
B. By scanning each field from
bottom to top
C. By scanning lines from left to
right in one field and right to
left in the next
D. By scanning odd numbered
lines in one field and even
numbered lines in the next
E2B04 E2B04
How is color information sent in (A)
analog SSTV? Page 8-23
A. Color lines are sent
sequentially
B. Color information is sent on a
2.8 kHz subcarrier
C. Color is sent in a color burst
at the end of each line
D. Color is amplitude modulated
on the frequency modulated
intensity signal
E2B05 E2B05
Which of the following describes (C)
the use of vestigial sideband in Page 8-21
analog fast-scan TV
transmissions?
A. The vestigial sideband carries
the audio information
B. The vestigial sideband
contains chroma information
C. Vestigial sideband reduces
bandwidth while allowing for
simple video detector circuitry
D. Vestigial sideband provides
high frequency emphasis to
sharpen the picture
E2B06 E2B06
What is vestigial sideband (A)
modulation? Page 8-21
A. Amplitude modulation in
which one complete sideband
and a portion of the other are
transmitted
B. A type of modulation in which
one sideband is inverted
C. Narrow-band FM modulation
achieved by filtering one
sideband from the audio before
frequency modulating the
carrier
D. Spread spectrum modulation
achieved by applying FM
modulation following single
sideband amplitude modulation
E2B07 E2B07
What is the name of the signal (B)
component that carries color Page 8-20
information in NTSC video?
A. Luminance
B. Chroma
C. Hue
D. Spectral intensity
E2B08 E2B08
What technique allows (A)
commercial analog TV receivers Page 8-19
to be used for fast-scan TV
operations on the 70 cm band?
A. Transmitting on channels
shared with cable TV
B. Using converted satellite TV
dishes
C. Transmitting on the abandoned
TV channel 2
D. Using USB and demodulating
the signal with a computer
sound card
E2B09 E2B09
What hardware, other than a (D)
receiver with SSB capability and a Page 8-23
suitable computer, is needed to
decode SSTV using Digital Radio
Mondiale (DRM)?
A. A special IF converter
B. A special front end limiter
C. A special notch filter to
remove synchronization pulses
D. No other hardware is needed
E2B10 E2B10
What aspect of an analog slow- (A)
scan television signal encodes the Page 8-23
brightness of the picture?
A. Tone frequency
B. Tone amplitude
C. Sync amplitude
D. Sync frequency
E2B11 E2B11
What is the function of the (B)
Vertical Interval Signaling (VIS) Page 8-23
code sent as part of an SSTV
transmission?
A. To lock the color burst
oscillator in color SSTV
images
B. To identify the SSTV mode
being used
C. To provide vertical
synchronization
D. To identify the call sign of the
station transmitting
E2B12 E2B12
What signals SSTV receiving (A)
software to begin a new picture Page 8-23
line?
A. Specific tone frequencies
B. Elapsed time
C. Specific tone amplitudes
D. A two-tone signal
E2C — Operating methods: contest

and DX operating; remote operation
techniques; Cabrillo format; QSLing;
RF network connected systems
E2C01 E2C01
What indicator is required to be (D)
used by U.S.-licensed operators Page 2-7
when operating a station via
remote control and the remote
transmitter is located in the U.S.?
A. / followed by the USPS two-
letter abbreviation for the state
in which the remote station is
located
B. /R# where # is the district of
the remote station
C. / followed by the ARRL
Section of the remote station
D. No additional indicator is
required
E2C02 E2C02
Which of the following best (A)
describes the term “self-spotting” Page 2-7
in connection with HF contest
operating?
A. The often-prohibited practice
of posting one’s own call sign
and frequency on a spotting
network
B. The acceptable practice of
manually posting the call signs
of stations on a spotting
network
C. A manual technique for
rapidly zero beating or tuning
to a station’s frequency before
calling that station
D. An automatic method for
rapidly zero beating or tuning
to a station’s frequency before
calling that station
E2C03 E2C03
From which of the following (A)
bands is amateur radio contesting Page 2-6
generally excluded?
A. 30 meters
B. 6 meters
C. 2 meters
D. 33 centimeters
E2C04 E2C04
frequencies are sometimes used Page 8-16
for amateur radio mesh networks?
A. HF frequencies where digital
communications are permitted
B. Frequencies shared with
various unlicensed wireless
data services
C. Cable TV channels 41 through
43
D. The 60 meter band channel
centered on 5373 kHz
E2C05 E2C05
What is the function of a DX QSL (B)
Manager? Page 2-3
A. To allocate frequencies for
DXpeditions
B. To handle the receiving and
sending of confirmation cards
for a DX station
C. To run a net to allow many
stations to contact a rare DX
station
D. To relay calls to and from a
DX station
E2C06 E2C06
During a VHF/UHF contest, in (C)
which band segment would you Page 2-6
expect to find the highest level of
SSB or CW activity?
A. At the top of each band,
usually in a segment reserved
for contests
B. In the middle of each band,
usually on the national calling
frequency
C. In the weak signal segment of
the band, with most of the
activity near the calling
frequency
D. In the middle of the band,
usually 25 kHz above the
national calling frequency
E2C07 E2C07
What is the Cabrillo format? (A)
A. A standard for submission of Page 2-6
electronic contest logs
B. A method of exchanging
information during a contest
QSO
C. The most common set of
contest rules
D. The rules of order for
meetings between contest
sponsors
E2C08 E2C08
Which of the following contacts (B)
may be confirmed through the Page 2-3
U.S. QSL bureau system?
A. Special event contacts
between stations in the U.S.
B. Contacts between a U.S.
station and a non-U.S. station
C. Repeater contacts between
U.S. club members
D. Contacts using tactical call
signs
E2C09 E2C09
What type of equipment is (C)
commonly used to implement an Page 8-16
amateur radio mesh network?
A. A 2 meter VHF transceiver
with a 1200 baud modem
B. An optical cable connection
between the USB ports of 2
separate computers
C. A wireless router running
custom firmware
D. A 440 MHz transceiver with a
9600 baud modem
E2C10 E2C10
Why might a DX station state that (D)
they are listening on another Page 2-4
frequency?
A. Because the DX station may
be transmitting on a frequency
that is prohibited to some
responding stations
B. To separate the calling
stations from the DX station
C. To improve operating
efficiency by reducing
interference
E2C11 E2C11
How should you generally (A)
identify your station when Page 2-4
attempting to contact a DX
station during a contest or in a
pileup?
A. Send your full call sign once
or twice
B. Send only the last two letters
of your call sign until you
make contact
C. Send your full call sign and
grid square
D. Send the call sign of the DX
station three times, the words
“this is,” then your call sign
three times
E2C12 E2C12
What technique do individual (C)
nodes use to form a mesh Page 8-16
network?
A. Forward error correction and
Viterbi codes
B. Acting as store-and-forward
digipeaters
C. Discovery and link
establishment protocols
D. Custom code plugs for the
local trunking systems
E2D — Operating methods: VHF and

UHF digital modes and procedures;
APRS; EME procedures; meteor
scatter procedures
E2D01 E2D01
Which of the following digital (B)
modes is designed for meteor Page 10-
scatter communications? 16
A. WSPR
B. MSK144
C. Hellschreiber
D. APRS
E2D02 E2D02
Which of the following is a good (D)
technique for making meteor Page 10-
scatter contacts? 16
A. 15-second timed transmission
sequences with stations
alternating based on location
B. Use of special digital modes
C. Short transmissions with
rapidly repeated call signs and
signal reports
E2D03 E2D03
Which of the following digital (D)
modes is especially useful for Page 10-
EME communications? 17
A. MSK144
B. PACTOR III
C. Olivia
D. JT65
E2D04 E2D04
What technology is used to track, (C)
in real time, balloons carrying Page 8-12
amateur radio transmitters?
A. Ultrasonics
B. Bandwidth compressed
LORAN
C. APRS
D. Doppler shift of beacon
signals
E2D05 E2D05
What is one advantage of the JT65 (B)
mode? Page 10-
A. Uses only a 65 Hz bandwidth 17
B. The ability to decode signals
which have a very low signal-
to-noise ratio
C. Easily copied by ear if
necessary
D. Permits fast-scan TV
transmissions over narrow
bandwidth
E2D06 E2D06
Which of the following describes (A)
a method of establishing EME Page 10-
contacts? 17
A. Time synchronous
transmissions alternately from
each station
B. Storing and forwarding digital
messages
C. Judging optimum
transmission times by
monitoring beacons reflected
from the moon
D. High-speed CW identification
to avoid fading
E2D07 E2D07
What digital protocol is used by (C)
APRS? Page 8-11
A. PACTOR
B. 802.11
C. AX.25
D. AMTOR
E2D08 E2D08
What type of packet frame is used (A)
to transmit APRS beacon data? Page 8-12
A. Unnumbered Information
B. Disconnect
C. Acknowledgement
D. Connect
E2D09 E2D09
What type of modulation is used (A)
for JT65 contacts? Page 8-13
A. Multi-tone AFSK
B. PSK
C. RTTY
D. IEEE 802.11
E2D10 E2D10
How can an APRS station be used (C)
to help support a public service Page 8-12
communications activity?
A. An APRS station with an
emergency medical technician
can automatically transmit
medical data to the nearest
hospital
B. APRS stations with General
Personnel Scanners can
automatically relay the
participant numbers and time as
they pass the check points
C. An APRS station with a
Global Positioning System unit
can automatically transmit
information to show a mobile
station’s position during the
event
E2D11 E2D11
Which of the following data are (D)
used by the APRS network to Page 8-12
communicate station location?
A. Polar coordinates
B. Time and frequency
C. Radio direction finding
spectrum analysis
D. Latitude and longitude
E2E — Operating methods: operating

HF digital modes
E2E01 E2E01
Which of the following types of (B)
modulation is common for data Page 8-10
emissions below 30 MHz?
A. DTMF tones modulating an
FM signal
B. FSK
C. Pulse modulation
D. Spread spectrum
E2E02 E2E02
What do the letters FEC mean as (A)
they relate to digital operation? Page 8-17
A. Forward Error Correction
B. First Error Correction
C. Fatal Error Correction
D. Final Error Correction
E2E03 E2E03
How is the timing of FT4 contacts (C)
organized? Page 8-13
A. By exchanging ACK/NAK
packets
B. Stations take turns on
alternate days
C. Alternating transmissions at
7.5 second intervals
D. It depends on the lunar phase
E2E04 E2E04
What is indicated when one of the (A)
ellipses in an FSK crossed-ellipse Page 8-10
display suddenly disappears?
A. Selective fading has occurred
B. One of the signal filters is
saturated
C. The receiver has drifted 5 kHz
from the desired receive
frequency
D. The mark and space signal
have been inverted
E2E05 E2E05
Which of these digital modes (A)
does not support keyboard-to- Page 8-12
keyboard operation?
A. PACTOR
B. RTTY
C. PSK31
D. MFSK
E2E06 E2E06
What is the most common data (C)
rate used for HF packet? Page 8-12
A. 48 baud
B. 110 baud
C. 300 baud
D. 1200 baud
E2E07 E2E07
Which of the following is a (D)
possible reason that attempts to Page 8-14
initiate contact with a digital
station on a clear frequency are
unsuccessful?
A. Your transmit frequency is
incorrect
B. The protocol version you are
using is not supported by the
digital station
C. Another station you are unable
to hear is using the frequency
E2E08 E2E08
Which of the following HF digital (B)
modes can be used to transfer Page 8-12
binary files?
A. Hellschreiber
B. PACTOR
C. RTTY
D. AMTOR
E2E09 E2E09
Which of the following HF digital (D)
modes uses variable-length Page 8-7
coding for bandwidth efficiency?
A. RTTY
B. PACTOR
C. MT63
D. PSK31
E2E10 E2E10
Which of these digital modes has (C)
the narrowest bandwidth? Page 8-11
A. MFSK16
B. 170 Hz shift, 45-baud RTTY
C. PSK31
D. 300-baud packet
E2E11 E2E11
What is the difference between (A)
direct FSK and audio FSK? Page 8-10
A. Direct FSK applies the data
signal to the transmitter VFO,
while AFSK transmits tones via
phone
B. Direct FSK occupies less
bandwidth
C. Direct FSK can transmit
faster baud rates
D. Only direct FSK can be
decoded by computer
E2E12 E2E12
How do ALE stations establish (A)
contact? Page 8-6
A. ALE constantly scans a list of
frequencies, activating the
radio when the designated call
sign is received
B. ALE radios monitor an
internet site for the frequency
they are being paged on
C. ALE radios send a constant
tone code to establish a
frequency for future use
D. ALE radios activate when they
hear their signal echoed by
back scatter
E2E13 E2E13
Which of these digital modes has (D)
the fastest data throughput under Page 8-12
clear communication conditions?
A. AMTOR
B. 170 Hz shift, 45 baud RTTY
C. PSK31
D. 300 baud packet
SUBELEMENT E3
— RADIO WAVE
PROPAGATION
[3 Exam Questions
— 3 Groups]
E3A — Electromagnetic waves;
Earth-Moon-Earth communications;
meteor scatter; microwave
tropospheric and scatter propagation;
aurora propagation; ionospheric
propagation changes over the day;
circular polarization
E3A01 E3A01
What is the approximate (D)
maximum separation measured Page 10-
along the surface of the Earth 17
between two stations
communicating by EME?
A. 500 miles, if the moon is at
perigee
B. 2000 miles, if the moon is at
apogee
C. 5000 miles, if the moon is at
perigee
D. 12,000 miles, if the moon is
visible by both stations
E3A02 E3A02
What characterizes libration (B)
fading of an EME signal? Page 10-
A. A slow change in the pitch of 17
the CW signal
B. A fluttery irregular fading
C. A gradual loss of signal as the
sun rises
D. The returning echo is several
hertz lower in frequency than
the transmitted signal
E3A03 E3A03
When scheduling EME contacts, (A)
which of these conditions will Page 10-
generally result in the least path 17
loss?
A. When the moon is at perigee
B. When the moon is full
C. When the moon is at apogee
D. When the MUF is above 30
MHz
E3A04 E3A04
What do Hepburn maps predict? (D)
A. Sporadic E propagation Page 10-
B. Locations of auroral 12
reflecting zones
C. Likelihood of rain scatter
along cold or warm fronts
D. Probability of tropospheric
propagation
E3A05 E3A05
Tropospheric propagation of (C)
microwave signals often occurs in Page 10-
association with what 12
phenomenon?
A. Grayline
B. Lightning discharges
C. Warm and cold fronts
D. Sprites and jets
E3A06 E3A06
What might help to restore (B)
contact when DX signals become Page 10-7
too weak to copy across an entire
HF band a few hours after sunset?
A. Switch to a higher frequency
HF band
B. Switch to a lower frequency
HF band
C. Wait 90 minutes or so for the
signal degradation to pass
D. Wait 24 hours before
attempting another
communication on the band
E3A07 E3A07
Atmospheric ducts capable of (C)
propagating microwave signals Page 10-
often form over what geographic 12
feature?
A. Mountain ranges
B. Forests
C. Bodies of water
D. Urban areas
E3A08 E3A08
When a meteor strikes the Earth’s (A)
atmosphere, a cylindrical region Page 10-
of free electrons is formed at 16
what layer of the ionosphere?
A. The E layer
B. The F1 layer
C. The F2 layer
D. The D layer
E3A09 E3A09
Which of the following frequency (C)
ranges is most suited for meteor Page 10-
scatter communications? 16
A. 1.8 MHz - 1.9 MHz
B. 10 MHz - 14 MHz
C. 28 MHz - 148 MHz
D. 220 MHz - 450 MHz
E3A10 E3A10
Which type of atmospheric (B)
structure can create a path for Page 10-
microwave propagation? 12
A. The jet stream
B. Temperature inversion
C. Wind shear
D. Dust devil
E3A11 E3A11
What is a typical range for (B)
tropospheric propagation of Page 10-
microwave signals? 12
A. 10 miles to 50 miles
B. 100 miles to 300 miles
C. 1200 miles
D. 2500 miles
E3A12 E3A12
What is the cause of auroral (C)
activity? Page 10-
A. The interaction in the F2 layer 14
between the solar wind and the
Van Allen belt
B. An extreme low-pressure area
in the polar regions
C. The interaction in the E layer
of charged particles from the
Sun with the Earth’s magnetic
field
D. Meteor showers concentrated
in the extreme northern and
southern latitudes
E3A13 E3A13
Which of these emission modes (A)
is best for auroral propagation? Page 10-
A. CW 14
B. SSB
C. FM
D. RTTY
E3A14 E3A14
What is meant by circularly (B)
polarized electromagnetic waves? Page 10-3
A. Waves with an electric field
bent into a circular shape
B. Waves with a rotating electric
field
C. Waves that circle the Earth
D. Waves produced by a loop
antenna
E3B — Transequatorial propagation;

long-path; grayline; ordinary and
extraordinary waves; chordal hop;
sporadic E mechanisms
E3B01 E3B01
What is transequatorial (A)
propagation? Page 10-
A. Propagation between two mid- 13
latitude points at approximately
the same distance north and
south of the magnetic equator
B. Propagation between points
located on the magnetic
equator
C. Propagation between a point
on the equator and its antipodal
point
D. Propagation between points at
the same latitude
E3B02 E3B02
What is the approximate (C)
maximum range for signals using Page 10-
transequatorial propagation? 14
A. 1000 miles
B. 2500 miles
C. 5000 miles
D. 7500 miles
E3B03 E3B03
What is the best time of day for (C)
transequatorial propagation? Page 10-
A. Morning 14
B. Noon
C. Afternoon or early evening
D. Late at night
E3B04 E3B04
What is meant by the terms (B)
“extraordinary” and “ordinary” Page 10-7
waves?
A. Extraordinary waves describe
rare long-skip propagation
compared to ordinary waves,
which travel shorter distances
B. Independent waves created in
the ionosphere that are
elliptically polarized
C. Long-path and short-path
waves
D. Refracted rays and reflected
waves
E3B05 E3B05
Which amateur bands typically (C)
support long-path propagation? Page 10-9
A. Only 160 meters to 40 meters
B. Only 30 meters to 10 meters
C. 160 meters to 10 meters
D. 6 meters to 2 meters
E3B06 E3B06
Which of the following amateur (B)
bands most frequently provides Page 10-9
long-path propagation?
A. 80 meters
B. 20 meters
C. 10 meters
D. 6 meters
E3B07 E3B07
What happens to linearly (C)
polarized radio waves that split Page 10-7
into ordinary and extraordinary
waves in the ionosphere?
A. They are bent toward the
magnetic poles
B. They become depolarized
C. They become elliptically
polarized
D. They become phase locked
E3B08—Question has been

withdrawn
E3B09 E3B09
At what time of year is sporadic E (A)
propagation most likely to occur? Page 10-
A. Around the solstices, 13
especially the summer solstice
B. Around the solstices,
especially the winter solstice
C. Around the equinoxes,
especially the spring equinox
D. Around the equinoxes,
especially the fall equinox
E3B10 E3B10
Why is chordal hop propagation (A)
desirable? Page 10-6
A. The signal experiences less
loss compared to multi-hop
using Earth as a reflector
B. The MUF for chordal hop
propagation is much lower than
for normal skip propagation
C. Atmospheric noise is lower in
the direction of chordal hop
propagation
D. Signals travel faster along
ionospheric chords
E3B11 E3B11
At what time of day can sporadic (D)
E propagation occur? Page 10-
A. Only around sunset 13
B. Only around sunset and
sunrise
C. Only in hours of darkness
D. Any time
E3B12 E3B12
What is the primary characteristic (B)
of chordal hop propagation? Page 10-6
A. Propagation away from the
great circle bearing between
stations
B. Successive ionospheric
refractions without an
intermediate reflection from
the ground
C. Propagation across the
geomagnetic equator
D. Signals reflected back toward
the transmitting station

propagation prediction techniques and
modeling; effects of space weather
parameters on propagation
E3C01 E3C01
What does the radio (B)
communication term “ray tracing” Page 10-8
describe?
A. The process in which an
electronic display presents a
pattern
B. Modeling a radio wave’s path
through the ionosphere
C. Determining the radiation
pattern from an array of
antennas
D. Evaluating high voltage
sources for x-rays
E3C02 E3C02
What is indicated by a rising A or (A)
K index? Page 10-5
A. Increasing disruption of the
geomagnetic field
B. Decreasing disruption of the
geomagnetic field
C. Higher levels of solar UV
radiation
D. An increase in the critical
frequency
E3C03 E3C03
Which of the following signal (B)
paths is most likely to experience Page 10-8
high levels of absorption when the
A index or K index is elevated?
A. Transequatorial
B. Polar
C. Sporadic E
D. NVIS
E3C04 E3C04
What does the value of Bz (B sub (C)
Z) represent? Page 10-5
A. Geomagnetic field stability
B. Critical frequency for vertical
transmissions
C. Direction and strength of the
interplanetary magnetic field
D. Duration of long-delayed
echoes
E3C05 E3C05
What orientation of Bz (B sub z) (A)
increases the likelihood that Page 10-5
incoming particles from the sun
will cause disturbed conditions?
A. Southward
B. Northward
C. Eastward
D. Westward
E3C06 E3C06
By how much does the VHF/UHF (A)
radio horizon distance exceed the Page 10-
geometric horizon? 10
A. By approximately 15 percent
of the distance
B. By approximately twice the
distance
C. By approximately 50 percent
of the distance
D. By approximately four times
the distance
E3C07 E3C07
descriptors indicates the greatest Page 10-4
solar flare intensity?
A. Class A
B. Class B
C. Class M
D. Class X
E3C08 E3C08
What does the space weather term (A)
“G5” mean? Page 10-5
A. An extreme geomagnetic
storm
B. Very low solar activity
C. Moderate solar wind
D. Waning sunspot numbers
E3C09 E3C09
How does the intensity of an X3 (B)
flare compare to that of an X2 Page 10-4
flare?
A. 10 percent greater
B. 50 percent greater
C. Twice as great
D. Four times as great
E3C10 E3C10
What does the 304A solar (B)
parameter measure? Page 10-4
A. The ratio of x-ray flux to radio
flux, correlated to sunspot
number
B. UV emissions at 304
angstroms, correlated to the
solar flux index
C. The solar wind velocity at 304
degrees from the solar equator,
correlated to solar activity
D. The solar emission at 304
GHz, correlated to x-ray flare
levels
E3C11 E3C11
What does VOACAP software (C)
model? Page 10-8
A. AC voltage and impedance
B. VHF radio propagation
C. HF propagation
D. AC current and impedance
E3C12 E3C12
How does the maximum range of (C)
ground-wave propagation change Page 10-6
when the signal frequency is
increased?
A. It stays the same
B. It increases
C. It decreases
D. It peaks at roughly 14 MHz
E3C13 E3C13
What type of polarization is best (A)
for ground-wave propagation? Page 10-6
A. Vertical
B. Horizontal
C. Circular
D. Elliptical
E3C14 E3C14
Why does the radio-path horizon (D)
distance exceed the geometric Page 10-
horizon? 10
A. E-region skip
B. D-region skip
C. Due to the Doppler effect
D. Downward bending due to
density variations in the
atmosphere
E3C15 E3C15
What might be indicated by a (B)
sudden rise in radio background Page 10-8
noise across a large portion of the
HF spectrum?
A. A temperature inversion has
occurred
B. A solar flare has occurred
C. Increased transequatorial
propagation is likely
D. Long-path propagation is
likely
SUBELEMENT E4
— AMATEUR
PRACTICES
[5 Exam Questions
— 5 Groups]
E4A — Test equipment: analog and
digital instruments; spectrum
analyzers; antenna analyzers;
oscilloscopes; RF measurements;
computer-aided measurements
E4A01 E4A01
Which of the following limits the (A)
highest frequency signal that can Page 7-7
be accurately displayed on a
digital oscilloscope?
A. Sampling rate of the analog-
to-digital converter
B. Amount of memory
C. Q of the circuit
E4A02 E4A02
parameters does a spectrum Page 7-10
analyzer display on the vertical
and horizontal axes?
A. RF amplitude and time
B. RF amplitude and frequency
C. SWR and frequency
D. SWR and time
E4A03 E4A03
Which of the following test (B)
instruments is used to display Page 7-10
spurious signals and/or
intermodulation distortion
products generated by an SSB
transmitter?
A. A wattmeter
B. A spectrum analyzer
C. A logic analyzer
D. A time-domain reflectometer
E4A04 E4A04
How is the compensation of an (A)
oscilloscope probe typically Page 7-7
adjusted?
A. A square wave is displayed and
the probe is adjusted until the
horizontal portions of the
displayed wave are as nearly
flat as possible
B. A high frequency sine wave is
displayed and the probe is
adjusted for maximum
amplitude
C. A frequency standard is
adjusted until the deflection
time is accurate
D. A DC voltage standard is
adjusted until the displayed
voltage is accurate
E4A05 E4A05
What is the purpose of the (D)
prescaler function on a frequency Page 7-4
counter?
A. It amplifies low-level signals
for more accurate counting
B. It multiplies a higher
frequency signal so a low-
frequency counter can display
the operating frequency
C. It prevents oscillation in a
low-frequency counter circuit
D. It divides a higher frequency
signal so a low-frequency
counter can display the input
frequency
E4A06 E4A06
What is the effect of aliasing on a (A)
digital oscilloscope caused by Page 7-7
setting the time base too slow?
A. A false, jittery low-frequency
version of the signal is
displayed
B. All signals will have a DC
offset
C. Calibration of the vertical
scale is no longer valid
D. Excessive blanking occurs,
which prevents display of the
signal
E4A07 E4A07
Which of the following is an (B)
advantage of using an antenna Page 9-40
analyzer compared to an SWR
bridge to measure antenna SWR?
A. Antenna analyzers
automatically tune your
antenna for resonance
B. Antenna analyzers do not need
an external RF source
C. Antenna analyzers display a
time-varying representation of
the modulation envelope
E4A08 E4A08
Which of the following measures (D)
SWR? Page 9-39
A. A spectrum analyzer
B. A Q meter
C. An ohmmeter
D. An antenna analyzer
E4A09 E4A09
Which of the following is good (A)
practice when using an Page 7-6
oscilloscope probe?
A. Keep the signal ground
connection of the probe as
short as possible
B. Never use a high-impedance
probe to measure a low-
impedance circuit
C. Never use a DC-coupled
probe to measure an AC circuit
E4A10 E4A10
Which of the following displays (D)
multiple digital signal states Page 7-7
simultaneously?
A. Network analyzer
B. Bit error rate tester
C. Modulation monitor
D. Logic analyzer
E4A11 E4A11
How should an antenna analyzer (D)
be connected when measuring Page 9-39
antenna resonance and feed point
impedance?
A. Loosely couple the analyzer
near the antenna base
B. Connect the analyzer via a
high-impedance transformer to
the antenna
C. Loosely couple the antenna
and a dummy load to the
analyzer
D. Connect the antenna feed line
directly to the analyzer’s
connector

limitations: instrument accuracy and
performance limitations; probes;
techniques to minimize errors;
measurement of Q; instrument
calibration; S parameters; vector
network analyzers
E4B01 E4B01
Which of the following factors (B)
most affects the accuracy of a Page 7-4
frequency counter?
A. Input attenuator accuracy
B. Time base accuracy
C. Decade divider accuracy
D. Temperature coefficient of
the logic
E4B02 E4B02
What is the significance of (A)
voltmeter sensitivity expressed in Page 7-2
ohms per volt?
A. The full scale reading of the
voltmeter multiplied by its
ohms per volt rating will
indicate the input impedance of
the voltmeter
B. When used as a galvanometer,
the reading in volts multiplied
by the ohms per volt rating will
determine the power drawn by
the device under test
C. When used as an ohmmeter,
the reading in ohms divided by
the ohms per volt rating will
determine the voltage applied
to the circuit
D. When used as an ammeter, the
full scale reading in amps
divided by ohms per volt rating
will determine the size of shunt
needed
E4B03 E4B03
Which S parameter is equivalent (C)
to forward gain? Page 9-39
A. S11
B. S12
C. S21
D. S22
E4B04 E4B04
Which S parameter represents (A)
input port return loss or Page 9-38
reflection coefficient (equivalent
to VSWR)?
A. S11
B. S12
C. S21
D. S22
E4B05 E4B05
What three test loads are used to (B)
calibrate an RF vector network Page 9-40
analyzer?
A. 50 ohms, 75 ohms, and 90
ohms
B. Short circuit, open circuit, and
50 ohms
C. Short circuit, open circuit, and
resonant circuit
D. 50 ohms through ⅛
wavelength, ¼ wavelength, and
½ wavelength of coaxial cable
E4B06 E4B06
How much power is being (D)
absorbed by the load when a Page 9-32
directional power meter
connected between a transmitter
and a terminating load reads 100
watts forward power and 25 watts
reflected power?
A. 100 watts
B. 125 watts
C. 25 watts
D. 75 watts
E4B07 E4B07
What do the subscripts of S (A)
parameters represent? Page 9-38
A. The port or ports at which
measurements are made
B. The relative time between
measurements
C. Relative quality of the data
D. Frequency order of the
measurements
E4B08 E4B08
Which of the following can be (C)
used to measure the Q of a series- Page 4-32
tuned circuit?
A. The inductance to capacitance
ratio
B. The frequency shift
C. The bandwidth of the circuit’s
frequency response
D. The resonant frequency of the
circuit
E4B09 E4B09
What is indicated if the current (D)
reading on an RF ammeter placed Page 9-32
in series with the antenna feed
line of a transmitter increases as
the transmitter is tuned to
resonance?
A. There is possibly a short to
ground in the feed line
B. The transmitter is not
properly neutralized
C. There is an impedance
mismatch between the antenna
and feed line
D. There is more power going
into the antenna
E4B10 E4B10
Which of the following methods (B)
measures intermodulation Page 7-11
distortion in an SSB transmitter?
A. Modulate the transmitter
using two RF signals having
non-harmonically related
frequencies and observe the RF
output with a spectrum analyzer
B. Modulate the transmitter
using two AF signals having
non-harmonically related
output with a spectrum analyzer
C. Modulate the transmitter
using two AF signals having
harmonically related
output with a peak reading
wattmeter
D. Modulate the transmitter
using two RF signals having
output with a logic analyzer
E4B11 E4B11
Which of the following can be (D)
measured with a vector network Page 9-40
analyzer?
A. Input impedance
B. Output impedance
C. Reflection coefficient
E4C — Receiver performance

characteristics: phase noise, noise
floor, image rejection, MDS, signal-to-
noise ratio, noise figure, reciprocal
mixing; selectivity; effects of SDR
receiver non-linearity; use of
attenuators at low frequencies
E4C01 E4C01
What is an effect of excessive (D)
phase noise in a receiver’s local Page 7-20
oscillator?
A. It limits the receiver’s ability
to receive strong signals
B. It can affect the receiver’s
frequency calibration
C. It decreases receiver third-
order intercept point
D. It can combine with strong
signals on nearby frequencies
to generate interference
E4C02 E4C02
Which of the following receiver (A)
circuits can be effective in Page 7-14
eliminating interference from
strong out-of-band signals?
A. A front-end filter or pre-
selector
B. A narrow IF filter
C. A notch filter
D. A properly adjusted product
detector
E4C03 E4C03
What is the term for the (C)
suppression in an FM receiver of Page 7-21
one signal by another stronger
signal on the same frequency?
A. Desensitization
B. Cross-modulation
interference
C. Capture effect
D. Frequency discrimination
E4C04 E4C04
What is the noise figure of a (D)
receiver? Page 7-13
A. The ratio of atmospheric
noise to phase noise
B. The ratio of the noise
bandwidth in hertz to the
theoretical bandwidth of a
resistive network
C. The ratio of thermal noise to
atmospheric noise
D. The ratio in dB of the noise
generated by the receiver to the
theoretical minimum noise
E4C05 E4C05
What does a receiver noise floor (B)
of –174 dBm represent? Page 7-12
A. The minimum detectable
signal as a function of receive
frequency
B. The theoretical noise in a 1
Hz bandwidth at the input of a
perfect receiver at room
temperature
C. The noise figure of a 1 Hz
bandwidth receiver
D. The galactic noise
contribution to minimum
detectable signal
E4C06 E4C06
A CW receiver with the AGC off (D)
has an equivalent input noise Page 7-13
power density of –174 dBm/Hz.
What would be the level of an
unmodulated carrier input to this
receiver that would yield an audio
output SNR of 0 dB in a 400 Hz
noise bandwidth?
A. –174 dBm
B. –164 dBm
C. –155 dBm
D. –148 dBm
E4C07 E4C07
What does the MDS of a receiver (B)
represent? Page 7-12
A. The meter display sensitivity
B. The minimum discernible
signal
C. The multiplex distortion
stability
D. The maximum detectable
spectrum
E4C08 E4C08
An SDR receiver is overloaded (D)
when input signals exceed what Page 7-16
level?
A. One-half the maximum
sample rate
B. One-half the maximum
sampling buffer size
C. The maximum count value of
the analog-to-digital converter
D. The reference voltage of the
analog-to-digital converter
E4C09 E4C09
Which of the following choices is (C)
a good reason for selecting a high Page 7-14
frequency for the design of the IF
in a superheterodyne HF or VHF
A. Fewer components in the
receiver
B. Reduced drift
C. Easier for front-end circuitry
to eliminate image responses
D. Improved receiver noise
figure
E4C10 E4C10
What is an advantage of having a (C)
variety of receiver IF bandwidths Page 7-15
from which to select?
A. The noise figure of the RF
amplifier can be adjusted to
match the modulation type,
thus increasing receiver
sensitivity
B. Receiver power consumption
can be reduced when wider
bandwidth is not required
C. Receive bandwidth can be set
to match the modulation
bandwidth, maximizing signal-
to-noise ratio and minimizing
interference
D. Multiple frequencies can be
received simultaneously if
desired
E4C11 E4C11
Why can an attenuator be used to (D)
reduce receiver overload on the Page 7-12
lower frequency HF bands with
little or no impact on signal-to-
noise ratio?
A. The attenuator has a low-pass
filter to increase the strength
of lower frequency signals
B. The attenuator has a noise
filter to suppress interference
C. Signals are attenuated
separately from the noise
D. Atmospheric noise is
generally greater than
internally generated noise even
after attenuation
E4C12 E4C12
Which of the following has the (D)
largest effect on an SDR Page 7-16
receiver’s dynamic range?
A. CPU register width in bits
B. Anti-aliasing input filter
bandwidth
C. RAM speed used for data
storage
D. Analog-to-digital converter
sample width in bits
E4C13 E4C13
How does a narrow-band roofing (C)
filter affect receiver Page 7-15
performance?
A. It improves sensitivity by
reducing front end noise
B. It improves intelligibility by
using low Q circuitry to reduce
ringing
C. It improves dynamic range by
attenuating strong signals near
the receive frequency
E4C14 E4C14
What transmit frequency might (D)
generate an image response signal Page 7-15
in a receiver tuned to 14.300
MHz and that uses a 455 kHz IF
frequency?
A. 13.845 MHz
B. 14.755 MHz
C. 14.445 MHz
D. 15.210 MHz
E4C15 E4C15
What is reciprocal mixing? (D)
A. Two out-of-band signals Page 7-20
mixing to generate an in-band
spurious signal
B. In-phase signals cancelling in
a mixer resulting in loss of
receiver sensitivity
C. Two digital signals combining
from alternate time slots
D. Local oscillator phase noise
mixing with adjacent strong
signals to create interference
to desired signals
E4D — Receiver performance

characteristics: blocking dynamic
range; intermodulation and cross-
modulation interference; third-order
intercept; desensitization; preselector
E4D01 E4D01
What is meant by the blocking (A)
dynamic range of a receiver? Page 7-17
A. The difference in dB between
the noise floor and the level of
an incoming signal that will
cause 1 dB of gain
compression
B. The minimum difference in
dB between the levels of two
FM signals that will cause one
signal to block the other
C. The difference in dB between
the noise floor and the third-
order intercept point
D. The minimum difference in
dB between two signals which
produce third-order
intermodulation products
greater than the noise floor
E4D02 E4D02
problems caused by poor dynamic Page 7-20
range in a receiver?
A. Spurious signals caused by
cross-modulation and
desensitization from strong
adjacent signals
B. Oscillator instability requiring
frequent retuning and loss of
ability to recover the opposite
sideband
C. Cross-modulation of the
desired signal and insufficient
audio power to operate the
speaker
D. Oscillator instability and
severe audio distortion of all
but the strongest received
signals
E4D03 E4D03
How can intermodulation (B)
interference between two Page 7-22
repeaters occur?
A. When the repeaters are in
close proximity and the signals
cause feedback in the final
amplifier of one or both
transmitters
B. When the repeaters are in
close proximity and the signals
mix in the final amplifier of
one or both transmitters
C. When the signals from the
transmitters are reflected out
of phase from airplanes passing
overhead
D. When the signals from the
transmitters are reflected in
phase from airplanes passing
overhead
E4D04 E4D04
Which of the following may (B)
reduce or eliminate Page 7-22
intermodulation interference in a
repeater caused by another
transmitter operating in close
proximity?
A. A band-pass filter in the feed
line between the transmitter
and receiver
B. A properly terminated
circulator at the output of the
repeater’s transmitter
C. Utilizing a Class C final
amplifier
D. Utilizing a Class D final
amplifier
E4D05 E4D05
What transmitter frequencies (A)
would cause an intermodulation- Page 7-18
product signal in a receiver tuned
to 146.70 MHz when a nearby
station transmits on 146.52 MHz?
A. 146.34 MHz and 146.61 MHz
B. 146.88 MHz and 146.34 MHz
C. 146.10 MHz and 147.30 MHz
D. 173.35 MHz and 139.40 MHz
E4D06 E4D06
What is the term for spurious (D)
signals generated by the Page 7-22
combination of two or more
signals in a non-linear device or
circuit?
A. Amplifier desensitization
B. Neutralization
C. Adjacent channel interference
D. Intermodulation
E4D07 E4D07
Which of the following reduces (A)
the likelihood of receiver Page 7-17
desensitization?
A. Decrease the RF bandwidth of
the receiver
B. Raise the receiver IF
frequency
C. Increase the receiver front
end gain
D. Switch from fast AGC to slow
AGC
E4D08 E4D08
What causes intermodulation in (C)
an electronic circuit? Page 7-22
A. Too little gain
B. Lack of neutralization
C. Nonlinear circuits or devices
D. Positive feedback
E4D09 E4D09
What is the purpose of the (C)
preselector in a communications Page 7-14
receiver?
A. To store often-used
frequencies
B. To provide a range of AGC
time constants
C. To increase rejection of
signals outside the desired
band
D. To allow selection of the
optimum RF amplifier device
E4D10 E4D10
What does a third-order intercept (C)
level of 40 dBm mean with Page 7-19
respect to receiver performance?
A. Signals less than 40 dBm will
not generate audible third-
order intermodulation products
B. The receiver can tolerate
signals up to 40 dB above the
noise floor without producing
third-order intermodulation
products
C. A pair of 40 dBm input signals
will theoretically generate a
third-order intermodulation
product that has the same
output amplitude as either of
the input signals
D. A pair of 1 mW input signals
will produce a third-order
intermodulation product that is
40 dB stronger than the input
signal
E4D11 E4D11
Why are odd-order (A)
intermodulation products, created Page 7-18
within a receiver, of particular
interest compared to other
products?
A. Odd-order products of two
signals in the band of interest
are also likely to be within the
band
B. Odd-order products overload
the IF filters
C. Odd-order products are an
indication of poor image
rejection
D. Odd-order intermodulation
produces three products for
every input signal within the
band of interest
E4D12 E4D12
What is the term for the reduction (A)
in receiver sensitivity caused by a Page 7-16
strong signal near the received
frequency?
A. Desensitization
B. Quieting
C. Cross-modulation
interference
D. Squelch gain rollback
E4E — Noise suppression and

interference: system noise; electrical
appliance noise; line noise; locating
noise sources; DSP noise reduction;
noise blankers; grounding for signals;
common mode currents
E4E01 E4E01
What problem can occur when (A)
using an automatic notch filter Page 7-27
(ANF) to remove interfering
carriers while receiving CW
signals?
A. Removal of the CW signal as
well as the interfering carrier
B. Any nearby signal passing
through the DSP system will
overwhelm the desired signal
C. Received CW signals will
appear to be modulated at the
DSP clock frequency
D. Ringing in the DSP filter will
completely remove the spaces
between the CW characters
E4E02 E4E02
noise can often be reduced with a Page 7-27
digital signal processing noise
filter?
A. Broadband white noise
B. Ignition noise
C. Power line noise
E4E03 E4E03
Which of the following signals (B)
might a receiver noise blanker be Page 7-26
able to remove from desired
signals?
A. Signals that are constant at all
IF levels
B. Signals that appear across a
wide bandwidth
C. Signals that appear at one IF
but not another
D. Signals that have a sharply
peaked frequency distribution
E4E04 E4E04
How can conducted and radiated (D)
noise caused by an automobile Page 7-26
alternator be suppressed?
A. By installing filter capacitors
in series with the DC power
lead and a blocking capacitor in
the field lead
B. By installing a noise
suppression resistor and a
blocking capacitor in both
leads
C. By installing a high-pass filter
in series with the radio’s power
lead and a low-pass filter in
parallel with the field lead
D. By connecting the radio’s
power leads directly to the
battery and by installing coaxial
capacitors in line with the
alternator leads
E4E05 E4E05
How can radio frequency (B)
interference from an AC motor Page 7-25
be suppressed?
A. By installing a high-pass filter
in series with the motor’s
power leads
B. By installing a brute-force
AC-line filter in series with the
motor leads
C. By installing a bypass
capacitor in series with the
motor leads
D. By using a ground-fault
current interrupter in the
circuit used to power the
motor
E4E06 E4E06
What is one type of electrical (C)
interference that might be caused Page 7-25
by a nearby personal computer?
A. A loud AC hum in the audio
output of your station receiver
B. A clicking noise at intervals of
a few seconds
C. The appearance of unstable
modulated or unmodulated
signals at specific frequencies
D. A whining type noise that
continually pulses off and on
E4E07 E4E07
Which of the following can cause (B)
shielded cables to radiate or Page 7-25
receive interference?
A. Low inductance ground
connections at both ends of the
shield
B. Common-mode currents on
the shield and conductors
C. Use of braided shielding
material
D. Tying all ground connections
to a common point resulting in
differential-mode currents in
the shield
E4E08 E4E08
What current flows equally on all (B)
conductors of an unshielded Page 7-25
multi-conductor cable?
A. Differential-mode current
B. Common-mode current
C. Reactive current only
D. Return current
E4E09 E4E09
What undesirable effect can (C)
occur when using an IF noise Page 7-26
blanker?
A. Received audio in the speech
range might have an echo
effect
B. The audio frequency
bandwidth of the received
signal might be compressed
C. Nearby signals may appear to
be excessively wide even if
they meet emission standards
D. FM signals can no longer be
demodulated
E4E10 E4E10
What might be the cause of a loud (D)
roaring or buzzing AC line Page 7-25
interference that comes and goes
at intervals?
A. Arcing contacts in a
thermostatically controlled
device
B. A defective doorbell or
doorbell transformer inside a
nearby residence
C. A malfunctioning illuminated
advertising display
E4E11 E4E11
What could cause local AM (B)
broadcast band signals to combine Page 7-23
to generate spurious signals in the
MF or HF bands?
A. One or more of the broadcast
stations is transmitting an over-
modulated signal
B. Nearby corroded metal joints
are mixing and re-radiating the
broadcast signals
C. You are receiving skywave
signals from a distant station
D. Your station receiver IF
amplifier stage is defective
SUBELEMENT E5
— ELECTRICAL
PRINCIPLES
[4 Exam Questions
— 4 Groups]
E5A — Resonance and Q:
characteristics of resonant circuits:
series and parallel resonance;
definitions and effects of Q; half-
power bandwidth; phase relationships
in reactive circuits
E5A01 E5A01
What can cause the voltage across (A)
reactances in a series RLC circuit Page 4-30
to be higher than the voltage
applied to the entire circuit?
A. Resonance
B. Capacitance
C. Conductance
D. Resistance
E5A02 E5A02
What is resonance in an LC or (C)
RLC circuit? Page 4-27
A. The highest frequency that
will pass current
B. The lowest frequency that will
pass current
C. The frequency at which the
capacitive reactance equals the
inductive reactance
D. The frequency at which the
reactive impedance equals the
resistive impedance
E5A03 E5A03
What is the magnitude of the (D)
impedance of a series RLC Page 4-30
circuit at resonance?
A. High, as compared to the
circuit resistance
B. Approximately equal to
capacitive reactance
C. Approximately equal to
inductive reactance
D. Approximately equal to
circuit resistance
E5A04 E5A04
What is the magnitude of the (A)
impedance of a parallel RLC Page 4-30
A. Approximately equal to
circuit resistance
B. Approximately equal to
inductive reactance
C. Low compared to the circuit
resistance
D. High compared to the circuit
resistance
E5A05 E5A05
What is the result of increasing (A)
the Q of an impedance-matching Page 4-33
circuit?
A. Matching bandwidth is
decreased
B. Matching bandwidth is
increased
C. Matching range is increased
D. It has no effect on impedance
matching
E5A06 E5A06
What is the magnitude of the (B)
circulating current within the Page 4-30
components of a parallel LC
A. It is at a minimum
B. It is at a maximum
C. It equals 1 divided by the
quantity 2 times pi, multiplied
by the square root of
inductance L multiplied by
capacitance C
D. It equals 2 multiplied by pi,
multiplied by frequency,
multiplied by inductance
E5A07 E5A07
What is the magnitude of the (A)
current at the input of a parallel Page 4-30
A. Minimum
B. Maximum
C. R/L
D. L/R
E5A08 E5A08
What is the phase relationship (C)
between the current through and Page 4-31
the voltage across a series
resonant circuit at resonance?
A. The voltage leads the current
by 90 degrees
B. The current leads the voltage
by 90 degrees
C. The voltage and current are in
phase
D. The voltage and current are
180 degrees out of phase
E5A09 E5A09
How is the Q of an RLC parallel (C)
resonant circuit calculated? Page 4-32
A. Reactance of either the
inductance or capacitance
divided by the resistance
B. Reactance of either the
multiplied by the resistance
C. Resistance divided by the
reactance of either the
D. Reactance of the inductance
multiplied by the reactance of
the capacitance
E5A10 E5A10
How is the Q of an RLC series (A)
resonant circuit calculated? Page 4-32
A. Reactance of either the
divided by the resistance
B. Reactance of either the
multiplied by the resistance
C. Resistance divided by the
reactance of either the
D. Reactance of the inductance
multiplied by the reactance of
the capacitance
E5A11 E5A11
What is the half-power bandwidth (C)
of a resonant circuit that has a Page 4-33
resonant frequency of 7.1 MHz
and a Q of 150?
A. 157.8 Hz
B. 315.6 Hz
C. 47.3 kHz
D. 23.67 kHz
E5A12 E5A12
What is the half-power bandwidth (C)
of a resonant circuit that has a Page 4-33
resonant frequency of 3.7 MHz
and a Q of 118?
A. 436.6 kHz
B. 218.3 kHz
C. 31.4 kHz
D. 15.7 kHz
E5A13 E5A13
What is an effect of increasing Q (C)
in a series resonant circuit? Page 4-32
A. Fewer components are needed
for the same performance
B. Parasitic effects are
minimized
C. Internal voltages increase
D. Phase shift can become
uncontrolled
E5A14 E5A14
What is the resonant frequency of (C)
an RLC circuit if R is 22 ohms, L Page 4-28
is 50 microhenries and C is 40
picofarads?
A. 44.72 MHz
B. 22.36 MHz
C. 3.56 MHz
D. 1.78 MHz
E5A15 E5A15
Which of the following increases (A)
Q for inductors and capacitors? Page 4-31
A. Lower losses
B. Lower reactance
C. Lower self-resonant
frequency
D. Higher self-resonant
frequency
E5A16 E5A16
What is the resonant frequency of (D)
an RLC circuit if R is 33 ohms, L Page 4-29
is 50 microhenries and C is 10
picofarads?
A. 23.5 MHz
B. 23.5 kHz
C. 7.12 kHz
D. 7.12 MHz

relationships: RL and RC time
constants; phase angle in reactive
circuits and components; admittance
and susceptance
E5B01 E5B01
What is the term for the time (B)
required for the capacitor in an Page 4-9
RC circuit to be charged to
63.2% of the applied voltage or to
discharge to 36.8% of its initial
voltage?
A. An exponential rate of one
B. One time constant
C. One exponential period
D. A time factor of one
E5B02 E5B02
What letter is commonly used to (D)
represent susceptance? Page 4-19
A. G
B. X
C. Y
D. B
E5B03 E5B03
How is impedance in polar form (B)
converted to an equivalent Page 4-20
admittance?
A. Take the reciprocal of the
angle and change the sign of
the magnitude
B. Take the reciprocal of the
magnitude and change the sign
of the angle
C. Take the square root of the
magnitude and add 180 degrees
to the angle
D. Square the magnitude and
subtract 90 degrees from the
angle
E5B04 E5B04
What is the time constant of a (D)
circuit having two 220- Page 4-11
microfarad capacitors and two 1-
megohm resistors, all in parallel?
A. 55 seconds
B. 110 seconds
C. 440 seconds
D. 220 seconds
E5B05 E5B05
What happens to the magnitude of (D)
a pure reactance when it is Page 4-19
converted to a susceptance?
A. It is unchanged
B. The sign is reversed
C. It is shifted by 90 degrees
D. It becomes the reciprocal
E5B06 E5B06
What is susceptance? (C)
A. The magnetic impedance of a Page 4-19
circuit
B. The ratio of magnetic field to
electric field
C. The imaginary part of
admittance
D. A measure of the efficiency
of a transformer
E5B07 E5B07
What is the phase angle between (C)
the voltage across and the current Page 4-22
through a series RLC circuit if
XC is 500 ohms, R is 1 kilohm,
and XL is 250 ohms?
A. 68.2 degrees with the voltage
leading the current
B. 14.0 degrees with the voltage
leading the current
C. 14.0 degrees with the voltage
lagging the current
D. 68.2 degrees with the voltage
lagging the current
E5B08 E5B08
What is the phase angle between (A)
XC is 100 ohms, R is 100 ohms,
and XL is 75 ohms?
A. 14 degrees with the voltage
lagging the current
B. 14 degrees with the voltage
leading the current
C. 76 degrees with the voltage
leading the current
D. 76 degrees with the voltage
lagging the current
E5B09 E5B09
What is the relationship between (D)
the AC current through a Page 4-14
capacitor and the voltage across a
capacitor?
A. Voltage and current are in
phase
B. Voltage and current are 180
degrees out of phase
C. Voltage leads current by 90
degrees
D. Current leads voltage by 90
degrees
E5B10 E5B10
What is the relationship between (A)
the AC current through an Page 4-15
inductor and the voltage across an
inductor?
A. Voltage leads current by 90
degrees
B. Current leads voltage by 90
degrees
C. Voltage and current are 180
D. Voltage and current are in
phase
E5B11 E5B11
What is the phase angle between (B)
XC is 25 ohms, R is 100 ohms,
and XL is 50 ohms?
A. 14 degrees with the voltage
lagging the current
B. 14 degrees with the voltage
leading the current
C. 76 degrees with the voltage
lagging the current
D. 76 degrees with the voltage
leading the current
E5B12 E5B12
What is admittance? (A)
A. The inverse of impedance Page 4-19
B. The term for the gain of a
field effect transistor
C. The turns ratio of a
transformer
D. The inverse of Q factor
E5C — Coordinate systems and

phasors in electronics: rectangular
coordinates; polar coordinates;
phasors
E5C01 E5C01
represents capacitive reactance in Page 4-16
rectangular notation?
A. –jX
B. +jX
C. Delta
D. Omega
E5C02 E5C02
How are impedances described in (C)
polar coordinates? Page 4-16
A. By X and R values
B. By real and imaginary parts
C. By phase angle and magnitude
D. By Y and G values
E5C03 E5C03
Which of the following (C)
represents an inductive reactance Page 4-16
in polar coordinates?
A. A positive magnitude
B. A negative magnitude
C. A positive phase angle
D. A negative phase angle
E5C04 E5C04
What coordinate system is often (D)
used to display the resistive, Page 4-16
inductive, and/or capacitive
reactance components of
impedance?
A. Maidenhead grid
B. Faraday grid
C. Elliptical coordinates
D. Rectangular coordinates
E5C05 E5C05
What is the name of the diagram (C)
used to show the phase Page 4-16
relationship between impedances
at a given frequency?
A. Venn diagram
B. Near field diagram
C. Phasor diagram
D. Far field diagram
E5C06 E5C06
What does the impedance 50–j25 (B)
A. 50 ohms resistance in series
with 25 ohms inductive
reactance
B. 50 ohms resistance in series
with 25 ohms capacitive
reactance
C. 25 ohms resistance in series
with 50 ohms inductive
reactance
D. 25 ohms resistance in series
with 50 ohms capacitive
reactance
E5C07 E5C07
Where is the impedance of a pure (D)
resistance plotted on rectangular Page 4-16
coordinates?
A. On the vertical axis
B. On a line through the origin,
slanted at 45 degrees
C. On a horizontal line, offset
vertically above the horizontal
axis
D. On the horizontal axis
E5C08 E5C08
What coordinate system is often (D)
used to display the phase angle of Page 4-16
a circuit containing resistance,
inductive and/or capacitive
reactance?
A. Maidenhead grid
B. Faraday grid
C. Elliptical coordinates
D. Polar coordinates
E5C09 E5C09
When using rectangular (A)
coordinates to graph the Page 4-16
impedance of a circuit, what do
the axes represent?
A. The X axis represents the
resistive component and the Y
axis represents the reactive
component
B. The X axis represents the
reactive component and the Y
axis represents the resistive
component
C. The X axis represents the
phase angle and the Y axis
represents the magnitude
D. The X axis represents the
magnitude and the Y axis
represents the phase angle
E5C10 E5C10
Which point on Figure E5-1 best (B)
represents the impedance of a Page 4-21
series circuit consisting of a 400-
ohm resistor and a 38-picofarad
capacitor at 14 MHz?
A. Point 2
B. Point 4
C. Point 5
D. Point 6
E5C11 E5C11
Which point in Figure E5-1 best (B)
ohm resistor and an 18-
microhenry inductor at 3.505
MHz?
A. Point 1
B. Point 3
C. Point 7
D. Point 8
E5C12 E5C12
Which point on Figure E5-1 best (A)
ohm resistor and a 19-picofarad
capacitor at 21.200 MHz?
A. Point 1
B. Point 3
C. Point 7
D. Point 8
E5D — AC and RF energy in real

circuits: skin effect; electromagnetic
fields; reactive power; power factor;
electrical length of conductors at UHF
and microwave frequencies;
microstrip
E5D01 E5D01
What is the result of skin effect? (A)
A. As frequency increases, RF Page 4-33
current flows in a thinner layer
of the conductor, closer to the
surface
B. As frequency decreases, RF
current flows in a thinner layer
of the conductor, closer to the
surface
C. Thermal effects on the
surface of the conductor
increase the impedance
D. Thermal effects on the
surface of the conductor
decrease the impedance
E5D02 E5D02
Why is it important to keep lead (B)
lengths short for components Page 4-35
used in circuits for VHF and
above?
A. To increase the thermal time
constant
B. To avoid unwanted inductive
reactance
C. To maintain component
lifetime
E5D03 E5D03
What is microstrip? (D)
A. Lightweight transmission line Page 5-13
made of common zip cord
B. Miniature coax used for low
power applications
C. Short lengths of coax
mounted on printed circuit
boards to minimize time delay
between microwave circuits
D. Precision printed circuit
conductors above a ground
plane that provide constant
impedance interconnects at
microwave frequencies
E5D04 E5D04
Why are short connections used (B)
at microwave frequencies? Page 4-35
A. To increase neutralizing
resistance
B. To reduce phase shift along
the connection
C. To increase compensating
capacitance
D. To reduce noise figure
E5D05 E5D05
What is the power factor of an RL (C)
circuit having a 30-degree phase Page 4-26
angle between the voltage and the
current?
A. 1.73
B. 0.5
C. 0.866
D. 0.577
E5D06 E5D06
In what direction is the magnetic (D)
field oriented about a conductor Page 4-7
in relation to the direction of
electron flow?
A. In the same direction as the
current
B. In a direction opposite to the
current
C. In all directions; omni-
directional
D. In a circle around the
conductor
E5D07 E5D07
How many watts are consumed in (B)
a circuit having a power factor of Page 4-26
0.71 if the apparent power is 500
VA?
A. 704 W
B. 355 W
C. 252 W
D. 1.42 mW
E5D08 E5D08
How many watts are consumed in (D)
0.6 if the input is 200 VAC at 5
amperes?
A. 200 watts
B. 1000 watts
C. 1600 watts
D. 600 watts
E5D09 E5D09
What happens to reactive power (B)
in an AC circuit that has both Page 4-24
ideal inductors and ideal
capacitors?
A. It is dissipated as heat in the
circuit
B. It is repeatedly exchanged
between the associated
magnetic and electric fields,
but is not dissipated
C. It is dissipated as kinetic
energy in the circuit
D. It is dissipated in the
formation of inductive and
capacitive fields
E5D10 E5D10
How can the true power be (A)
determined in an AC circuit Page 4-25
where the voltage and current are
out of phase?
A. By multiplying the apparent
power by the power factor
B. By dividing the reactive power
by the power factor
C. By dividing the apparent
D. By multiplying the reactive
E5D11 E5D11
What is the power factor of an RL (C)
current?
A. 1.414
B. 0.866
C. 0.5
D. 1.73
E5D12 E5D12
0.2 if the input is 100 VAC at 4
amperes?
A. 400 watts
B. 80 watts
C. 2000 watts
D. 50 watts
E5D13 E5D13
a circuit consisting of a 100-ohm Page 4-26
resistor in series with a 100-ohm
inductive reactance drawing 1
ampere?
A. 70.7 watts
B. 100 watts
C. 141.4 watts
D. 200 watts
E5D14 E5D14
What is reactive power? (A)
A. Wattless, nonproductive Page 4-24
power
B. Power consumed in wire
resistance in an inductor
C. Power lost because of
capacitor leakage
D. Power consumed in circuit Q
E5D15 E5D15
What is the power factor of an RL (D)
current?
A. 0.866
B. 1.0
C. 0.5
D. 0.707
SUBELEMENT E6
— CIRCUIT
COMPONENTS
[6 Exam Questions
— 6 Groups]
E6A — Semiconductor materials and
devices: semiconductor materials;
germanium, silicon, P-type, N-type;
transistor types: NPN, PNP, junction,
field-effect transistors: enhancement
mode; depletion mode; MOS; CMOS;
N-channel; P-channel
E6A01 E6A01
In what application is gallium (C)
arsenide used as a semiconductor Page 5-13
material?
A. In high-current rectifier
circuits
B. In high-power audio circuits
C. In microwave circuits
D. In very low-frequency RF
circuits
E6A02 E6A02
semiconductor materials contains Page 5-2
excess free electrons?
A. N-type
B. P-type
C. Bipolar
D. Insulated gate
E6A03 E6A03
Why does a PN-junction diode (C)
not conduct current when reverse Page 5-3
biased?
A. Only P-type semiconductor
material can conduct current
B. Only N-type semiconductor
material can conduct current
C. Holes in P-type material and
electrons in the N-type
material are separated by the
applied voltage, widening the
depletion region
D. Excess holes in P-type
material combine with the
electrons in N-type material,
converting the entire diode into
an insulator
E6A04 E6A04
What is the name given to an (C)
impurity atom that adds holes to a Page 5-2
semiconductor crystal structure?
A. Insulator impurity
B. N-type impurity
C. Acceptor impurity
D. Donor impurity
E6A05 E6A05
How does DC input impedance at (C)
the gate of a field-effect Page 5-10
transistor compare with the DC
input impedance of a bipolar
transistor?
A. They are both low impedance
B. An FET has lower input
impedance
C. An FET has higher input
impedance
D. They are both high impedance
E6A06 E6A06
What is the beta of a bipolar (B)
junction transistor? Page 5-9
A. The frequency at which the
current gain is reduced to
0.707
B. The change in collector
current with respect to base
current
C. The breakdown voltage of the
base to collector junction
D. The switching speed
E6A07 E6A07
Which of the following indicates (D)
that a silicon NPN junction Page 5-8
transistor is biased on?
A. Base-to-emitter resistance of
approximately 6 to 7 ohms
B. Base-to-emitter resistance of
approximately 0.6 to 0.7 ohms
C. Base-to-emitter voltage of
approximately 6 to 7 volts
D. Base-to-emitter voltage of
approximately 0.6 to 0.7 volts
E6A08 E6A08
What term indicates the (D)
frequency at which the grounded- Page 5-9
base current gain of a transistor
has decreased to 0.7 of the gain
obtainable at 1 kHz?
A. Corner frequency
B. Alpha rejection frequency
C. Beta cutoff frequency
D. Alpha cutoff frequency
E6A09 E6A09
What is a depletion-mode FET? (A)
A. An FET that exhibits a current Page 5-11
flow between source and drain
when no gate voltage is applied
B. An FET that has no current
flow between source and drain
when no gate voltage is applied
C. Any FET without a channel
D. Any FET for which holes are
the majority carriers
E6A10 E6A10
In Figure E6-1, what is the (B)
schematic symbol for an N- Page 5-11
channel dual-gate MOSFET?
A. 2
B. 4
C. 5
D. 6
E6A11 E6A11
In Figure E6-1, what is the (A)
schematic symbol for a P-channel Page 5-10
junction FET?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 6
E6A12 E6A12
Why do many MOSFET devices (D)
have internally connected Zener Page 5-11
diodes on the gates?
A. To provide a voltage reference
for the correct amount of
reverse-bias gate voltage
B. To protect the substrate from
excessive voltages
C. To keep the gate voltage
within specifications and
prevent the device from
overheating
D. To reduce the chance of static
damage to the gate
E6B — Diodes
E6B01 E6B01
What is the most useful (B)
characteristic of a Zener diode? Page 5-5
A. A constant current drop under
conditions of varying voltage
B. A constant voltage drop under
conditions of varying current
C. A negative resistance region
D. An internal capacitance that
varies with the applied voltage
E6B02 E6B02
What is an important (D)
characteristic of a Schottky diode Page 5-4
as compared to an ordinary
silicon diode when used as a
power supply rectifier?
A. Much higher reverse voltage
breakdown
B. More constant reverse
avalanche voltage
C. Longer carrier retention time
D. Less forward voltage drop
E6B03 E6B03
What type of bias is required for (B)
an LED to emit light? Page 5-7
A. Reverse bias
B. Forward bias
C. Zero bias
D. Inductive bias
E6B04 E6B04
What type of semiconductor (A)
device is designed for use as a Page 5-6
voltage-controlled capacitor?
A. Varactor diode
B. Tunnel diode
C. Silicon-controlled rectifier
D. Zener diode
E6B05 E6B05
What characteristic of a PIN (D)
diode makes it useful as an RF Page 5-7
switch?
A. Extremely high reverse
breakdown voltage
B. Ability to dissipate large
amounts of power
C. Reverse bias controls its
forward voltage drop
D. Low junction capacitance
E6B06 E6B06
common use of a Schottky diode? Page 5-5
A. As a rectifier in high current
power supplies
B. As a variable capacitance in an
automatic frequency control
circuit
C. As a constant voltage
reference in a power supply
D. As a VHF/UHF mixer or
detector
E6B07 E6B07
What is the failure mechanism (B)
when a junction diode fails due to Page 5-4
excessive current?
A. Excessive inverse voltage
B. Excessive junction
temperature
C. Insufficient forward voltage
D. Charge carrier depletion
E6B08 E6B08
Which of the following is a (A)
Schottky barrier diode? Page 5-4
A. Metal-semiconductor
junction
B. Electrolytic rectifier
C. PIN junction
D. Thermionic emission diode
E6B09 E6B09
What is a common use for point- (C)
contact diodes? Page 5-5
A. As a constant current source
B. As a constant voltage source
C. As an RF detector
D. As a high-voltage rectifier
E6B10 E6B10
schematic symbol for a light- Page 5-7
emitting diode?
A. 1
B. 5
C. 6
D. 7
E6B11 E6B11
What is used to control the (A)
attenuation of RF signals by a PIN Page 5-7
diode?
A. Forward DC bias current
B. A sub-harmonic pump signal
C. Reverse voltage larger than
the RF signal
D. Capacitance of an RF
coupling capacitor
E6C — Digital ICs: Families of digital

ICs; gates; Programmable Logic
Devices (PLDs)
E6C01 E6C01
What is the function of hysteresis (A)
in a comparator? Page 6-10
A. To prevent input noise from
causing unstable output signals
B. To allow the comparator to be
used with AC input signals
C. To cause the output to change
states continually
D. To increase the sensitivity
E6C02 E6C02
What happens when the level of a (B)
comparator’s input signal crosses Page 6-10
the threshold?
A. The IC input can be damaged
B. The comparator changes its
output state
C. The comparator enters latch-
up
D. The feedback loop becomes
unstable
E6C03 E6C03
What is tri-state logic? (A)
A. Logic devices with 0, 1, and Page 5-21
high-impedance output states
B. Logic devices that utilize
ternary math
C. Low-power logic devices
designed to operate at 3 volts
D. Proprietary logic devices
manufactured by Tri-State
Devices
E6C04 E6C04
Which of the following is an (C)
advantage of BiCMOS logic? Page 5-26
A. Its simplicity results in much
less expensive devices than
standard CMOS
B. It is immune to electrostatic
damage
C. It has the high input
impedance of CMOS and the
low output impedance of
bipolar transistors
E6C05 E6C05
What is an advantage of CMOS (D)
logic devices over TTL devices? Page 5-26
A. Differential output capability
B. Lower distortion
C. Immune to damage from static
discharge
D. Lower power consumption
E6C06 E6C06
Why do CMOS digital integrated (C)
circuits have high immunity to Page 5-26
noise on the input signal or power
supply?
A. Large bypass capacitance is
inherent
B. The input switching threshold
is about two times the power
supply voltage
C. The input switching threshold
is about one-half the power
supply voltage
D. Bandwidth is very limited
E6C07 E6C07
What best describes a pull-up or (B)
pull-down resistor? Page 5-25
A. A resistor in a keying circuit
used to reduce key clicks
B. A resistor connected to the
positive or negative supply line
used to establish a voltage
when an input or output is an
open circuit
C. A resistor that ensures that an
oscillator frequency does not
drift
D. A resistor connected to an op-
amp output that prevents
signals from exceeding the
power supply voltage
E6C08 E6C08
schematic symbol for a NAND Page 5-20
gate?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
E6C09 E6C09
What is a Programmable Logic (B)
Device (PLD)? Page 5-26
A. A logic circuit that can be
modified during use
B. A programmable collection of
logic gates and circuits in a
single integrated circuit
C. Programmable equipment
used for testing digital logic
integrated circuits
D. A type of transistor whose
gain can be changed by digital
logic circuits
E6C10 E6C10
In Figure E6-3, what is the (D)
schematic symbol for a NOR Page 5-20
gate?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
E6C11 E6C11
In Figure E6-3, what is the (C)
schematic symbol for the NOT Page 5-19
operation (inverter)?
A. 2
B. 4
C. 5
D. 6
E6D — Toroidal and Solenoidal

Inductors: permeability, core material,
selecting, winding; transformers;
piezoelectric devices
E6D01 E6D01
Why should core saturation of an (A)
impedance matching transformer Page 4-36
be avoided?
A. Harmonics and distortion
could result
B. Magnetic flux would increase
with frequency
C. RF susceptance would
increase
D. Temporary changes of the
core permeability could result
E6D02 E6D02
What is the equivalent circuit of a (A)
quartz crystal? Page 6-15
A. Motional capacitance,
motional inductance, and loss
resistance in series, all in
parallel with a shunt capacitor
representing electrode and
stray capacitance
B. Motional capacitance,
motional inductance, loss
resistance, and a capacitor
stray capacitance all in parallel
C. Motional capacitance,
motional inductance, loss
resistance, and a capacitor
stray capacitance all in series
D. Motional inductance and loss
resistance in series, paralleled
with motional capacitance and
a capacitor representing
electrode and stray capacitance
E6D03 E6D03
Which of the following is an (A)
aspect of the piezoelectric Page 6-15
effect?
A. Mechanical deformation of
material by the application of a
voltage
B. Mechanical deformation of
material by the application of a
magnetic field
C. Generation of electrical
energy in the presence of light
D. Increased conductivity in the
presence of light
E6D04 E6D04
Which materials are commonly (B)
used as a core in an inductor? Page 4-36
A. Polystyrene and polyethylene
B. Ferrite and brass
C. Teflon and Delrin
D. Cobalt and aluminum
E6D05 E6D05
What is one reason for using (C)
ferrite cores rather than powdered Page 4-36
iron in an inductor?
A. Ferrite toroids generally have
lower initial permeability
B. Ferrite toroids generally have
better temperature stability
C. Ferrite toroids generally
require fewer turns to produce
a given inductance value
D. Ferrite toroids are easier to
use with surface mount
technology
E6D06 E6D06
What core material property (D)
determines the inductance of an Page 4-36
inductor?
A. Thermal impedance
B. Resistance
C. Reactivity
D. Permeability
E6D07 E6D07
What is current in the primary (A)
winding of a transformer called if Page 4-36
no load is attached to the
secondary?
A. Magnetizing current
B. Direct current
C. Excitation current
D. Stabilizing current
E6D08 E6D08
What is one reason for using (B)
powdered-iron cores rather than Page 4-36
ferrite cores in an inductor?
A. Powdered-iron cores
generally have greater initial
permeability
B. Powdered-iron cores
generally maintain their
characteristics at higher
currents
C. Powdered-iron cores
generally require fewer turns
to produce a given inductance
D. Powdered-iron cores use
smaller diameter wire for the
same inductance
E6D09 E6D09
What devices are commonly used (C)
as VHF and UHF parasitic Page 4-37
suppressors at the input and
output terminals of a transistor
HF amplifier?
A. Electrolytic capacitors
B. Butterworth filters
C. Ferrite beads
D. Steel-core toroids
E6D10 E6D10
What is a primary advantage of (A)
using a toroidal core instead of a Page 4-36
solenoidal core in an inductor?
A. Toroidal cores confine most
of the magnetic field within the
core material
B. Toroidal cores make it easier
to couple the magnetic energy
into other components
C. Toroidal cores exhibit greater
hysteresis
D. Toroidal cores have lower Q
characteristics
E6D11 E6D11
Which type of core material (B)
decreases inductance when Page 4-36
inserted into a coil?
A. Ceramic
B. Brass
C. Ferrite
D. Powdered iron
E6D12 E6D12
What is inductor saturation? (C)
A. The inductor windings are Page 4-36
over-coupled
B. The inductor’s voltage rating
is exceeded causing a flashover
C. The ability of the inductor’s
core to store magnetic energy
has been exceeded
D. Adjacent inductors become
over-coupled
E6D13 E6D13
What is the primary cause of (A)
inductor self-resonance? Page 4-34
A. Inter-turn capacitance
B. The skin effect
C. Inductive kickback
D. Non-linear core hysteresis
E6E — Analog ICs: MMICs, IC

packaging characteristics
E6E01 E6E01
Why is gallium arsenide (GaAs) (B)
useful for semiconductor devices Page 5-13
operating at UHF and higher
frequencies?
A. Higher noise figures
B. Higher electron mobility
C. Lower junction voltage drop
D. Lower transconductance
E6E02 E6E02
Which of the following device (A)
packages is a through-hole type? Page 4-35
A. DIP
B. PLCC
C. Ball grid array
D. SOT
E6E03 E6E03
Which of the following materials (D)
is likely to provide the highest Page 5-13
frequency of operation when used
in MMICs?
A. Silicon
B. Silicon nitride
C. Silicon dioxide
D. Gallium nitride
E6E04 E6E04
Which is the most common input (A)
and output impedance of circuits Page 5-12
that use MMICs?
A. 50 ohms
B. 300 ohms
C. 450 ohms
D. 10 ohms
E6E05 E6E05
Which of the following noise (A)
figure values is typical of a low- Page 5-13
noise UHF preamplifier?
A. 2 dB
B. –10 dB
C. 44 dBm
D. –20 dBm
E6E06 E6E06
What characteristics of the (D)
MMIC make it a popular choice Page 5-12
for VHF through microwave
circuits?
A. The ability to retrieve
information from a single
signal even in the presence of
other strong signals
B. Plate current that is
controlled by a control grid
C. Nearly infinite gain, very high
input impedance, and very low
output impedance
D. Controlled gain, low noise
figure, and constant input and
output impedance over the
specified frequency range
E6E07 E6E07
What type of transmission line is (D)
used for connections to MMICs? Page 5-13
A. Miniature coax
B. Circular waveguide
C. Parallel wire
D. Microstrip
E6E08 E6E08
How is power supplied to the (A)
most common type of MMIC? Page 5-12
A. Through a resistor and/or RF
choke connected to the
amplifier output lead
B. MMICs require no operating
bias
C. Through a capacitor and RF
choke connected to the
amplifier input lead
D. Directly to the bias voltage
(VCC IN) lead
E6E09 E6E09
component package types would Page 4-35
be most suitable for use at
frequencies above the HF range?
A. TO-220
B. Axial lead
C. Radial lead
D. Surface mount
E6E10 E6E10
What advantage does surface- (D)
mount technology offer at RF Page 4-35
compared to using through-hole
components?
A. Smaller circuit area
B. Shorter circuit-board traces
C. Components have less
parasitic inductance and
capacitance
E6E11 E6E11
What is a characteristic of DIP (D)
packaging used for integrated Page 4-35
circuits?
A. Package mounts in a direct
inverted position
B. Low leakage doubly insulated
package
C. Two chips in each package
(Dual In Package)
D. A total of two rows of
connecting pins placed on
opposite sides of the package
(Dual In-line Package)
E6E12 E6E12
Why are DIP through-hole (C)
package ICs not typically used at Page 4-33
UHF and higher frequencies?
A. Too many pins
B. Epoxy coating is conductive
above 300 MHz
C. Excessive lead length
D. Unsuitable for combining
analog and digital signals

photoconductivity; photovoltaic
devices; optical sensors and encoders;
optical isolation
E6F01 E6F01
What absorbs the energy from (C)
light falling on a photovoltaic Page 5-17
cell?
A. Protons
B. Photons
C. Electrons
D. Holes
E6F02 E6F02
What happens to the conductivity (A)
of a photoconductive material Page 5-15
when light shines on it?
A. It increases
B. It decreases
C. It stays the same
D. It becomes unstable
E6F03 E6F03
What is the most common (D)
configuration of an optoisolator Page 5-16
or optocoupler?
A. A lens and a photomultiplier
B. A frequency modulated
helium-neon laser
C. An amplitude modulated
helium-neon laser
D. An LED and a phototransistor
E6F04 E6F04
What is the photovoltaic effect? (B)
A. The conversion of voltage to Page 5-17
current when exposed to light
B. The conversion of light to
electrical energy
C. The conversion of electrical
energy to mechanical energy
D. The tendency of a battery to
discharge when exposed to
light
E6F05 E6F05
Which describes an optical shaft (A)
encoder? Page 5-16
A. A device that detects rotation
of a control by interrupting a
light source with a patterned
wheel
B. A device that measures the
strength of a beam of light
using analog to digital
conversion
C. A digital encryption device
often used to encrypt
spacecraft control signals
D. A device for generating RTTY
signals by means of a rotating
light source
E6F06 E6F06
Which of these materials is most (A)
commonly used to create Page 5-15
photoconductive devices?
A. A crystalline semiconductor
B. An ordinary metal
C. A heavy metal
D. A liquid semiconductor
E6F07 E6F07
What is a solid-state relay? (B)
A. A relay using transistors to Page 5-16
drive the relay coil
B. A device that uses
semiconductors to implement
the functions of an
electromechanical relay
C. A mechanical relay that
latches in the on or off state
each time it is pulsed
D. A semiconductor passive
delay line
E6F08 E6F08
Why are optoisolators often used (C)
in conjunction with solid-state Page 5-16
circuits when switching 120
VAC?
A. Optoisolators provide a low
impedance link between a
control circuit and a power
circuit
B. Optoisolators provide
impedance matching between
the control circuit and power
circuit
C. Optoisolators provide a very
high degree of electrical
isolation between a control
circuit and the circuit being
switched
D. Optoisolators eliminate the
effects of reflected light in the
control circuit
E6F09 E6F09
What is the efficiency of a (D)
photovoltaic cell? Page 5-18
A. The output RF power divided
by the input DC power
B. Cost per kilowatt-hour
generated
C. The open-circuit voltage
divided by the short-circuit
current under full illumination
D. The relative fraction of light
that is converted to current
E6F10 E6F10
What is the most common type of (B)
photovoltaic cell used for Page 5-17
electrical power generation?
A. Selenium
B. Silicon
C. Cadmium Sulfide
D. Copper oxide
E6F11 E6F11
What is the approximate open- (B)
circuit voltage produced by a fully Page 5-17
illuminated silicon photovoltaic
cell?
A. 0.1 V
B. 0.5 V
C. 1.5 V
D. 12 V
SUBELEMENT E7
— PRACTICAL
CIRCUITS
[8 Exam Questions
— 8 Groups]
principles and logic circuits; classes of
logic elements; positive and negative
logic; frequency dividers; truth tables
E7A01 E7A01
Which circuit is bistable? (C)
A. An AND gate Page 5-22
B. An OR gate
C. A flip-flop
D. A bipolar amplifier
E7A02 E7A02
What is the function of a decade (A)
counter? Page 5-24
A. It produces one output pulse
for every 10 input pulses
B. It decodes a decimal number
for display on a seven-segment
LED display
C. It produces 10 output pulses
for every input pulse
D. It decodes a binary number
for display on a seven-segment
LED display
E7A03 E7A03
Which of the following can divide (B)
the frequency of a pulse train by Page 5-23
2?
A. An XOR gate
B. A flip-flop
C. An OR gate
D. A multiplexer
E7A04 E7A04
How many flip-flops are required (B)
to divide a signal frequency by 4? Page 5-23
A. 1
B. 2
C. 4
D. 8
E7A05 E7A05
circuit that continuously Page 5-23
alternates between two states
without an external clock?
A. Monostable multivibrator
B. J-K flip-flop
C. T flip-flop
D. Astable multivibrator
E7A06 E7A06
What is a characteristic of a (A)
monostable multivibrator? Page 5-23
A. It switches momentarily to the
opposite binary state and then
returns to its original state
after a set time
B. It produces a continuous
square wave oscillating
between 1 and 0
C. It stores one bit of data in
either a 0 or 1 state
D. It maintains a constant output
voltage, regardless of
variations in the input voltage
E7A07 E7A07
What logical operation does a (D)
NAND gate perform? Page 5-20
A. It produces logic 0 at its
output only when all inputs are
logic 0
B. It produces logic 1 at its
logic 1
C. It produces logic 0 at its
output if some but not all
inputs are logic 1
D. It produces logic 0 at its
logic 1
E7A08 E7A08
What logical operation does an (A)
OR gate perform? Page 5-20
output if any or all inputs are
logic 1
output if all inputs are logic 1
C. It only produces logic 0 at its
output when all inputs are logic
1
output if all inputs are logic 0
E7A09 E7A09
What logical operation is (C)
performed by an exclusive NOR Page 5-20
gate?
output only if all inputs are
logic 0
output only if all inputs are
logic 1
C. It produces logic 0 at its
output if only one input is logic
1
output if only one input is logic
1
E7A10 E7A10
What is a truth table? (C)
A. A table of logic symbols that Page 5-19
indicate the high logic states of
an op-amp
B. A diagram showing logic
states when the digital device
output is true
C. A list of inputs and
corresponding outputs for a
digital device
D. A table of logic symbols that
indicate the logic states of an
op-amp
E7A11 E7A11
What type of logic defines “1” as (D)
a high voltage? Page 5-20
A. Reverse Logic
B. Assertive Logic
C. Negative logic
D. Positive Logic
E7B — Amplifiers: Class of

operation; vacuum tube and solid-
state circuits; distortion and
intermodulation; spurious and
parasitic suppression; microwave
amplifiers; switching-type amplifiers
E7B01 E7B01
For what portion of the signal (A)
cycle does each active element in Page 6-11
a push-pull Class AB amplifier
conduct?
A. More than 180 degrees but
less than 360 degrees
B. Exactly 180 degrees
C. The entire cycle
D. Less than 180 degrees
E7B02 E7B02
What is a Class D amplifier? (A)
A. A type of amplifier that uses Page 6-12
switching technology to
achieve high efficiency
B. A low power amplifier that
uses a differential amplifier for
improved linearity
C. An amplifier that uses drift-
mode FETs for high efficiency
D. A frequency doubling
amplifier
E7B03 E7B03
components form the output of a Page 6-12
class D amplifier circuit?
A. A low-pass filter to remove
switching signal components
B. A high-pass filter to
compensate for low gain at low
frequencies
C. A matched load resistor to
prevent damage by switching
transients
D. A temperature compensating
load resistor to improve
linearity
E7B04 E7B04
Where on the load line of a Class (A)
A common emitter amplifier Page 6-11
would bias normally be set?
A. Approximately halfway
between saturation and cutoff
B. Where the load line intersects
the voltage axis
C. At a point where the bias
resistor equals the load
resistor
D. At a point where the load line
intersects the zero bias current
curve
E7B05 E7B05
What can be done to prevent (C)
unwanted oscillations in an RF Page 6-13
power amplifier?
A. Tune the stage for maximum
SWR
B. Tune both the input and output
for maximum power
C. Install parasitic suppressors
and/or neutralize the stage
D. Use a phase inverter in the
output filter
E7B06 E7B06
Which of the following amplifier (B)
types reduces even-order Page 6-11
harmonics?
A. Push-push
B. Push-pull
C. Class C
D. Class AB
E7B07 E7B07
Which of the following is a likely (D)
result when a Class C amplifier is Page 6-11
used to amplify a single-sideband
phone signal?
A. Reduced intermodulation
products
B. Increased overall
intelligibility
C. Signal inversion
D. Signal distortion and
excessive bandwidth
E7B08 E7B08
How can an RF power amplifier (C)
be neutralized? Page 6-14
A. By increasing the driving
power
B. By reducing the driving power
C. By feeding a 180-degree out-
of-phase portion of the output
back to the input
D. By feeding an in-phase
component of the output back
to the input
E7B09 E7B09
Which of the following describes (D)
how the loading and tuning Page 6-40
capacitors are to be adjusted when
tuning a vacuum tube RF power
amplifier that employs a Pi-
network output circuit?
A. The loading capacitor is set to
maximum capacitance and the
tuning capacitor is adjusted for
minimum allowable plate
current
B. The tuning capacitor is set to
maximum capacitance and the
loading capacitor is adjusted
for minimum plate permissible
current
C. The loading capacitor is
adjusted to minimum plate
current while alternately
adjusting the tuning capacitor
for maximum allowable plate
current
D. The tuning capacitor is
adjusted for minimum plate
current, and the loading
capacitor is adjusted for
maximum permissible plate
current
E7B10 E7B10
purpose of R1 and R2? Page 6-3
A. Load resistors
B. Voltage divider bias
C. Self bias
D. Feedback
E7B11 E7B11
In Figure E7-1, what is the (D)
purpose of R3? Page 6-3
A. Fixed bias
B. Emitter bypass
C. Output load resistor
D. Self bias
E7B12 E7B12
What type of amplifier circuit is (C)
shown in Figure E7-1? Page 6-3
A. Common base
B. Common collector
C. Common emitter
D. Emitter follower
E7B13 E7B13
Which of the following describes (D)
an emitter follower (or common Page 6-4
collector) amplifier?
A. A two-transistor amplifier
with the emitters sharing a
common bias resistor
B. A differential amplifier with
both inputs fed to the emitter
of the input transistor
C. An OR circuit with only one
emitter used for output
D. An amplifier with a low
impedance output that follows
the base input voltage
E7B14 E7B14
Why are switching amplifiers (B)
more efficient than linear Page 6-12
amplifiers?
A. Switching amplifiers operate
at higher voltages
B. The power transistor is at
saturation or cutoff most of the
time
C. Linear amplifiers have high
gain resulting in higher
harmonic content
D. Switching amplifiers use
push-pull circuits
E7B15 E7B15
What is one way to prevent (C)
thermal runaway in a bipolar Page 6-3
transistor amplifier?
A. Neutralization
B. Select transistors with high
beta
C. Use a resistor in series with
the emitter
E7B16 E7B16
What is the effect of (A)
intermodulation products in a Page 6-12
linear power amplifier?
A. Transmission of spurious
signals
B. Creation of parasitic
oscillations
C. Low efficiency
E7B17 E7B17
Why are odd-order rather than (A)
even-order intermodulation Page 6-12
distortion products of concern in
linear power amplifiers?
A. Because they are relatively
close in frequency to the
desired signal
B. Because they are relatively far
in frequency from the desired
signal
C. Because they invert the
sidebands causing distortion
D. Because they maintain the
sidebands, thus causing
multiple duplicate signals
E7B18 E7B18
What is a characteristic of a (C)
grounded-grid amplifier? Page 6-4
A. High power gain
B. High filament voltage
C. Low input impedance
D. Low bandwidth
E7C — Filters and matching

networks: types of networks; types of
filters; filter applications; filter
characteristics; impedance matching;
DSP filtering
E7C01 E7C01
How are the capacitors and (D)
inductors of a low-pass filter Pi- Page 6-39
network arranged between the
network’s input and output?
A. Two inductors are in series
between the input and output,
and a capacitor is connected
between the two inductors and
ground
B. Two capacitors are in series
between the input and output,
and an inductor is connected
between the two capacitors and
ground
C. An inductor is connected
between the input and ground,
another inductor is connected
between the output and ground,
and a capacitor is connected
between the input and output
D. A capacitor is connected
between the input and ground,
another capacitor is connected
between the output and ground,
and an inductor is connected
between input and output
E7C02 E7C02
Which of the following is a (C)
property of a T-network with Page 6-40
series capacitors and a parallel
shunt inductor?
A. It is a low-pass filter
B. It is a band-pass filter
C. It is a high-pass filter
D. It is a notch filter
E7C03 E7C03
What advantage does a series-L (A)
Pi-L-network have over a series-L Page 6-40
Pi-network for impedance
matching between the final
amplifier of a vacuum-tube
transmitter and an antenna?
A. Greater harmonic suppression
B. Higher efficiency
C. Does not require a capacitor
D. Greater transformation range
E7C04 E7C04
How does an impedance-matching (C)
circuit transform a complex Page 6-39
impedance to a resistive
impedance?
A. It introduces negative
resistance to cancel the
resistive part of impedance
B. It introduces
transconductance to cancel the
reactive part of impedance
C. It cancels the reactive part of
the impedance and changes the
resistive part to a desired value
D. Reactive currents are
dissipated in matched
resistances
E7C05 E7C05
Which filter type is described as (D)
having ripple in the passband and a Page 6-34
sharp cutoff?
A. A Butterworth filter
B. An active LC filter
C. A passive op-amp filter
D. A Chebyshev filter
E7C06 E7C06
What are the distinguishing (C)
features of an elliptical filter? Page 6-34
A. Gradual passband rolloff with
minimal stop band ripple
B. Extremely flat response over
its pass band with gradually
rounded stop band corners
C. Extremely sharp cutoff with
one or more notches in the
stop band
D. Gradual passband rolloff with
extreme stop band ripple
E7C07 E7C07
Which describes a Pi-L-network (B)
used for matching a vacuum tube Page 6-40
final amplifier to a 50-ohm
unbalanced output?
A. A Phase Inverter Load
network
B. A Pi-network with an
additional series inductor on
the output
C. A network with only three
discrete parts
D. A matching network in which
all components are isolated
from ground
E7C08 E7C08
Which of the following factors (A)
has the greatest effect on the Page 6-35
bandwidth and response shape of a
crystal ladder filter?
A. The relative frequencies of
the individual crystals
B. The DC voltage applied to the
quartz crystal
C. The gain of the RF stage
preceding the filter
D. The amplitude of the signals
passing through the filter
E7C09 E7C09
What is a crystal lattice filter? (D)
A. A power supply filter made Page 6-35
with interlaced quartz crystals
B. An audio filter made with four
quartz crystals that resonate at
1 kHz intervals
C. A filter using lattice-shaped
quartz crystals for high-Q
performance
D. A filter with narrow bandwidth
and steep skirts made using
quartz crystals
E7C10 E7C10
Which of the following filters (B)
would be the best choice for use Page 6-33
in a 2 meter band repeater
duplexer?
A. A crystal filter
B. A cavity filter
C. A DSP filter
D. An L-C filter
E7C11 E7C11
a receiving filter’s ability to Page 6-34
reject signals occupying an
adjacent channel?
A. Passband ripple
B. Phase response
C. Shape factor
D. Noise factor
E7C12 E7C12
What is one advantage of a Pi- (A)
matching network over an L- Page 6-40
matching network consisting of a
single inductor and a single
capacitor?
A. The Q of Pi-networks can be
controlled
B. L-networks cannot perform
impedance transformation
C. Pi-networks are more stable
D. Pi-networks provide balanced
input and output
E7D — Power supplies and voltage

regulators; Solar array charge
controllers
E7D01 E7D01
How does a linear electronic (D)
voltage regulator work? Page 6-41
A. It has a ramp voltage as its
output
B. It eliminates the need for a
pass transistor
C. The control element duty
cycle is proportional to the
line or load conditions
D. The conduction of a control
element is varied to maintain a
constant output voltage
E7D02 E7D02
What is a characteristic of a (C)
switching electronic voltage Page 6-43
regulator?
A. The resistance of a control
element is varied in direct
proportion to the line voltage
or load current
B. It is generally less efficient
than a linear regulator
C. The controlled device’s duty
cycle is changed to produce a
constant average output voltage
D. It gives a ramp voltage at its
output
E7D03 E7D03
What device is typically used as a (A)
stable voltage reference in a Page 6-42
linear voltage regulator?
A. A Zener diode
B. A tunnel diode
C. An SCR
D. A varactor diode
E7D04 E7D04
Which of the following types of (B)
linear voltage regulator usually Page 6-42
make the most efficient use of
the primary power source?
A. A series current source
B. A series regulator
C. A shunt regulator
D. A shunt current source
E7D05 E7D05
linear voltage regulator places a Page 6-41
constant load on the unregulated
voltage source?
A. A constant current source
B. A series regulator
C. A shunt current source
D. A shunt regulator
E7D06 E7D06
What is the purpose of Q1 in the (C)
circuit shown in Figure E7-2? Page 6-42
A. It provides negative feedback
to improve regulation
B. It provides a constant load for
the voltage source
C. It controls the current
supplied to the load
D. It provides D1 with current
E7D07 E7D07
What is the purpose of C2 in the (A)
circuit shown in Figure E7-2? Page 6-42
A. It bypasses rectifier output
ripple around D1
B. It is a brute force filter for the
output
C. To self-resonate at the hum
frequency
D. To provide fixed DC bias for
Q1
E7D08 E7D08
What type of circuit is shown in (C)
Figure E7-2? Page 6-42
A. Switching voltage regulator
B. Grounded emitter amplifier
C. Linear voltage regulator
D. Monostable multivibrator
E7D09 E7D09
What is the main reason to use a (C)
charge controller with a solar Page 6-42
power system?
A. Prevention of battery
undercharge
B. Control of electrolyte levels
during battery discharge
C. Prevention of battery damage
due to overcharge
D. Matching of day and night
charge rates
E7D10 E7D10
What is the primary reason that a (C)
high-frequency switching type Page 6-43
high-voltage power supply can be
both less expensive and lighter in
weight than a conventional power
supply?
A. The inverter design does not
require any output filtering
B. It uses a diode bridge rectifier
for increased output
C. The high frequency inverter
design uses much smaller
transformers and filter
components for an equivalent
power output
D. It uses a large power factor
compensation capacitor to
recover power from the unused
portion of the AC cycle
E7D11 E7D11
What is the function of the pass (D)
transistor in a linear voltage Page 6-42
regulator circuit?
A. Permits a wide range of
output voltage settings
B. Provides a stable input
impedance over a wide range of
source voltage
C. Maintains nearly constant
output impedance over a wide
range of load current
D. Maintains nearly constant
output voltage over a wide
range of load current
E7D12 E7D12
What is the dropout voltage of an (C)
analog voltage regulator? Page 6-42
A. Minimum input voltage for
rated power dissipation
B. Maximum output voltage
drops when the input voltage is
varied over its specified range
C. Minimum input-to-output
voltage required to maintain
regulation
D. Maximum that the output
voltage may decrease at rated
load
E7D13 E7D13
What is the equation for (C)
calculating power dissipated by a Page 6-42
series linear voltage regulator?
A. Input voltage multiplied by
input current
B. Input voltage divided by output
current
C. Voltage difference from input
to output multiplied by output
current
D. Output voltage multiplied by
output current
E7D14 E7D14
What is the purpose of (D)
connecting equal-value resistors Page 6-43
across power supply filter
capacitors connected in series?
A. Equalize the voltage across
each capacitor
B. Discharge the capacitors when
voltage is removed
C. Provide a minimum load on
the supply
E7D15 E7D15
What is the purpose of a step- (D)
start circuit in a high-voltage Page 6-43
power supply?
A. To provide a dual-voltage
output for reduced power
applications
B. To compensate for variations
of the incoming line voltage
C. To allow for remote control
of the power supply
D. To allow the filter capacitors
to charge gradually

reactance, phase and balanced
modulators; detectors; mixer stages
E7E01 E7E01
Which of the following can be (B)
used to generate FM phone Page 6-23
emissions?
A. A balanced modulator on the
audio amplifier
B. A reactance modulator on the
oscillator
C. A reactance modulator on the
final amplifier
D. A balanced modulator on the
oscillator
E7E02 E7E02
What is the function of a (D)
reactance modulator? Page 6-22
A. To produce PM signals by
using an electrically variable
resistance
B. To produce AM signals by
C. To produce AM signals by
resistance
D. To produce PM or FM signals
by using an electrically variable
E7E03 E7E03
What is a frequency discriminator (D)
stage in a FM receiver? Page 6-24
A. An FM generator circuit
B. A circuit for filtering two
closely adjacent signals
C. An automatic band-switching
circuit
D. A circuit for detecting FM
signals
E7E04 E7E04
What is one way a single-sideband (A)
phone signal can be generated? Page 6-21
A. By using a balanced modulator
followed by a filter
B. By using a reactance
modulator followed by a mixer
C. By using a loop modulator
followed by a mixer
D. By driving a product detector
with a DSB signal
E7E05 E7E05
What circuit is added to an FM (D)
transmitter to boost the higher Page 6-23
audio frequencies?
A. A de-emphasis network
B. A heterodyne suppressor
C. A heterodyne enhancer
D. A pre-emphasis network
E7E06 E7E06
Why is de-emphasis commonly (A)
used in FM communications Page 6-23
receivers?
A. For compatibility with
transmitters using phase
modulation
B. To reduce impulse noise
reception
C. For higher efficiency
D. To remove third-order
distortion products
E7E07 E7E07
What is meant by the term (B)
“baseband” in radio Page 6-20
communications?
A. The lowest frequency band
that the transmitter or receiver
covers
B. The frequency range occupied
by a message signal prior to
modulation
C. The unmodulated bandwidth of
the transmitted signal
D. The basic oscillator frequency
in an FM transmitter that is
multiplied to increase the
deviation and carrier frequency
E7E08 E7E08
What are the principal (C)
frequencies that appear at the Page 6-19
output of a mixer circuit?
A. Two and four times the
original frequency
B. The square root of the product
of input frequencies
C. The two input frequencies
along with their sum and
difference frequencies
D. 1.414 and 0.707 times the
input frequency
E7E09 E7E09
What occurs when an excessive (A)
amount of signal energy reaches a Page 6-20
mixer circuit?
A. Spurious mixer products are
generated
B. Mixer blanking occurs
C. Automatic limiting occurs
D. A beat frequency is generated
E7E10 E7E10
How does a diode envelope (A)
detector function? Page 6-23
A. By rectification and filtering
of RF signals
B. By breakdown of the Zener
voltage
C. By mixing signals with noise
in the transition region of the
diode
D. By sensing the change of
reactance in the diode with
respect to frequency
E7E11 E7E11
Which type of detector circuit is (C)
used for demodulating SSB Page 6-24
signals?
A. Discriminator
B. Phase detector
C. Product detector
D. Phase comparator
E7F — DSP filtering and other

operations; software defined radio
fundamentals; DSP modulation and
demodulation
E7F01 E7F01
What is meant by direct digital (C)
conversion as applied to software Page 6-29
defined radios?
A. Software is converted from
source code to object code
during operation of the
receiver
B. Incoming RF is converted to a
control voltage for a voltage
controlled oscillator
C. Incoming RF is digitized by an
analog-to-digital converter
without being mixed with a
local oscillator signal
D. A switching mixer is used to
generate I and Q signals
directly from the RF input
E7F02 E7F02
What kind of digital signal (A)
processing audio filter is used to Page 6-36
remove unwanted noise from a
received SSB signal?
A. An adaptive filter
B. A crystal-lattice filter
C. A Hilbert-transform filter
D. A phase-inverting filter
E7F03 E7F03
What type of digital signal (C)
processing filter is used to Page 6-32
generate an SSB signal?
A. An adaptive filter
B. A notch filter
C. A Hilbert-transform filter
D. An elliptical filter
E7F04 E7F04
What is a common method of (D)
generating an SSB signal using Page 6-32
digital signal processing?
A. Mixing products are
converted to voltages and
subtracted by adder circuits
B. A frequency synthesizer
removes the unwanted
sidebands
C. Varying quartz crystal
characteristics emulated in
digital form
D. Signals are combined in
quadrature phase relationship
E7F05 E7F05
How frequently must an analog (B)
signal be sampled by an analog- Page 6-26
to-digital converter so that the
signal can be accurately
reproduced?
A. At least half the rate of the
highest frequency component
of the signal
B. At least twice the rate of the
of the signal
C. At the same rate as the highest
frequency component of the
signal
D. At four times the rate of the
of the signal
E7F06 E7F06
What is the minimum number of (D)
bits required for an analog-to- Page 6-28
digital converter to sample a
signal with a range of 1 volt at a
resolution of 1 millivolt?
A. 4 bits
B. 6 bits
C. 8 bits
D. 10 bits
E7F07 E7F07
What function is performed by a (C)
Fast Fourier Transform? Page 6-28
A. Converting analog signals to
digital form
B. Converting digital signals to
analog form
C. Converting digital signals
from the time domain to the
frequency domain
D. Converting 8-bit data to 16-
bit data
E7F08 E7F08
What is the function of (B)
decimation? Page 6-28
A. Converting data to binary code
decimal form
B. Reducing the effective sample
rate by removing samples
C. Attenuating the signal
D. Removing unnecessary
significant digits
E7F09 E7F09
Why is an anti-aliasing digital (A)
filter required in a digital Page 6-28
decimator?
A. It removes high-frequency
signal components that would
otherwise be reproduced as
lower frequency components
B. It peaks the response of the
decimator, improving
bandwidth
C. It removes low-frequency
signal components to eliminate
the need for DC restoration
D. It notches out the sampling
frequency to avoid sampling
errors
E7F10 E7F10
What aspect of receiver analog- (A)
to-digital conversion determines Page 6-30
the maximum receive bandwidth
of a Direct Digital Conversion
SDR?
A. Sample rate
B. Sample width in bits
C. Sample clock phase noise
D. Processor latency
E7F11 E7F11
What sets the minimum (B)
detectable signal level for a Page 6-28
direct-sampling SDR receiver in
the absence of atmospheric or
thermal noise?
A. Sample clock phase noise
B. Reference voltage level and
sample width in bits
C. Data storage transfer rate
D. Missing codes and jitter
E7F12 E7F12
Which of the following is an (A)
advantage of a Finite Impulse Page 6-38
Response (FIR) filter vs an
Infinite Impulse Response (IIR)
digital filter?
A. FIR filters can delay all
frequency components of the
signal by the same amount
B. FIR filters are easier to
implement for a given set of
passband rolloff requirements
C. FIR filters can respond faster
to impulses
E7F13 E7F13
What is the function of taps in a (D)
digital signal processing filter? Page 6-37
A. To reduce excess signal
pressure levels
B. Provide access for debugging
software
C. Select the point at which
baseband signals are generated
D. Provide incremental signal
delays for filter algorithms
E7F14 E7F14
Which of the following would (B)
allow a digital signal processing Page 6-37
filter to create a sharper filter
response?
A. Higher data rate
B. More taps
C. Complex phasor
representations
D. Double-precision math
routines
E7G — Active filters and op-amp

circuits: active audio filters;
characteristics; basic circuit design;
operational amplifiers
E7G01 E7G01
What is the typical output (A)
impedance of an op-amp? Page 6-7
A. Very low
B. Very high
C. 100 ohms
D. 1000 ohms
E7G02 E7G02
What is ringing in a filter? (D)
A. An echo caused by a long time Page 6-36
delay
B. A reduction in high frequency
response
C. Partial cancellation of the
signal over a range of
frequencies
D. Undesired oscillations added
to the desired signal
E7G03 E7G03
What is the typical input (D)
impedance of an op-amp? Page 6-7
A. 100 ohms
B. 1000 ohms
C. Very low
D. Very high
E7G04 E7G04
What is meant by the term “op- (C)
amp input offset voltage”? Page 6-8
A. The output voltage of the op-
amp minus its input voltage
B. The difference between the
output voltage of the op-amp
and the input voltage required
in the immediately following
stage
C. The differential input voltage
needed to bring the open loop
output voltage to zero
D. The potential between the
amplifier input terminals of the
op-amp in an open loop
condition
E7G05 E7G05
How can unwanted ringing and (A)
audio instability be prevented in Page 6-36
an op-amp RC audio filter circuit?
A. Restrict both gain and Q
B. Restrict gain but increase Q
C. Restrict Q but increase gain
D. Increase both gain and Q
E7G06 E7G06
What is the gain-bandwidth of an (B)
operational amplifier? Page 6-7
A. The maximum frequency for a
filter circuit using that type of
amplifier
B. The frequency at which the
open-loop gain of the amplifier
equals one
C. The gain of the amplifier at a
filter’s cutoff frequency
D. The frequency at which the
amplifier’s offset voltage is
zero
E7G07 E7G07
What magnitude of voltage gain (C)
can be expected from the circuit Page 6-9
in Figure E7-3 when R1 is 10
ohms and RF is 470 ohms?
A. 0.21
B. 94
C. 47
D. 24
E7G08 E7G08
How does the gain of an ideal (D)
operational amplifier vary with Page 6-7
frequency?
A. It increases linearly with
increasing frequency
B. It decreases linearly with
increasing frequency
C. It decreases logarithmically
with increasing frequency
D. It does not vary with
frequency
E7G09 E7G09
What will be the output voltage of (D)
the circuit shown in Figure E7-3 Page 6-9
if R1 is 1000 ohms, RF is 10,000
ohms, and 0.23 volts DC is
applied to the input?
A. 0.23 volts
B. 2.3 volts
C. –0.23 volts
D. –2.3 volts
E7G10 E7G10
What absolute voltage gain can be (C)
expected from the circuit in Page 6-9
Figure E7-3 when R1 is 1800
ohms and RF is 68 kilohms?
A. 1
B. 0.03
C. 38
D. 76
E7G11 E7G11
What absolute voltage gain can be (B)
expected from the circuit in Page 6-7
Figure E7-3 when R1 is 3300
ohms and RF is 47 kilohms?
A. 28
B. 14
C. 7
D. 0.07
E7G12 E7G12
What is an operational amplifier? (A)
A. A high-gain, direct-coupled Page 6-7
differential amplifier with very
high input impedance and very
low output impedance
B. A digital audio amplifier
whose characteristics are
determined by components
external to the amplifier
C. An amplifier used to increase
the average output of frequency
modulated amateur signals to
the legal limit
D. A RF amplifier used in the
UHF and microwave regions
E7H — Oscillators and signal sources:

types of oscillators; synthesizers and
phase-locked loops; direct digital
synthesizers; stabilizing thermal drift;
microphonics; high-accuracy
oscillators
E7H01 E7H01
What are three oscillator circuits (D)
used in amateur radio equipment? Page 6-15
A. Taft, Pierce and negative
feedback
B. Pierce, Fenner and Beane
C. Taft, Hartley and Pierce
D. Colpitts, Hartley and Pierce
E7H02 E7H02
What is a microphonic? (C)
A. An IC used for amplifying Page 6-16
microphone signals
B. Distortion caused by RF
pickup on the microphone
cable
C. Changes in oscillator
frequency due to mechanical
vibration
D. Excess loading of the
microphone by an oscillator
E7H03 E7H03
How is positive feedback supplied (A)
in a Hartley oscillator? Page 6-14
A. Through a tapped coil
B. Through a capacitive divider
C. Through link coupling
D. Through a neutralizing
capacitor
E7H04 E7H04
How is positive feedback supplied (C)
in a Colpitts oscillator? Page 6-14
B. Through link coupling
C. Through a capacitive divider
D. Through a neutralizing
capacitor
E7H05 E7H05
How is positive feedback supplied (D)
in a Pierce oscillator? Page 6-15
B. Through link coupling
C. Through a neutralizing
capacitor
D. Through a quartz crystal
E7H06 E7H06
Which of the following oscillator (B)
circuits are commonly used in Page 6-15
VFOs?
A. Pierce and Zener
B. Colpitts and Hartley
C. Armstrong and deForest
D. Negative feedback and
balanced feedback
E7H07 E7H07
How can an oscillator’s (D)
microphonic responses be Page 6-16
reduced?
A. Use NP0 capacitors
B. Reduce noise on the
oscillator’s power supply
C. Increase the bias voltage
D. Mechanically isolate the
oscillator circuitry from its
enclosure
E7H08 E7H08
components can be used to Page 6-16
reduce thermal drift in crystal
oscillators?
A. NP0 capacitors
B. Toroidal inductors
C. Wirewound resistors
D. Non-inductive resistors
E7H09 E7H09
What type of frequency (A)
synthesizer circuit uses a phase Page 6-17
accumulator, lookup table, digital
to analog converter, and a low-
pass anti-alias filter?
A. A direct digital synthesizer
B. A hybrid synthesizer
C. A phase-locked loop
synthesizer
D. A diode-switching matrix
synthesizer
E7H10 E7H10
What information is contained in (B)
the lookup table of a direct digital Page 6-17
synthesizer (DDS)?
A. The phase relationship
between a reference oscillator
and the output waveform
B. Amplitude values that
represent the desired waveform
C. The phase relationship
between a voltage-controlled
oscillator and the output
waveform
D. Frequently used receiver and
transmitter frequencies
E7H11 E7H11
What are the major spectral (C)
impurity components of direct Page 6-17
digital synthesizers?
A. Broadband noise
B. Digital conversion noise
C. Spurious signals at discrete
frequencies
D. Nyquist limit noise
E7H12 E7H12
Which of the following must be (B)
done to ensure that a crystal Page 6-16
oscillator provides the frequency
specified by the crystal
manufacturer?
A. Provide the crystal with a
specified parallel inductance
B. Provide the crystal with a
specified parallel capacitance
C. Bias the crystal at a specified
voltage
D. Bias the crystal at a specified
current
E7H13 E7H13
technique for providing highly Page 6-15
accurate and stable oscillators
needed for microwave
transmission and reception?
A. Use a GPS signal reference
B. Use a rubidium stabilized
reference oscillator
C. Use a temperature-controlled
high Q dielectric resonator
E7H14 E7H14
What is a phase-locked loop (C)
circuit? Page 6-18
A. An electronic servo loop
consisting of a ratio detector,
reactance modulator, and
voltage-controlled oscillator
B. An electronic circuit also
known as a monostable
multivibrator
C. An electronic servo loop
consisting of a phase detector,
a low-pass filter, a voltage-
controlled oscillator, and a
stable reference oscillator
D. An electronic circuit
consisting of a precision push-
pull amplifier with a
differential input
E7H15 E7H15
Which of these functions can be (D)
performed by a phase-locked Page 6-19
loop?
A. Wide-band AF and RF power
amplification
B. Comparison of two digital
input signals, digital pulse
counter
C. Photovoltaic conversion,
optical coupling
D. Frequency synthesis, FM
demodulation
SUBELEMENT E8
— SIGNALS AND
EMISSIONS
[4 Exam Questions
— 4 Groups]
E8A — AC waveforms: sine, square,
and irregular waveforms; AC
measurements; average power and
PEP of RF signals; Fourier analysis;
analog to digital conversion: digital to
analog conversion; advantages of
digital communications
E8A01 E8A01
What is the name of the process (A)
that shows that a square wave is Page 7-8
made up of a sine wave plus all its
odd harmonics?
A. Fourier analysis
B. Vector analysis
C. Numerical analysis
D. Differential analysis
E8A02 E8A02
Which of the following is a type (A)
of analog-to-digital conversion? Page 6-30
A. Successive approximation
B. Harmonic regeneration
C. Level shifting
D. Phase reversal
E8A03 E8A03
What type of wave does a Fourier (A)
analysis show to be made up of Page 7-9
sine waves of a given fundamental
frequency plus all its harmonics?
A. A sawtooth wave
B. A square wave
C. A sine wave
D. A cosine wave
E8A04 E8A04
What is “dither” with respect to (B)
analog-to-digital converters? Page 6-28
A. An abnormal condition where
the converter cannot settle on a
value to represent the signal
B. A small amount of noise
added to the input signal to
allow more precise
representation of a signal over
time
C. An error caused by irregular
quantization step size
D. A method of decimation by
randomly skipping samples
E8A05 E8A05
What of the following (D)
instruments would be the most Page 7-2
accurate for measuring the RMS
voltage of a complex waveform?
A. A grid dip meter
B. A D’Arsonval meter
C. An absorption wave meter
D. A true-RMS calculating meter
E8A06 E8A06
What is the approximate ratio of (A)
PEP-to-average power in a typical Page 7-3
single-sideband phone signal?
A. 2.5 to 1
B. 25 to 1
C. 1 to 1
D. 100 to 1
E8A07 E8A07
What determines the PEP-to- (B)
average power ratio of a single- Page 7-3
sideband phone signal?
A. The frequency of the
modulating signal
B. Speech characteristics
C. The degree of carrier
suppression
D. Amplifier gain
E8A08 E8A08
Why would a direct or flash (C)
conversion analog-to-digital Page 6-30
converter be useful for a software
defined radio?
A. Very low power consumption
decreases frequency drift
B. Immunity to out-of-sequence
coding reduces spurious
responses
C. Very high speed allows
digitizing high frequencies
E8A09 E8A09
How many different input levels (D)
can be encoded by an analog-to- Page 6-27
digital converter with 8-bit
resolution?
A. 8
B. 8 multiplied by the gain of the
input amplifier
C. 256 divided by the gain of the
input amplifier
D. 256
E8A10 E8A10
What is the purpose of a low-pass (C)
filter used in conjunction with a Page 6-28
digital-to-analog converter?
A. Lower the input bandwidth to
increase the effective
resolution
B. Improve accuracy by
removing out-of-sequence
codes from the input
C. Remove harmonics from the
output caused by the discrete
analog levels generated
E8A11 E8A11
measure of the quality of an Page 6-28
analog-to-digital converter?
A. Total harmonic distortion
B. Peak envelope power
C. Reciprocal mixing
D. Power factor

modulation methods; modulation index
and deviation ratio; frequency and
time division multiplexing; Orthogonal
E8B01 E8B01
What is the modulation index of (A)
an FM signal? Page 8-3
A. The ratio of frequency
deviation to modulating signal
frequency
B. The ratio of modulating signal
amplitude to frequency
deviation
C. The type of modulation used
by the transmitter
D. The bandwidth of the
transmitted signal divided by
the modulating signal
frequency
E8B02 E8B02
How does the modulation index (D)
of a phase-modulated emission Page 8-4
vary with RF carrier frequency?
A. It increases as the RF carrier
frequency increases
B. It decreases as the RF carrier
frequency increases
C. It varies with the square root
of the RF carrier frequency
D. It does not depend on the RF
carrier frequency
E8B03 E8B03
What is the modulation index of (A)
an FM-phone signal having a Page 8-4
maximum frequency deviation of
3000 Hz either side of the carrier
frequency when the modulating
frequency is 1000 Hz?
A. 3
B. 0.3
C. 3000
D. 1000
E8B04 E8B04
What is the modulation index of (B)
an FM-phone signal having a Page 8-4
maximum carrier deviation of
plus or minus 6 kHz when
modulated with a 2 kHz
modulating frequency?
A. 6000
B. 3
C. 2000
D. 1/3
E8B05 E8B05
What is the deviation ratio of an (D)
FM-phone signal having a Page 8-3
maximum frequency swing of
plus-or-minus 5 kHz when the
maximum modulation frequency
is 3 kHz?
A. 60
B. 0.167
C. 0.6
D. 1.67
E8B06 E8B06
What is the deviation ratio of an (A)
FM-phone signal having a Page 8-3
maximum frequency swing of
plus or minus 7.5 kHz when the
maximum modulation frequency
is 3.5 kHz?
A. 2.14
B. 0.214
C. 0.47
D. 47
E8B07 E8B07
Orthogonal Frequency Division (A)
Multiplexing is a technique used Page 8-14
for which type of amateur
communication?
A. High-speed digital modes
B. Extremely low-power
contacts
C. EME
D. OFDM signals are not
allowed on amateur bands
E8B08 E8B08
What describes Orthogonal (D)
Frequency Division Multiplexing? Page 8-14
A. A frequency modulation
technique that uses non-
frequencies
B. A bandwidth compression
technique using Fourier
transforms
C. A digital mode for narrow-
band, slow-speed transmissions
D. A digital modulation
technique using subcarriers at
frequencies chosen to avoid
intersymbol interference
E8B09 E8B09
What is deviation ratio? (B)
A. The ratio of the audio Page 8-3
modulating frequency to the
center carrier frequency
B. The ratio of the maximum
carrier frequency deviation to
the highest audio modulating
frequency
C. The ratio of the carrier center
frequency to the audio
modulating frequency
D. The ratio of the highest audio
modulating frequency to the
average audio modulating
frequency
E8B10 E8B10
What is frequency division (B)
multiplexing? Page 8-5
A. The transmitted signal jumps
from band to band at a
predetermined rate
B. Two or more information
streams are merged into a
baseband, which then
modulates the transmitter
C. The transmitted signal is
divided into packets of
information
D. Two or more information
streams are merged into a
digital combiner, which then
pulse position modulates the
transmitter
E8B11 E8B11
What is digital time division (B)
multiplexing? Page 8-5
A. Two or more data streams are
assigned to discrete sub-
carriers on an FM transmitter
B. Two or more signals are
arranged to share discrete time
slots of a data transmission
C. Two or more data streams
share the same channel by
transmitting time of
transmission as the sub-carrier
D. Two or more signals are
quadrature modulated to
increase bandwidth efficiency
E8C — Digital signals: digital

communication modes; information
rate vs. bandwidth; error correction
E8C01 E8C01
How is Forward Error Correction (C)
implemented? Page 8-17
A. By the receiving station
repeating each block of three
data characters
B. By transmitting a special
algorithm to the receiving
station along with the data
characters
C. By transmitting extra data that
may be used to detect and
correct transmission errors
D. By varying the frequency shift
of the transmitted signal
according to a predefined
algorithm
E8C02 E8C02
What is the definition of symbol (C)
rate in a digital transmission? Page 8-5
A. The number of control
characters in a message packet
B. The duration of each bit in a
message sent over the air
C. The rate at which the
waveform changes to convey
information
D. The number of characters
carried per second by the
station-to-station link
E8C03 E8C03
Why should phase-shifting of a (A)
PSK signal be done at the zero Page 8-11
crossing of the RF signal?
A. To minimize bandwidth
B. To simplify modulation
C. To improve carrier
suppression
E8C04 E8C04
What technique minimizes the (C)
bandwidth of a PSK31 signal? Page 8-11
A. Zero-sum character encoding
B. Reed-Solomon character
encoding
C. Use of sinusoidal data pulses
D. Use of trapezoidal data pulses
E8C05 E8C05
What is the approximate (C)
bandwidth of a 13-WPM Page 8-9
International Morse Code
transmission?
A. 13 Hz
B. 26 Hz
C. 52 Hz
D. 104 Hz
E8C06 E8C06
What is the bandwidth of a 170- (C)
hertz shift, 300-baud ASCII Page 8-10
transmission?
A. 0.1 Hz
B. 0.3 kHz
C. 0.5 kHz
D. 1.0 kHz
E8C07 E8C07
What is the bandwidth of a 4800- (A)
Hz frequency shift, 9600-baud Page 8-10
ASCII FM transmission?
A. 15.36 kHz
B. 9.6 kHz
C. 4.8 kHz
D. 5.76 kHz
E8C08 E8C08
How does ARQ accomplish error (D)
correction? Page 8-17
A. Special binary codes provide
automatic correction
B. Special polynomial codes
provide automatic correction
C. If errors are detected,
redundant data is substituted
D. If errors are detected, a
retransmission is requested
E8C09 E8C09
Which digital code allows only (D)
one bit to change between Page 8-8
sequential code values?
A. Binary Coded Decimal Code
B. Extended Binary Coded
Decimal Interchange Code
C. Excess 3 code
D. Gray code
E8C10 E8C10
How may data rate be increased (C)
without increasing bandwidth? Page 8-6
A. It is impossible
B. Increasing analog-to-digital
conversion resolution
C. Using a more efficient digital
code
D. Using forward error
correction
E8C11 E8C11
What is the relationship between (A)
symbol rate and baud? Page 8-5
A. They are the same
B. Baud is twice the symbol rate
C. Symbol rate is only used for
packet-based modes
D. Baud is only used for RTTY
E8C12 E8C12
What factors affect the bandwidth (C)
of a transmitted CW signal? Page 8-9
A. IF bandwidth and Q
B. Modulation index and output
power
C. Keying speed and shape factor
(rise and fall time)
E8D — Keying defects and

overmodulation of digital signals;
digital codes; spread spectrum
E8D01 E8D01
Why are received spread (A)
spectrum signals resistant to Page 8-15
interference?
A. Signals not using the spread
spectrum algorithm are
suppressed in the receiver
B. The high power used by a
spread spectrum transmitter
keeps its signal from being
easily overpowered
C. The receiver is always
equipped with a digital blanker
D. If interference is detected by
the receiver it will signal the
transmitter to change
frequencies
E8D02 E8D02
What spread spectrum (B)
communications technique uses a Page 8-16
high-speed binary bit stream to
shift the phase of an RF carrier?
A. Frequency hopping
B. Direct sequence
C. Binary phase-shift keying
D. Phase compandored spread
spectrum
E8D03 E8D03
How does the spread spectrum (D)
technique of frequency hopping Page 8-16
work?
A. If interference is detected by
transmitter to change
frequencies
B. If interference is detected by
transmitter to wait until the
frequency is clear
C. A binary bit stream is used to
shift the phase of an RF carrier
very rapidly in a pseudorandom
sequence
D. The frequency of the
transmitted signal is changed
very rapidly according to a
pseudorandom sequence also
used by the receiving station
E8D04 E8D04
What is the primary effect of (C)
extremely short rise or fall time Page 8-9
on a CW signal?
A. More difficult to copy
B. The generation of RF
harmonics
C. The generation of key clicks
D. Limits data speed
E8D05 E8D05
What is the most common (A)
method of reducing key clicks? Page 8-9
A. Increase keying waveform rise
and fall times
B. Low-pass filters at the
transmitter output
C. Reduce keying waveform rise
and fall times
D. High-pass filters at the
transmitter output
E8D06 E8D06
What is the advantage of including (D)
parity bits in ASCII characters? Page 8-8
A. Faster transmission rate
B. The signal can overpower
interfering signals
C. Foreign language characters
can be sent
D. Some types of errors can be
detected
E8D07 E8D07
What is a common cause of (D)
overmodulation of AFSK signals? Page 8-14
A. Excessive numbers of retries
B. Ground loops
C. Bit errors in the modem
D. Excessive transmit audio
levels
E8D08 E8D08
What parameter evaluates (D)
distortion of an AFSK signal Page 8-14
caused by excessive input audio
levels?
A. Signal-to-noise ratio
B. Baud rate
C. Repeat Request Rate (RRR)
D. Intermodulation Distortion
(IMD)
E8D09 E8D09
What is considered an acceptable (D)
maximum IMD level for an idling Page 8-14
PSK signal?
A. +10 dB
B. +15 dB
C. –20 dB
D. –30 dB
E8D10 E8D10
What are some of the differences (B)
between the Baudot digital code Page 8-7
and ASCII?
A. Baudot uses 4 data bits per
character, ASCII uses 7 or 8;
Baudot uses 1 character as a
letters/figures shift code,
ASCII has no letters/figures
code
B. Baudot uses 5 data bits per
Baudot uses 2 characters as
letters/figures shift codes,
ASCII has no letters/figures
shift code
C. Baudot uses 6 data bits per
Baudot has no letters/figures
shift code, ASCII uses 2
letters/figures shift codes
D. Baudot uses 7 data bits per
character, ASCII uses 8; Baudot
has no letters/figures shift
code, ASCII uses 2
letters/figures shift codes
E8D11 E8D11
What is one advantage of using (C)
ASCII code for data Page 8-7
communications?
A. It includes built-in error
correction features
B. It contains fewer information
bits per character than any
other code
C. It is possible to transmit both
upper and lower case text
D. It uses one character as a shift
code to send numeric and
special characters
SUBELEMENT E9
— ANTENNAS
AND
TRANSMISSION
LINES
[8 Exam Questions
— 8 Groups]
E9A — Basic Antenna parameters:
radiation resistance, gain, beamwidth,
efficiency; effective radiated power
E9A01 E9A01
What is an isotropic antenna? (C)
A. A grounded antenna used to Page 9-3
measure Earth conductivity
B. A horizontally polarized
antenna used to compare Yagi
antennas
C. A theoretical, omnidirectional
antenna used as a reference for
antenna gain
D. A spacecraft antenna used to
direct signals toward Earth
E9A02 E9A02
What is the effective radiated (D)
power relative to a dipole of a Page 9-24
repeater station with 150 watts
transmitter power output, 2 dB
feed line loss, 2.2 dB duplexer
loss, and 7 dBd antenna gain?
A. 1977 watts
B. 78.7 watts
C. 420 watts
D. 286 watts
E9A03 E9A03
What is the radiation resistance (C)
of an antenna? Page 9-5
A. The combined losses of the
antenna elements and feed line
B. The specific impedance of the
antenna
C. The value of a resistance that
would dissipate the same
amount of power as that
radiated from an antenna
D. The resistance in the
atmosphere that an antenna
must overcome to be able to
radiate a signal
E9A04 E9A04
Which of the following factors (B)
affect the feed point impedance Page 9-6
of an antenna?
A. Transmission line length
B. Antenna height
C. The settings of an antenna
tuner at the transmitter
D. The input power level
E9A05 E9A05
What is included in the total (D)
resistance of an antenna system? Page 9-5
A. Radiation resistance plus
space impedance
B. Radiation resistance plus
transmission resistance
C. Transmission-line resistance
plus radiation resistance
D. Radiation resistance plus loss
resistance
E9A06 E9A06
What is the effective radiated (A)
power relative to a dipole of a Page 9-24
repeater station with 200 watts
transmitter power output, 4 dB
feed line loss, 3.2 dB duplexer
loss, 0.8 dB circulator loss, and
10 dBd antenna gain?
A. 317 watts
B. 2000 watts
C. 126 watts
D. 300 watts
E9A07 E9A07
What is the effective isotropic (B)
radiated power of a repeater Page 9-24
station with 200 watts transmitter
power output, 2 dB feed line loss,
2.8 dB duplexer loss, 1.2 dB
circulator loss, and 7 dBi antenna
gain?
A. 159 watts
B. 252 watts
C. 632 watts
D. 63.2 watts
E9A08 E9A08
What is antenna bandwidth? (B)
A. Antenna length divided by the Page 9-8
number of elements
B. The frequency range over
which an antenna satisfies a
performance requirement
C. The angle between the half-
power radiation points
D. The angle formed between
two imaginary lines drawn
through the element ends
E9A09 E9A09
What is antenna efficiency? (B)
A. Radiation resistance divided Page 9-6
by transmission resistance
B. Radiation resistance divided
by total resistance
C. Total resistance divided by
radiation resistance
D. Effective radiated power
divided by transmitter output
E9A10 E9A10
Which of the following improves (A)
the efficiency of a ground- Page 9-8
mounted quarter-wave vertical
antenna?
A. Installing a radial system
B. Isolating the coax shield from
ground
C. Shortening the radiating
element
E9A11 E9A11
Which of the following factors (C)
determines ground losses for a Page 9-8
ground-mounted vertical antenna
operating in the 3 MHz to 30
MHz range?
A. The standing wave ratio
B. Distance from the transmitter
C. Soil conductivity
D. Take-off angle
E9A12 E9A12
How much gain does an antenna (A)
have compared to a ½-wavelength Page 9-3
dipole when it has 6 dB gain over
an isotropic antenna?
A. 3.85 dB
B. 6.0 dB
C. 8.15 dB
D. 2.79 dB
E9A13 E9A13
What term describes station (C)
output, taking into account all Page 9-23
gains and losses?
A. Power factor
B. Half-power bandwidth
C. Effective radiated power
D. Apparent power
E9B — Antenna patterns and designs: E
and H plane patterns; gain as a function
of pattern; antenna modeling
E9B01 E9B01
In the antenna radiation pattern (B)
shown in Figure E9-1, what is the Page 9-5
beamwidth?
A. 75 degrees
B. 50 degrees
C. 25 degrees
D. 30 degrees
E9B02 E9B02
front-to-back ratio?
A. 36 dB
B. 18 dB
C. 24 dB
D. 14 dB
E9B03 E9B03
front-to-side ratio?
A. 12 dB
B. 14 dB
C. 18 dB
D. 24 dB
E9B04 E9B04
What is the front-to-back ratio of (B)
the radiation pattern shown in Page 9-7
Figure E9-2?
A. 15 dB
B. 28 dB
C. 3 dB
D. 38 dB
E9B05 E9B05
What type of antenna pattern is (A)
shown in Figure E9-2? Page 9-7
A. Elevation
B. Azimuth
C. Radiation resistance
D. Polarization
E9B06 E9B06
What is the elevation angle of (C)
peak response in the antenna Page 9-7
radiation pattern shown in Figure
E9-2?
A. 45 degrees
B. 75 degrees
C. 7.5 degrees
D. 25 degrees
E9B07 E9B07
How does the total amount of (C)
radiation emitted by a directional Page 9-3
gain antenna compare with the
total amount of radiation emitted
from a theoretical isotropic
antenna, assuming each is driven
by the same amount of power?
A. The total amount of radiation
from the directional antenna is
increased by the gain of the
antenna
B. The total amount of radiation
from the directional antenna is
stronger by its front-to-back
ratio
C. They are the same
D. The radiation from the
isotropic antenna is 2.15 dB
stronger than that from the
directional antenna
E9B08 E9B08
What is the far field of an (D)
antenna? Page 9-2
A. The region of the ionosphere
where radiated power is not
refracted
B. The region where radiated
power dissipates over a
specified time period
C. The region where radiated
field strengths are constant
D. The region where the shape of
the antenna pattern is
independent of distance
E9B09 E9B09
What type of computer program (B)
technique is commonly used for Page 9-40
modeling antennas?
A. Graphical analysis
B. Method of Moments
C. Mutual impedance analysis
D. Calculus differentiation with
respect to physical properties
E9B10 E9B10
What is the principle of a Method (A)
of Moments analysis? Page 9-40
A. A wire is modeled as a series
of segments, each having a
uniform value of current
B. A wire is modeled as a single
sine-wave current generator
C. A wire is modeled as a single
sine-wave voltage source
D. A wire is modeled as a series
of segments, each having a
distinct value of voltage across
it
E9B11 E9B11
What is a disadvantage of (C)
decreasing the number of wire Page 9-41
segments in an antenna model
below 10 segments per half-
wavelength?
A. Ground conductivity will not
be accurately modeled
B. The resulting design will favor
radiation of harmonic energy
C. The computed feed point
impedance may be incorrect
D. The antenna will become
mechanically unstable
E9C — Practical wire antennas;

folded dipoles; phased arrays; effects
of ground near antennas
E9C01 E9C01
What is the radiation pattern of (D)
two ¼-wavelength vertical Page 9-18
antennas spaced ½-wavelength
apart and fed 180 degrees out of
phase?
A. Cardioid
B. Omni-directional
C. A figure-8 broadside to the
axis of the array
D. A figure-8 oriented along the
axis of the array
E9C02 E9C02
What is the radiation pattern of (A)
antennas spaced ¼-wavelength
apart and fed 90 degrees out of
phase?
A. Cardioid
B. A figure-8 end-fire along the
axis of the array
C. A figure-8 broadside to the
axis of the array
D. Omni-directional
E9C03 E9C03
What is the radiation pattern of (C)
antennas spaced ½-wavelength
apart and fed in phase?
A. Omni-directional
B. Cardioid
C. A Figure-8 broadside to the
axis of the array
D. A Figure-8 end-fire along the
axis of the array
E9C04 E9C04
What happens to the radiation (B)
pattern of an unterminated long Page 9-14
wire antenna as the wire length is
increased?
A. The lobes become more
perpendicular to the wire
B. The lobes align more in the
direction of the wire
C. The vertical angle increases
D. The front-to-back ratio
decreases
E9C05 E9C05
Which of the following is a type (A)
of OCFD antenna? Page 9-12
A. A dipole fed approximately 1⁄3
the way from one end with a
4:1 balun to provide multiband
operation
B. A remotely tunable dipole
antenna using orthogonally
controlled frequency diversity
C. A folded dipole center-fed
with 300-ohm transmission
line
D. A multiband dipole antenna
using one-way circular
polarization for frequency
diversity
E9C06 E9C06
What is the effect of adding a (B)
terminating resistor to a rhombic Page 9-15
antenna?
A. It reflects the standing waves
on the antenna elements back
to the transmitter
B. It changes the radiation
pattern from bidirectional to
unidirectional
C. It changes the radiation
pattern from horizontal to
vertical polarization
D. It decreases the ground loss
E9C07 E9C07
What is the approximate feed (A)
point impedance at the center of a Page 9-10
two-wire folded dipole antenna?
A. 300 ohms
B. 72 ohms
C. 50 ohms
D. 450 ohms
E9C08 E9C08
What is a folded dipole antenna? (C)
A. A dipole one-quarter Page 9-10
wavelength long
B. A type of ground-plane
antenna
C. A half-wave dipole with an
additional parallel wire
connecting its two ends
D. A dipole configured to
provide forward gain
E9C09 E9C09
a G5RV antenna? Page 9-11
A. A multi-band dipole antenna
fed with coax and a balun
through a selected length of
open wire transmission line
B. A multi-band trap antenna
C. A phased array antenna
consisting of multiple loops
D. A wide band dipole using
shorted coaxial cable for the
radiating elements and fed with
a 4:1 balun
E9C10 E9C10
Which of the following describes (B)
a Zepp antenna? Page 9-10
A. A dipole constructed from zip
cord
B. An end-fed dipole antenna
C. An omni-directional antenna
commonly used for satellite
communications
D. A vertical array capable of
quickly changing the direction
of maximum radiation by
changing phasing lines
E9C11 E9C11
How is the far-field elevation (D)
pattern of a vertically polarized Page 9-8
antenna affected by being
mounted over seawater versus
soil?
A. The low-angle radiation
decreases
B. Additional higher vertical
angle lobes will appear
C. Fewer vertical angle lobes
will be present
D. The low-angle radiation
increases
E9C12 E9C12
an Extended Double Zepp Page 9-11
antenna?
A. A wideband vertical antenna
constructed from precisely
tapered aluminum tubing
B. A portable antenna erected
using two push support poles
C. A center-fed 1.25-wavelength
antenna (two 5⁄8-wave elements
in phase)
D. An end-fed folded dipole
antenna
E9C13 E9C13
How does the radiation pattern of (B)
a horizontally polarized 3- Page 9-9
element beam antenna vary with
increasing height above ground?
A. The takeoff angle of the
lowest elevation lobe increases
B. The takeoff angle of the
lowest elevation lobe
decreases
C. The horizontal beamwidth
increases
D. The horizontal beamwidth
decreases
E9C14 E9C14
How does the performance of a (B)
horizontally polarized antenna Page 9-9
mounted on the side of a hill
compare with the same antenna
mounted on flat ground?
A. The main lobe takeoff angle
increases in the downhill
direction
B. The main lobe takeoff angle
decreases in the downhill
direction
C. The horizontal beamwidth
decreases in the downhill
direction
D. The horizontal beamwidth
increases in the uphill
direction
E9D —Yagi antennas; parabolic

reflectors; circular polarization;
loading coils; top loading; feed point
impedance of electrically short
antennas; antenna Q; RF grounding
E9D01 E9D01
How much does the gain of an (D)
ideal parabolic dish antenna Page 9-19
change when the operating
frequency is doubled?
A. 2 dB
B. 3 dB
C. 4 dB
D. 6 dB
E9D02 E9D02
How can linearly polarized Yagi (C)
antennas be used to produce Page 9-19
circular polarization?
A. Stack two Yagis fed 90
degrees out of phase to form
an array with the respective
elements in parallel planes
B. Stack two Yagis fed in phase
to form an array with the
respective elements in parallel
planes
C. Arrange two Yagis
perpendicular to each other
with the driven elements at the
same point on the boom fed 90
D. Arrange two Yagis collinear to
each other with the driven
elements fed 180 degrees out
of phase
E9D03 E9D03
Where should a high Q loading (A)
coil be placed to minimize losses Page 9-13
in a shortened vertical antenna?
A. Near the center of the vertical
radiator
B. As low as possible on the
vertical radiator
C. As close to the transmitter as
possible
D. At a voltage node
E9D04 E9D04
Why should an HF mobile antenna (C)
loading coil have a high ratio of Page 9-13
reactance to resistance?
A. To swamp out harmonics
B. To lower the radiation angle
C. To minimize losses
D. To minimize the Q
E9D05 E9D05
What usually occurs if a Yagi (B)
antenna is designed solely for Page 9-42
maximum forward gain?
A. The front-to-back ratio
increases
B. The front-to-back ratio
decreases
C. The frequency response is
widened over the whole
frequency band
D. The SWR is reduced
E9D06 E9D06
What happens to the SWR (B)
bandwidth when one or more Page 9-13
loading coils are used to resonate
an electrically short antenna?
A. It is increased
B. It is decreased
C. It is unchanged if the loading
coil is located at the feed point
D. It is unchanged if the loading
coil is located at a voltage
maximum point
E9D07 E9D07
What is an advantage of using top (D)
loading in a shortened HF vertical Page 9-13
antenna?
A. Lower Q
B. Greater structural strength
C. Higher losses
D. Improved radiation efficiency
E9D08 E9D08
What happens as the Q of an (B)
antenna increases? Page 9-8
A. SWR bandwidth increases
B. SWR bandwidth decreases
C. Gain is reduced
D. More common-mode current
is present on the feed line
E9D09 E9D09
What is the function of a loading (D)
coil used as part of an HF mobile Page 9-12
antenna?
A. To increase the SWR
bandwidth
B. To lower the losses
C. To lower the Q
D. To cancel capacitive reactance
E9D10 E9D10
What happens to feed-point (B)
impedance at the base of a fixed Page 9-12
length HF mobile antenna when
operated below its resonant
frequency?
A. The radiation resistance
decreases and the capacitive
reactance decreases
B. The radiation resistance
decreases and the capacitive
reactance increases
C. The radiation resistance
increases and the capacitive
reactance decreases
D. The radiation resistance
increases and the capacitive
reactance increases
E9D11 E9D11
conductors would be best for Page 9-9
minimizing losses in a station’s
RF ground system?
A. Resistive wire, such as spark
plug wire
B. Wide flat copper strap
C. Stranded wire
D. Solid wire
E9D12 E9D12
Which of the following would (C)
provide the best RF ground for Page 9-9
your station?
A. A 50-ohm resistor connected
to ground
B. An electrically short
connection to a metal water
pipe
C. An electrically short
connection to 3 or 4
interconnected ground rods
driven into the Earth
D. An electrically short
connection to 3 or 4
interconnected ground rods via
a series RF choke
E9E — Matching: matching antennas

to feed lines; phasing lines; power
dividers
E9E01 E9E01
What system matches a higher- (B)
impedance transmission line to a Page 9-25
lower-impedance antenna by
connecting the line to the driven
element in two places spaced a
fraction of a wavelength each side
of element center?
A. The gamma matching system
B. The delta matching system
C. The omega matching system
D. The stub matching system
E9E02 E9E02
What is the name of an antenna (A)
matching system that matches an Page 9-25
unbalanced feed line to an antenna
by feeding the driven element
both at the center of the element
and at a fraction of a wavelength
to one side of center?
A. The gamma match
B. The delta match
C. The epsilon match
D. The stub match
E9E03 E9E03
What is the name of the matching (D)
system that uses a section of Page 9-26
transmission line connected in
parallel with the feed line at or
near the feed point?
A. The gamma match
B. The delta match
C. The omega match
D. The stub match
E9E04 E9E04
What is the purpose of the series (B)
capacitor in a gamma-type Page 9-26
antenna matching network?
A. To provide DC isolation
between the feed line and the
antenna
B. To cancel the inductive
reactance of the matching
network
C. To provide a rejection notch
that prevents the radiation of
harmonics
D. To transform the antenna
impedance to a higher value
E9E05 E9E05
How must an antenna’s driven (A)
element be tuned to use a hairpin Page 9-26
matching system?
A. The driven element reactance
must be capacitive
B. The driven element reactance
must be inductive
C. The driven element resonance
must be lower than the
operating frequency
D. The driven element radiation
resistance must be higher than
the characteristic impedance of
the transmission line
E9E06 E9E06
Which of these feed line (C)
impedances would be suitable for Page 9-38
constructing a quarter-wave Q-
section for matching a 100-ohm
loop to 50-ohm feed line?
A. 50 ohms
B. 62 ohms
C. 75 ohms
D. 450 ohms
E9E07 E9E07
What parameter describes the (B)
interactions at the load end of a Page 9-31
mismatched transmission line?
A. Characteristic impedance
B. Reflection coefficient
C. Velocity factor
D. Dielectric constant
E9E08 E9E08
What is a use for a Wilkinson (C)
divider? Page 9-18
A. It divides the operating
frequency of a transmitter
signal so it can be used on a
lower frequency band
B. It is used to feed high-
impedance antennas from a
low-impedance source
C. It is used to divide power
equally between two 50-ohm
loads while maintaining 50-
ohm input impedance
D. It is used to feed low-
impedance loads from a high-
impedance source
E9E09 E9E09
Which of the following is used to (C)
shunt-feed a grounded tower at its Page 9-26
base?
A. Double-bazooka match
B. Hairpin match
C. Gamma match
E9E10 E9E10
Which of these choices is an (C)
effective way to match an antenna Page 9-38
with a 100-ohm feed point
impedance to a 50-ohm coaxial
cable feed line?
A. Connect a ¼-wavelength open
stub of 300-ohm twinlead in
parallel with the coaxial feed
line where it connects to the
antenna
B. Insert a ½ wavelength piece of
300-ohm twinlead in series
between the antenna terminals
and the 50-ohm feed cable
C. Insert a ¼-wavelength piece
of 75-ohm coaxial cable
transmission line in series
between the antenna terminals
and the 50-ohm feed cable
D. Connect a ½ wavelength
shorted stub of 75-ohm cable
in parallel with the 50-ohm
cable where it attaches to the
antenna
E9E11 E9E11
What is the primary purpose of (A)
phasing lines when used with an Page 9-18
antenna having multiple driven
elements?
A. It ensures that each driven
element operates in concert
with the others to create the
desired antenna pattern
B. It prevents reflected power
from traveling back down the
feed line and causing harmonic
radiation from the transmitter
C. It allows single-band antennas
to operate on other bands
D. It creates a low-angle
radiation pattern
E9F — Transmission lines:

characteristics of open and shorted
feed lines; coax versus open-wire;
velocity factor; electrical length;
coaxial cable dielectrics
E9F01 E9F01
What is the velocity factor of a (D)
transmission line? Page 9-28
A. The ratio of the characteristic
impedance of the line to the
terminating impedance
B. The index of shielding for
coaxial cable
C. The velocity of the wave in the
transmission line multiplied by
the velocity of light in a
vacuum
D. The velocity of the wave in
the transmission line divided
by the velocity of light in a
vacuum
E9F02 E9F02
Which of the following has the (C)
biggest effect on the velocity Page 9-28
factor of a transmission line?
A. The termination impedance
B. The line length
C. Dielectric materials used in
the line
D. The center conductor
resistivity
E9F03 E9F03
Why is the physical length of a (D)
coaxial cable transmission line Page 9-29
shorter than its electrical length?
A. Skin effect is less pronounced
in the coaxial cable
B. The characteristic impedance
is higher in a parallel feed line
C. The surge impedance is higher
in a parallel feed line
D. Electrical signals move more
slowly in a coaxial cable than
in air
E9F04 E9F04
What impedance does a ½- (B)
wavelength transmission line Page 9-36
present to a generator when the
line is shorted at the far end?
A. Very high impedance
B. Very low impedance
C. The same as the characteristic
impedance of the line
D. The same as the output
impedance of the generator
E9F05 E9F05
What is the approximate physical (D)
length of a solid polyethylene Page 9-29
dielectric coaxial transmission
line that is electrically ¼
wavelength long at 14.1 MHz?
A. 10.6 meters
B. 5.3 meters
C. 4.3 meters
D. 3.5 meters
E9F06 E9F06
What is the approximate physical (C)
length of an air-insulated, parallel Page 9-30
conductor transmission line that
is electrically ½ wavelength long
at 14.10 MHz?
A. 7.0 meters
B. 8.5 meters
C. 10.6 meters
D. 13.3 meters
E9F07 E9F07
How does ladder line compare to (A)
small-diameter coaxial cable such Page 9-30
as RG-58 at 50 MHz?
A. Lower loss
B. Higher SWR
C. Smaller reflection coefficient
D. Lower velocity factor
E9F08 E9F08
significant difference between Page 9-31
foam dielectric coaxial cable and
solid dielectric cable, assuming
all other parameters are the same?
A. Foam dielectric has lower
safe operating voltage limits
B. Foam dielectric has lower
loss per unit of length
C. Foam dielectric has higher
velocity factor
E9F09 E9F09
What is the approximate physical (B)
length of a foam polyethylene Page 9-29
dielectric coaxial transmission
line that is electrically ¼
wavelength long at 7.2 MHz?
A. 10.4 meters
B. 8.3 meters
C. 6.9 meters
D. 5.2 meters
E9F10 E9F10
What impedance does a ⅛- (C)
A. A capacitive reactance
B. The same as the characteristic
C. An inductive reactance
D. Zero
E9F11 E9F11
What impedance does a ⅛- (C)
line is open at the far end?
A. The same as the characteristic
B. An inductive reactance
C. A capacitive reactance
D. Infinite
E9F12 E9F12
What impedance does a ¼- (D)
line is open at the far end?
A. The same as the characteristic
B. The same as the input
impedance to the generator
C. Very high impedance
D. Very low impedance
E9F13 E9F13
What impedance does a ¼- (A)
A. Very high impedance
B. Very low impedance
C. The same as the characteristic
impedance of the transmission
line
D. The same as the generator
output impedance

E9G01 E9G01
Which of the following can be (A)
calculated using a Smith chart? Page 9-33
A. Impedance along transmission
lines
B. Radiation resistance
C. Antenna radiation pattern
D. Radio propagation
E9G02 E9G02
What type of coordinate system (B)
is used in a Smith chart? Page 9-35
A. Voltage circles and current
arcs
B. Resistance circles and
reactance arcs
C. Voltage lines and current
chords
D. Resistance lines and
reactance chords
E9G03 E9G03
Which of the following is often (C)
determined using a Smith chart? Page 9-33
A. Beam headings and radiation
patterns
B. Satellite azimuth and elevation
bearings
C. Impedance and SWR values in
transmission lines
D. Trigonometric functions
E9G04 E9G04
What are the two families of (C)
circles and arcs that make up a Page 9-35
Smith chart?
A. Resistance and voltage
B. Reactance and voltage
C. Resistance and reactance
D. Voltage and impedance
E9G05 E9G05
common use for a Smith chart? Page 9-27
A. Determine the length and
position of an impedance
matching stub
B. Determine the impedance of a
transmission line, given the
physical dimensions
C. Determine the gain of an
antenna given the physical and
electrical parameters
D. Determine the loss/100 feet
of a transmission line, given
the velocity factor and
conductor materials
E9G06 E9G06
On the Smith chart shown in (B)
Figure E9-3, what is the name for Page 9-35
the large outer circle on which
the reactance arcs terminate?
A. Prime axis
B. Reactance axis
C. Impedance axis
D. Polar axis
E9G07 E9G07
On the Smith chart shown in (D)
Figure E9-3, what is the only Page 9-33
straight line shown?
A. The reactance axis
B. The current axis
C. The voltage axis
D. The resistance axis
E9G08 E9G08
What is the process of (C)
normalization with regard to a Page 9-35
Smith chart?
A. Reassigning resistance values
with regard to the reactance
axis
B. Reassigning reactance values
with regard to the resistance
axis
C. Reassigning impedance values
with regard to the prime center
D. Reassigning prime center with
regard to the reactance axis
E9G09 E9G09
What third family of circles is (A)
often added to a Smith chart Page 9-35
during the process of solving
problems?
A. Standing wave ratio circles
B. Antenna-length circles
C. Coaxial-length circles
D. Radiation-pattern circles
E9G10 E9G10
What do the arcs on a Smith chart (D)
A. Frequency
B. SWR
C. Points with constant
resistance
D. Points with constant
reactance
E9G11 E9G11
How are the wavelength scales on (B)
a Smith chart calibrated? Page 9-35
A. In fractions of transmission
line electrical frequency
B. In fractions of transmission
line electrical wavelength
C. In fractions of antenna
electrical wavelength
D. In fractions of antenna
electrical frequency
E9H — Receiving Antennas: radio

direction finding antennas; Beverage
antennas; specialized receiving
antennas; long-wire receiving
antennas
E9H01 E9H01
When constructing a Beverage (D)
antenna, which of the following Page 9-15
factors should be included in the
design to achieve good
performance at the desired
frequency?
A. Its overall length must not
exceed ¼ wavelength
B. It must be mounted more than
1 wavelength above ground
C. It should be configured as a
four-sided loop
D. It should be one or more
wavelengths long
E9H02 E9H02
Which is generally true for low (A)
band (160 meter and 80 meter) Page 9-15
receiving antennas?
A. Atmospheric noise is so high
that gain over a dipole is not
important
B. They must be erected at least
½ wavelength above the ground
to attain good directivity
C. Low loss coax transmission
line is essential for good
performance
E9H03 E9H03
What is Receiving Directivity (D)
Factor (RDF)? Page 9-21
A. Forward gain compared to the
gain in the reverse direction
B. Relative directivity compared
to isotropic
C. Relative directivity compared
to a dipole
D. Forward gain compared to
average gain over the entire
hemisphere
E9H04 E9H04
What is an advantage of placing a (B)
grounded electrostatic shield Page 9-20
around a small loop direction-
finding antenna?
A. It adds capacitive loading,
increasing the bandwidth of the
antenna
B. It eliminates unbalanced
capacitive coupling to the
surroundings, improving the
nulls
C. It eliminates tracking errors
caused by strong out-of-band
signals
D. It increases signal strength by
providing a better match to the
feed line
E9H05 E9H05
What is the main drawback of a (A)
small wire-loop antenna for Page 9-20
direction finding?
A. It has a bidirectional pattern
B. It has no clearly defined null
C. It is practical for use only on
VHF and higher bands
E9H06 E9H06
What is the triangulation method (C)
of direction finding? Page 9-22
A. The geometric angles of sky
waves from the source are used
to determine its position
B. A fixed receiving station plots
three headings to the signal
source
C. Antenna headings from
several different receiving
locations are used to locate the
signal source
D. A fixed receiving station uses
three different antennas to plot
the location of the signal
source
E9H07 E9H07
Why is RF attenuation used when (D)
direction-finding? Page 9-21
A. To narrow the receiver
bandwidth
B. To compensate for isotropic
directivity and the antenna
effect of feed lines
C. To increase receiver
sensitivity
D. To prevent receiver overload
which reduces pattern nulls
E9H08 E9H08
What is the function of a sense (A)
antenna? Page 9-20
A. It modifies the pattern of a DF
antenna array to provide a null
in one direction
B. It increases the sensitivity of a
DF antenna array
C. It allows DF antennas to
receive signals at different
vertical angles
D. It provides diversity reception
that cancels multipath signals
E9H09 E9H09
What is a Pennant antenna? (B)
A. A four-element, high-gain Page 9-21
vertical array invented by
George Pennant
B. A small, vertically oriented
receiving antenna consisting of
a triangular loop terminated in
approximately 900 ohms
C. A form of rhombic antenna
terminated in a variable
capacitor to provide frequency
diversity
D. A stealth antenna built to look
like a flagpole
E9H10 E9H10
How can the output voltage of a (D)
multiple-turn receiving loop Page 9-21
antenna be increased?
A. By reducing the permeability
of the loop shield
B. By utilizing high impedance
wire for the coupling loop
C. By winding adjacent turns in
opposing directions
D. By increasing the number of
turns and/or the area
E9H11 E9H11
What feature of a cardioid pattern (B)
antenna makes it useful for Page 9-20
direction finding?
A. A very sharp peak
B. A very sharp single null
C. Broadband response
D. High radiation angle
SUBELEMENT E0
— SAFETY
[1 exam question —
1 group]
E0A — Safety: RF radiation hazards;
hazardous materials; grounding
E0A01 E0A01
What is the primary function of (B)
an external earth connection or Page 11-8
ground rod?
A. Reduce received noise
B. Lightning protection
C. Reduce RF current flow
between pieces of equipment
D. Reduce RFI to telephones and
home entertainment systems
E0A02 E0A02
When evaluating RF exposure (B)
levels from your station at a Page 11-5
neighbor’s home, what must you
do?
A. Ensure signals from your
station are less than the
controlled Maximum
Permitted Exposure (MPE)
limits
B. Ensure signals from your
uncontrolled Maximum
Permitted Exposure (MPE)
limits
C. Ensure signals from your
controlled Maximum
Permitted Emission (MPE)
limits
D. Ensure signals from your
uncontrolled Maximum
Permitted Emission (MPE)
limits
E0A03 E0A03
Over what range of frequencies (C)
are the FCC human body RF Page 11-4
exposure limits most restrictive?
A. 300 kHz to 3 MHz
B. 3 to 30 MHz
C. 30 to 300 MHz
D. 300 to 3000 MHz
E0A04 E0A04
When evaluating a site with (C)
multiple transmitters operating at Page 11-7
the same time, the operators and
licensees of which transmitters
are responsible for mitigating
over-exposure situations?
A. Only the most powerful
transmitter
B. Only commercial transmitters
C. Each transmitter that produces
5 percent or more of its MPE
limit in areas where the total
MPE limit is exceeded
D. Each transmitter operating
with a duty cycle greater than
50 percent
E0A05 E0A05
What is one of the potential (B)
hazards of operating in the Page 11-7
amateur radio microwave bands?
A. Microwaves are ionizing
radiation
B. The high gain antennas
commonly used can result in
high exposure levels
C. Microwaves often travel long
distances by ionospheric
reflection
D. The extremely high frequency
energy can damage the joints
of antenna structures
E0A06 E0A06
Why are there separate electric (D)
(E) and magnetic (H) field MPE Page 11-3
limits?
A. The body reacts to
electromagnetic radiation from
both the E and H fields
B. Ground reflections and
scattering make the field
strength vary with location
C. E field and H field radiation
intensity peaks can occur at
different locations
E0A07 E0A07
How may dangerous levels of (B)
carbon monoxide from an Page 11-2
emergency generator be
detected?
A. By the odor
B. Only with a carbon monoxide
detector
C. Any ordinary smoke detector
can be used
D. By the yellowish appearance
of the gas
E0A08 E0A08
What does SAR measure? (C)
A. Synthetic Aperture Ratio of Page 11-4
the human body
B. Signal Amplification Rating
C. The rate at which RF energy is
absorbed by the body
D. The rate of RF energy
reflected from stationary
terrain
E0A09 E0A09
Which insulating material (C)
commonly used as a thermal Page 11-2
conductor for some types of
electronic devices is extremely
toxic if broken or crushed and the
particles are accidentally inhaled?
A. Mica
B. Zinc oxide
C. Beryllium Oxide
D. Uranium Hexafluoride
E0A10 E0A10
What toxic material may be (A)
present in some electronic Page 11-2
components such as high voltage
capacitors and transformers?
A. Polychlorinated biphenyls
B. Polyethylene
C. Polytetrafluoroethylene
D. Polymorphic silicon
E0A11 E0A11
Which of the following injuries (C)
can result from using high-power Page 11-3
UHF or microwave transmitters?
A. Hearing loss caused by high
voltage corona discharge
B. Blood clotting from the
intense magnetic field
C. Localized heating of the body
from RF exposure in excess of
the MPE limits
D. Ingestion of ozone gas from
the cooling system

ARRL Extra Class License Manual 12th Edition For Ham Radio-Arrl Inc (2020)

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This book may be used for Extra

We strive to produce books without

ARRL Membership Benefits

What is Amateur Radio?

When to Expect New Books

Online Review and Practice Exams

About the ARRL

3 Rules and Regulations

5 Components and Building Blocks

6 Radio Circuits and Systems

7 Radio Measurements and Performance

8 Modulation, Protocols, and Modes

9 Antennas and Feed Lines

10 Topics in Radio Propagation

13 Extra Question Pool

Ward Silver, NØAX

Welcome to The ARRL Extra Class

1.1 The Extra Class

About Amateur Radio

FOCUS ON HF AND ADVANCED

1.3 The Volunteer

When you’re ready, you’ll need to find

Once you’re signed in, you’ll need to

FCC AND ARRL VEC LICENSING

WHAT WE ASSUME ABOUT YOU

USING THE QUESTION POOL

ONLINE REVIEW AND PRACTICE

EXTRA CLASS LICENSE MANUAL

The ARRL has also created supporting

CONVENTIONS AND RESOURCES

TIME TO GET STARTED

Extra Class (Element 4)

Congratulations, you’re going to be an

2.1 General Operating

Why chase DX? Why chase those

DX Windows and Watering Holes

What is a radio contest, anyway?

Resources for Contesting

Every contest contact includes its own

Submitting a Contest Log

Once rather unusual, the use of stations

2.2 Amateur Satellites

Two factors affect a body in orbit

Kepler’s Second Law is illustrated in

Of the many components of a satellite

The major hardware difference

Satellite Operating Frequencies

The Amateur Extra class license exam

Having already passed your Technician

FREQUENCY AND EMISSION

As an Extra class licensee you will

You must know where your transmitted

SPECIAL OPERATING RULES

Automatic Message Forwarding

§97.219 — Message ​Forwarding

§97.11 — Stations Aboard Ships or

Stations Aboard Ships or Aircraft

In general, you can operate your

§97.219 — Message Forwarding