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INTRODUCING ARCHAEOLOGY
Second Edition
ROBERT J. MUCKLE
Copyright © University of Toronto Press Incorporated 2014
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Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication
Muckle, Robert James, author
Introducing archaeology / Robert J. Muckle.—Second edition.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
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of Canada through the Canada Book Fund.
CONTENTS
List of Figures ix
List of Tables xi
List of Text Boxes xiii
Note to Instructors xv
Note to Students xvii
Acknowledgments xix
About the Author xxi
CHAPTER 1: SITUATING ARCHAEOLOGY 1

Introduction 1
Images of Archaeology 1
Defining Archaeology 2
A Scholarly Endeavor, a Profession, and a Craft 5
Archaeology versus Archeology 5
Contextualizing Archaeology 6
Rationalizing Archaeology 17
Basic Concepts in Archaeology 20

Key Resources and Suggested Reading 22
CHAPTER 2: LOOKING AT ARCHAEOLOGY’S PAST 25

Introduction 25
From the Ancient Philosophers to the End of the Eighteenth Century 
Archaeology in the Nineteenth Century 29
From 1900 Onward 
CHAPTER 3: MANAGING ARCHAEOLOGY IN THE EARLY TWENTY-FIRST

CENTURY 45
Introduction 45
The Four Major Types of Archaeology 45
Subfields of Archaeology 51
National and International Heritage Management 55
Ethics and Archaeology 63
Career Tracks in Archaeology 66
Sharing Information 67
CHAPTER 4: COMPREHENDING THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL

RECORD 71
Introduction 71
Defining the Archaeological Record and Its Components 71
Creating Archaeological Sites 76
Understanding Bias in the Preservation of Material Remains 79
Site Disturbance 84
CHAPTER 5: WORKING IN THE FIELD 91

Introduction 91
Designing Archaeological Field Projects 91
Discovering Archaeological Sites 95
Excavation 102
Field Laboratories 107
Ethnoarchaeology and Experimental Archaeology: Research Design
and Field Methods 107
Hazards of Fieldwork 109
CHAPTER 6: WORKING IN THE LABORATORY 113

Introduction 113
Laboratory Processes 113
Artifact Analysis 114
Ecofact Analysis 122
Analysis of Human Remains 124
Using DNA in Archaeology 130
vi CONTENTS
CHAPTER 7: RECONSTRUCTING CULTURE HISTORY 133
Introduction 133
Determining Antiquity 133
Conceptualizing Time 140
World Prehistory 145
Ancient Civilizations 152
CHAPTER 8: RECONSTRUCTING ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS 157

Introduction 157
Reconstructing Palaeoenvironments 157
Reconstructing Settlement Patterns 161
Reconstructing Subsistence Strategies 166
Distinguishing Wild Plants and Animals from Domestic 168
Reconstructing Diet 171
CHAPTER 9: RECONSTRUCTING THE SOCIAL AND

IDEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF CULTURE 175
Introduction 175
Reconstructing Inequality 176
Reconstructing Types of Societies 178
Reconstructing Identity 182
Reconstructing Ideology 186
CHAPTER 10: EXPLAINING THINGS OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL

INTEREST 195
Introduction 195
Three Levels of Archaeological Research 195
Mechanisms of Culture Change 197
Conceptual Frameworks 199
Explaining the Transition to Food Production 202
Explaining the Collapse of Civilizations 205
Understanding Bias in Archaeological Explanations 206
CONTENTS vii
Evaluating Competing Explanations 209
CHAPTER 11: THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF YESTERDAY, TODAY,

AND TOMORROW 215
The Current State of Archaeology 215
Archaeologies of the Contemporary 216
Archaeology, Climate Change, and Sustainability 225
Predicting the Future of Archaeology 226
Final Comments 228
Glossary 231
Bibliography 245
Index 255
viii CONTENTS
FIGURES
1.1 The Parthenon on the Acropolis of Athens, Greece 2

1.2 Machu Picchu, Peru 3
1.3 Colonial Williamsburg 10
1.4 Angkor, Cambodia 11
1.5 Site of Bamiyan Buddha, Afghanistan 12
1.6 Archaeology in Advertising 16
2.1 The Rosetta Stone 30
2.2 Howard Carter Examining the Third, Innermost Coffin of King
Tut 37
2.3 From Archaeologist to Artifact: Louis Leakey 38
2.4 Terra Cotta Warriors near Xian, China 43
3.1 Fireplace in a Forest 53
3.2 Man on the Moon 55
3.3 Mesa Verde, Colorado 62
3.4 Stonehenge, England 65
4.1 Carnac, France 73
4.2 Pictographs from Kakadu, Australia 74
4.3 Pompeii, Italy 79

4.4 Man in Ice 83
5.1 UAV used in Fieldwork 97
5.2 Looking for Sites in a Forest 100
5.3 An Archaeological Field Camp 100
5.4 Excavation and Sifting 104
5.5 Cataloging and Note-Taking 105
5.6 Finding an Artifact 106
6.1 Lithic Points 115
6.2 Pottery Vessels 119
6.3 Baskets 121
6.4 Human Skeleton 126
6.5 Cranial Sutures 127
6.6 Male and Female Human Pelvis 128
6.7 Working in the Lab 130
7.1 Profile of Flores Island Site 141
7.2 Homo erectus 146
7.3 Acheulean Hand Axes 147
7.4 Olorgesailie, Kenya 150
7.5 Egyptian Pyramid 153
8.1 Elephants on the Savannah 159
8.2 Turkana Village, Africa 162
8.3 Masaii Village, Africa 163
8.4 Butchery in a Village 170
9.1 Burial with Grave Goods 176
9.2 Keatley Creek, Canada 177
9.3 Roman Coliseum 182
9.4 Japanese Artifacts in a Canadian Logging Camp 184
9.5 Venus Figurine 190
9.6 Trepanated Skulls from South America 193
10.1 Agriculture in Egypt 203
10.2 Tikal, Guatemala 207
10.3 Hummingbird Glyph on the Nasca Desert 211
10.4 Statues of Rapa Nui 213
11.1 The Archaeology of Homelessness 220
11.2 Archaeology of Undocumented Migration 222
11.3 Archaeology Students Sorting Contemporary Trash 224
x FIGURES
TABLES
1.1 Defining Archaeology 4

1.2 Branches of Anthropology 7
1.3 Principal Functions of the Heritage Industry 8
1.4 Examples of Archaeology in Popular Culture 15
1.5 Contemporary Rationalizations for Archaeology 17
2.1 Key Events Leading to the Development of Archaeology Prior to
ad 1800 26
2.2 Key Events in the History of Archaeology during the
Nineteenth Century 31
2.3 The Unilinear Theory of Cultural Evolution (developed by
L.H. Morgan in 1877) 33
2.4 Important Developments in Archaeology since ad 1900 34
3.1 Periodicals That Include Articles on Archaeology 47
3.2 Archaeology as It Is Known in the Heritage Industry 48
3.3 Archaeological Subfields and Specialties 52
3.4 National and International Heritage Regulations 56
3.5 Selected UNESCO World Heritage Sites 60
3.6 Major Archaeological Associations and Issues Addressed by Their

Codes of Ethics 64
4.1 Major Types of Archaeological Sites 72
4.2 Site Formation Processes 77
4.3 Site Disturbance Processes 85
5.1 Basic Stages of Archaeological Research 92
5.2 Methods of Discovering Archaeological Sites 96
5.3 Hazards of Archaeology 110
6.1 Attributes of Various Methods of Chipping Stone 117
6.2 Attributes of Various Methods of Pottery Manufacture 120
6.3 Particle Size Classification 124
7.1 Relative Dating Techniques 134
7.2 Absolute Dating Techniques 137
7.3 Geological Epochs 142
7.4 Major Time Frames in Archaeology 143
8.1 Reasons for Reconstructing Palaeoenvironments 158
8.2 Types of Settlement Pattern Studies in Archaeology 161
8.3 Methods to Estimate Population 165
8.4 Major Subsistence Strategies 167
8.5 Criteria for Distinguishing Domestic versus Wild Plants and Animals
(of the same species) 169
9.1 Reconstructing Categories of Societies in Archaeology 178
9.2 Reconstructing Identity in Archaeology 182
9.3 Archaeological Indicators of Ritual 187
9.4 Major Areas of Archaeological Interest in Art 189
9.5 Types and Archaeological Indicators of Cannibalism 191
10.1 Three Levels of Archaeological Research 195
10.2 Major Areas of Grand Theoretical Interest in Archaeology 196
10.3 Conceptual Frameworks in Archaeology 200
10.4 Explanations for the Collapse of Civilizations 205
10.5 Major Kinds of Bias in Archaeological Explanations 208
10.6 Criteria for Evaluating Archaeological Explanations 210
11.1 Defining Attributes of Disaster Archaeology 223
11.2 American Trash 224
xii TABLES
TEXT BOXES
1.1 Archaeology and Popular Culture 14

1.2 Archaeology and Nuclear Waste 19
2.1 King Tut 36
2.2 Otzi the Iceman 42
3.1 Archaeology and Indigenous Peoples in North America 50
4.1 The Decay of Human Remains 81
5.1 Ritual and Customs in Field Archaeology 103
5.2 Eating a Shrew in the Name of Archaeology 109
6.1 Coprolites 129
7.1 Fire! 149
7.2 Beer! 152
8.1 The Palaeo Diet and Other Fantasies 171
9.1 Identifying Pirates in the Archaeological Record 185
10.1 Pseudoarchaeology 211
11.1 Archaeology of Homelessness 218
11.2 Archaeology of Undocumented Migration 220
NOTE TO INSTRUCTORS
This book is designed as a textbook for introductory archaeology courses as they are
taught in most colleges and universities in North America: with the focus on methods.
It is deliberately concise, offering the option of combining it with a package of read-
ings or a case study. The concise nature of this text also makes it suitable to be used
as one of multiple books in introductory courses that combine methods with world
prehistory, archaeology with biological anthropology, or all four branches of anthro-
pology together (archaeology, biological anthropology, cultural anthropology, and
linguistics). But the coverage is broad enough that some instructors may wish to use
it as the sole required reading for a course.
The development of the book has been guided by the principles of curriculum
reform articulated by the Society for American Archaeology (SAA). To bring the
teaching of archaeology more into line with the reality of archaeology in the world
today, the SAA promotes seven principles for curriculum reform at all levels of college
and university education, which revolve around making students explicitly aware of
(i) the nonrenewable nature of the archaeological record, (ii) the fact that many other
groups besides archaeologists have vested interests in the archaeological record,
(iii) the socially relevant contributions of archaeology in the present and future,
(iv) the ethical principles that guide archaeologists, (v) the importance that archae-
ologists be effective communicators, (vi) the basic cognitive and methodological skills
used by archaeologists, and (vii) real-world problem solving by archaeologists.
I don’t think it was the intention of the SAA that each principle necessarily guide
the formation of each course or text used in archaeology education, but I have incor-
porated each into this book. The nonrenewable nature of the archaeological record is
emphasized through such topics as the rise of cultural resource management, heritage
legislation, and the destruction of sites through looting and warfare. The vested inter-
ests in the archaeological record by non-archaeologists are covered by examining
Indigenous archaeology and the many parts of the heritage industry, including tour-
ism. Making archaeology socially relevant is included in many areas, such as studies
of contemporary garbage. Archaeological ethics is made explicit, as is communication,
with the sharing of information built into research designs. Real-world problem
solving is explored in such topics as forensics and the use of archaeologists in design-
ing markers for nuclear waste sites.
Besides being guided by the SAA principles of curriculum reform, many charac-
teristics of this book set it apart from competitors. It situates archaeology in the
contemporary world much more than others. This includes contextualizing archaeol-
ogy in academia, industry, global social movements, politics, and popular culture. It
places more emphasis on the management of heritage resources and includes sections
on legislation and international agreements concerning archaeology. Unlike most text-
books for courses focusing on methods, this book includes a brief section outlining
world prehistory and ancient civilizations, providing a frame of reference for students.
Most books avoid the disagreements, ambiguities, and gray areas within the discipline,
instead presenting information as if there was consensus among archaeologists. This
book explicitly identifies these areas, ranging from differences in definitions of archae-
ology to explanations of the collapse of civilizations.
Introducing Archaeology, Second Edition, is accompanied by a website from the text,
for students, including learning objectives, chapter summaries, study questions, exhib-
its weblinks, and a glossary. Instructor ancillaries for Introducing Archaeology include
an instructor’s manual, PowerPoint slides, and a testbank. Visit www.introducing
archaeology.com.
For those who wish to supplement the text with a reader, Reading Archaeology: An
Introduction (Muckle 2008) is a good fit. Many of the key resources and suggested
readings mentioned in Introducing Archaeology are included in the reader.
Comments and suggestions for future editions from instructors are welcome and
can be directed to the author at bmuckle@capilanou.ca
xvi NOTE TO INSTRUCTORS

NOTE TO STUDENTS
Welcome to the world of archaeology. This text provides a broad introduction to

archaeology as it is practiced in the twenty-first century. It focuses on the practical
aspects of research, such as how projects are designed, what methods are used in field
and laboratory work, and how archaeologists make interpretations. It is also about
how archaeology is situated in the contemporary world outside colleges and universi-
ties, such as in industry, and how it is related to global social movements, politics,
popular culture, and real-world problem solving.
One of the purposes of an introductory course is to familiarize students with
vocabulary common to the subject. Even though this text is relatively short, you will
undoubtedly come across many words you have never seen before or see other words
being used in a new way. Such words are included in the Glossary and are identified
in bold type the first time they appear in the text.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many people deserve thanks for guiding and assisting me in the development of this
book. The first edition was published by Broadview Press and I am indebted to com-
pany founder Don LePan, then president Michael Harrison, and then anthropology
editor Anne Brackenbury. I initially identified the niche for this book, but did not
want to be the one to write it. They confirmed the niche and convinced me I was the
one to write it. Several of Broadview’s titles, including Introducing Archaeology, as well
as senior editor Anne Brackenbury, moved to the University of Toronto Press and the
transition for me has been seamless. The editorial, production, and marketing people
in the Higher Education Division of the University of Toronto Press have made it easy
to write this new edition. They are all very professional and easy to work with. I think
it must take a special kind of person to work in the textbook publishing business, and
the University of Toronto Press has cornered the market for the best. I also acknowl-
edge the copy-editing undertaken by Beth McAuley and Sara Rozenberg of The
Editing Company, who have made me appear to be a better writer than I really am.
I appreciate the work of those teaching archaeology who made constructive com-
ments on the manuscript for the first edition and the several anonymous reviewers of
the proposal for the second. I am equally grateful for the feedback of hundreds of my
own students who have used the book and let me know, often indirectly, which parts
of the first edition worked well and which didn’t. I kept the comments of reviewers
and my experience with students foremost in mind when working on the second
edition.
I am grateful for the overall supportive environment at Capilano University. In
particular, I wish to acknowledge the support of the other members of the department
of anthropology: Gillian Crowther, Maureen Bracewell, and Cassandra Bill. I am
especially grateful for their support of my archaeological field projects, taking on more
than their fair share of department responsibilities when I wish to concentrate on
fieldwork, writing, and conferences, and frequent discussions on matters relating to
archaeology and pedagogy, all of which have made me a better archaeologist and
educator.
I am very appreciative of my many colleagues who have provided photographs for
use in this edition, including Gillian Crowther, Austin Chad Hill, Barry Kass, Alexa
Love, Jason De León, Mark Galvani, Nadine Ryan, Suzanne Villeneuve, and Larry
Zimmerman.
Of course none of this would have been possible without the support of my family.
My wife Victoria and I have raised six kids in a blended—yours, mine, and ours—
family. The first edition was written when four were still living at home, and this
second was written when there was only one. Both editions were written during what
was supposed to be my leisure time, mostly on evenings and weekends. Consequently,
I had less family time and did fewer chores than if I wasn’t writing the book. They
never complained.
xx ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Robert Muckle, or Bob, as he prefers to be called, has been doing archaeology for more
than 20 years. He discovered archaeology while a student at a community college and
remains passionate about both archaeology and undergraduate education. He has done
fieldwork in Alaska, Alberta, British Columbia, Egypt, and Kenya and has taught
archaeology at several different colleges and universities. Currently, he is a professor
at Capilano University, where he has been teaching full time since 1995. In addition
to teaching and since his university days as a student, Bob has been active doing
contract archaeology under the auspices of his own cultural resource management
firm; he has spent long periods in the realm of Indigenous archaeology, working with
and for First Nations, and he has directed multiyear historical and community-
oriented field projects. He is a Registered Professional Archaeologist and a member of
the American Anthropological Association, the Canadian Archaeological Association,
the Society for American Archaeology, and the Society for Historical Archaeology.
Besides this book, Bob has edited Reading Archaeology: An Introduction (2008) and
written The Indigenous Peoples of North America: A Concise Anthropological Overview
(2012), both published by the University of Toronto Press. Forthcoming books include
Through the Lens of Anthropology: An Introduction to Human Evolution and Culture,
co-authored with Laura Tubelle de González, also with (in press) the University of
Toronto Press; and The First Nations of British Columbia, third edition, to be published
by the University of British Columbia Press.
Bob is fairly clean living, although he does have a penchant for lagers, ales, porters,
and stouts. Since January 1, 2006, when he went for a dip in the chilly waters of the
northern Pacific Ocean, Bob has been a proud member of the Vancouver Polar Bear
Swim Club.
13
5 3
12
6 1
7
4
11
8 9
PLACES MENTIONED IN CHAPTER 1

1 Acropolis of Athens, Greece
2 Macchu Pichu, Peru 2
3 Jungfrau Park, Switzerland 10
4 Valley of the Kings, Egypt
5 Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump, Canada
6 Mesa Verde, United States
7 Pryamids at Giza, Egypt
8 Copan, Honduras
9 Angkor, Cambodia
10 Great Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe
11 Tenochtitlan/Mexico City, Mexico
12 Colonial Williamsburg, United States
13 Jorvik Viking Centre, Great Britain
CHAPTER 1
SITUATING ARCHAEOLOGY
Introduction
Archaeology is everywhere in the early twenty-first century. It is part of the
multibillion-dollar heritage industry; taught as a scholarly discipline in colleges and
universities throughout the world; and firmly embedded in politics, global social move-
ments, and popular culture. It has been defined in dozens of ways and is commonly
referred to as a scholarly or intellectual endeavor, a profession, a practice, a craft, and
a hobby. It is rationalized in many different ways and relies on several basic concepts.
This chapter introduces archaeology by clarifying these definitions, contexts, ratio-
nalizations, and concepts. It begins with a brief description of two of the many archae-
ological sites that have come to symbolize archaeology—the Acropolis of Athens in
Greece and the Inka site of Machu Picchu in Peru.
Images of Archaeology
In many people’s minds, archaeology is correlated with architectural ruins in fabulous
settings. In addition to the Acropolis and Machu Picchu, these sites include the pyr-
amids from Egypt and Central America, the Great Wall of China, cliff dwellings of
the American Southwest, and Britain’s Stonehenge.
The Acropolis and Machu Picchu are excellent starting points for the study of
archaeology because they represent so many of the things archaeologists in the early
twenty-first century are interested in, such as politics and tourism. The Acropolis is
certainly among the most famous archaeological sites in the world. Comprising the
Parthenon and surrounding buildings, the Acropolis has come to symbolize Western
civilization. Based primarily on its preservation of ancient Greek art and architecture,
it has been designated a World Heritage Site by the United Nations. It also symbol-
izes the beginnings of archaeology, which, as outlined in Chapter 2, is rooted in the
FIGURE 1.1 The
Parthenon on the
Acropolis of Athens,
Greece. A UNESCO
designated World
Heritage Site, the
Acropolis symbolizes
Western civilization,
the beginnings of
archaeology, the politi-
cal nature of the disci-
pline, Greek identity,
and archaeotourism.
PHOTO: Gillian Crowther
collection of antiquities from ancient Greece and Rome. The Acropolis further rep-
resents the increasingly explicit political nature of archaeology and archaeology sites
(discussed later in this chapter), insofar as the Acropolis is firmly tied to Greek iden-
tity, and because it receives hundreds of thousands of visitors annually, it is a heritage
management concern (see Chapter 3).
Located high in the Peruvian Andes, the Inka site of Machu Picchu was abandoned
in the early 1500s and rediscovered in 1911. Its population is estimated at several hun-
dred, and its principal function was probably as a summer retreat for a ruling Inka
family. Like the Acropolis, Machu Picchu has been designated a World Heritage Site
by the United Nations. Insofar as it has become a national symbol of Peru, even having
been used for the inauguration of the president in 2001, it is symbolic of the political
nature of archaeology. And as one of the most popular heritage tourism destinations
in South America, it is visited by close to 500,000 people annually.
Defining Archaeology
A rough translation of the term archaeology from ancient Greek and Latin is “the study
of ancient things or stories.” The term does not appear in English language dictionar-
ies until the 1600s however, and since that time, has been defined and described in
many ways (see Table 1.1).
 INTRODUCING ARCHAEOLOGY
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Introducing Archaeology Second Edition 2Nd Edition PDF Full Chapter PDF

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CHAPTER 1: SITUATING ARCHAEOLOGY 1

Basic Concepts in Archaeology 20

CHAPTER 2: LOOKING AT ARCHAEOLOGY’S PAST 25

CHAPTER 3: MANAGING ARCHAEOLOGY IN THE EARLY TWENTY-FIRST

CHAPTER 4: COMPREHENDING THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL

CHAPTER 5: WORKING IN THE FIELD 91

Key Resources and Suggested Reading 111

CHAPTER 6: WORKING IN THE LABORATORY 113

CHAPTER 8: RECONSTRUCTING ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS 157

CHAPTER 9: RECONSTRUCTING THE SOCIAL AND

Key Resources and Suggested Reading 193

CHAPTER 10: EXPLAINING THINGS OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL

CHAPTER 11: THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF YESTERDAY, TODAY,

1.1 The Parthenon on the Acropolis of Athens, Greece 2

4.3 Pompeii, Italy 79

1.1 Defining Archaeology 4

3.6 Major Archaeological Associations and Issues Addressed by Their

1.1 Archaeology and Popular Culture 14

xvi NOTE TO INSTRUCTORS

Welcome to the world of archaeology. This text provides a broad introduction to

PLACES MENTIONED IN CHAPTER 1

PHOTO: Gillian Crowther

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