WORKING PRINCIPLE OF

RADIO
-The working principle of radio involves
transmission, reception, and processing of radio
waves to facilitate communication.
-Radio works by transmitting and receiving
electromagnetic waves. The radio signal is an
electronic current moving back and forth very
quickly.
-A transmitter radiates this field outward via an
antenna; a receiver then picks up the field and
translates it to the sounds heard through the radio.
-Here is a simplified explanation of the basic
working principle of radio:
1-Generation of radio waves
:radio waves are generated by an electronic
oscillator ,typically a component called a radio
frequency(RF)oscillator. It produces an alternating
current(AC) at a specific frequency, which
corresponds to the desired radio wave frequency.
 2- Modulation
:to transmit information , such as sound or data, the
RF oscillator signal is combined with the information
signal in a process called modulation.
-The information signal , which can be an audio
signal or digital data , is used to vary the amplitude ,
frequency , or phase of the RF oscillator signal.

3-Amplification
:the modulated RF signal is then amplified to
increase its power level. This is typically done using
an amplifier circuit to ensure that the signal has
enough strength to be transmitted over long
distance.
4-Transmission
:the amplified signal is fed into an antenna , which
converts the electrical signal into radio waves. The
antenna radiates the radio waves into space ,
propagating then in all directions.
5-Reception
:at the receiving end , another antenna captures the
radio waves from the air and converts them back
into electrical signals.
6-Demodulation
:the received electrical signal is then demodulated
to extract the original information signal. This
process involves separating the modulated RF signal
from the carrier wave and recovering the variations
imposed on it during modulation.
7-Amplification and processing
:the demodulated signal is typically amplified and
processed to enhance its quality and prepare it for
output.
-This may involve filtering out unwanted noise or
interference and adjusting the signal level.

8-Output
:the processed signal is sent to an audio system or
other output devices, where it is converted back
into the original form , such as sound or data , for
the user perceive or utilize.
WORKIG PRINCIPLE OF
TELEVISION
-Every TV system works on the scanning principle.
This turns a two dimensional image into a time
series of signals that represent the brightness and
color of each resolvable element of the picture.
-By repeating a two dimensional image quickly
enough, the impression of motion can be
transmitted as well.
-For the receiving apparatus to reconstruct the
image, synchronization information is included in
the signal to allow proper placement of each line
with in the image and to identify when a complete
image has been transmitted and a new image is to
follow.
*The transmission of audio and visual signals in a TV
relies on electromagnetic waves.
*The visual content on a TV is displayed using visible
light. The physics of color perception is based on the
fat that different wavelengths of light correspond to
different colors. By manipulating the intensity and
combination of red, green,and blue light, TVs can
create a wide range of colors.

Working principle of
Internet
-Internet works by using a packet routing network
that follows internet protocol (IP) and transport
control protocol(TCP). This two ensure the data
transmission across the internet.
-Among basic principles:
1-Electromagnetic waves
:the transmission of data over the internet relies on
electromagnetic waves.
2-Signal amplification
:as data signals travel through transmission media,
they experience attenuation or weakening of the
signal strength. To compensate for this, amplifiers
are used along the transmission path to boost the
signal strength and maintain its integrity.
3-Network Infrastructure
:the internet connects a vast number of devices
including computers ,servers… etc through a
network infrastructure. This infrastructure consists
of physical component such as cable, routers and
data centers, as well as virtual components like
protocols and addressing system.
4-Transmission
:data packets are transmitted through various
transmission technologies such as fiber optics cables
,copper wires or wireless connections. These
technologies convert data into electrical or
electromagnetic signals for transmission across the
network.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF
MOBILE
-Mobile phones work by sending and receiving low
power radio signals.
-Its simple principles:
1-Capturing sound and processing sound signals
:the first step in its working principles involve
capturing sound. This is accomplished through the
microphone. The primary function of microphone is
to convert sound waves into electrical signals.
:Once it is converted, the analog- to-digital
conversion(ADC) circuit converts the continuous
analog electrical signals from the microphone into a
digital format that the mobile phones processor can
manipulate and transmit. After this, the digital
signal processor(DSP) optimize the quality and
improve the overall audio experience for the user by
doing , for example, noise reduction echo
cancellation, equalization and other audio
enhancements.
2-Modulation ,encoding and transmission via
antenna
:Encoding involves converts the digital sound signals
into format suitable for transmission , while
modulation refers to the process of superimposting
the encoded signals onto a carrier wave.
:Once the sound signals are encoded and
modulated , they are ready for transmission. The
mobile phone antenna ,which is responsible for
sending and receiving radio frequency signals play a
vital role in this process.
:The encoded sound signals are transmitted
wirelessly through the antenna, allowing them to
propagate through the air as radio waves.
3-Receiving the sound signal, demodulation and
decoding of digital signals
:After the signals are transmitted , they travel
through the air until they reach the destination,
which could be another phone or base station.
:Once the signals are received , the mobile phone’s
circuitry performs demodulation, which separates
the encoded sound signals from the carrier
wave. :The demodulated signals are then decoded
to retrieve the original digital sound signals. This
decoding process reverses the encoding applied
during transmission, ensuring that the original
sound data can be further processed and
reproduced accurately.
4-Reproducing sound
:After the sound signals are demodulated and
decoded, they converted back into analog format
for sound reproduction through a digital-to-analog
converter(DAC).
:This converts the digital sound signals into analog
electrical signals that can be interpreted as sound
wave.
:Finally, the analog electrical signals are sent to the
mobile phone’s speaker. The speaker converts these
electrical signals into sound waves through a
diaphragm and produces audible sound that can be
heard by the user.
:The sound waves generated by the speaker are a
faithful reproduction of the original sound captured
by the microphone ,thus completing the process of
reproducing sound In a mobile phone.

Working principle of
Satellite
-Satellite is an object intentionally placed into orbit
around a celestial body.
-Brief explanation of it’s principles:
1-Comunication
:satellites enable communication by receiving
signals from earth based transmitters and
transmitting them back to earth.
:The satellite’s communication system consists of
antenna , transponder ,and amplifiers.
:Signals from earth are received by the antenna ,
amplified and retransmitted back to earth.
2-Transponders
:Satellites use transponders to receive , amplify ,
and transmit signals. Transponder is a combination
of receiver and transmitter. It receives signals from
one frequency band , amplify them ,retransmit
them on a different frequency band.
:This allows for efficient communication over long
distances.
3-Line of sight
:Satellites operate on the principle of line of sight.
:for effective communication , the satellite needs to
have an unobstructed line of sight with ground
station or the receiving devise on Earth.
:obstacle such as; mountains, buildings ,or dense
atmospheric conditions can disrupt the line of sight
and affect the quality of communication.
4-Control and Monitoring
:satellites are controlled and monitored from
ground stations located on earth. The ground
stations sent commands to the satellite for various
operations, including orbit adjustment , data
collection , and payload activation.
:They also receive telemetry data from the satellite,
providing information on its status , performance ,
and health.
5-Power source
:satellites are powered by solar panels that convert
sunlight into electricity. The solar panels charge
onboard batteries , which provide power to the
satellites’ systems when it is not in direct sunlight ,
such as during eclipses or in Earth’s shadow.
:This ensures continuous operation of the satellite.
6-Data processing and Storage
:satellites often have onboard computers and data
storage system for processing and storing data
collected from sensors or received from Earth.
:This system enables the satellite to perform data
analysis , execute commands , and store information
before transmitting it back to Earth.
7-Mission Specific Functions
:satellites have various mission-specific functions
depending on there purpose.
:They can be used for communication , weather
monitoring , Earth observation, navigation( such as
GPS satellites), scientific research , surveillance , and
more.
:The specific functions determine the sensors,
instruments, and data processing capabilities of the
satellite.