CHEM111

Measurements
In the study of chemistry, it is constantly necessary to describe substances by means of their properties or
to define their state or condition. To accomplish this description, three things are necessary:
1. The numerical values of the property
2. The dimensions of the property
3. The units in which the value is expressed.
o The system of measurement used by most scientists is called International system (SI).

Scientific Notation o For large number: Shift the decimal point to the left up to the nearest ten and
assume positive exponent.
-
6
10000= 1𝑥104 -
- 4500000= 4.5𝑥10
o For 94800 = 9.48𝑥104 small number: Shift the decimal point to the right up to the nearest tenth
and assume negative exponent.
- 0.0001= 1𝑥10-4
- 0.000078=7.8𝑥10-5
- 0.0121= 1.21𝑥10-2
Rounding-off Numbers o If the number to be dropped is less than five (5), the preceding numbers
remains the same.
o If the number to be dropped is five (5) or more, add one (1) to the preceding number.
5.343→ 5.34 (2 decimal places) 5.343→ 5.3 (1 d.p.)
6.456→ 6.46 (2 decimal places) 6.456→ 6.5 (1 d.p.)
Significant Figures
1. All non-zero digits are significant. Ex. 12, 235 = 5 significant digits
2. Zeroes in between non-zero digits are significant.
Ex. 25000.6 = 6 significant digits
3. Zeroes to the left of a non- zero digits are not significant. Ex. 0.003 = 1 significant digit
4. Zeroes to the right of a decimal point and to the left of a non-zero digit are significant. Ex. 5.030 =
4 significant digits
5. Terminal zeroes of a whole number may or may not be significant. o Significant if there is a
distinct decimal point.
- Ex. 5.00 = 3 significant digits;
- 2.0 = 2 significant digits o Not significant if there is no distinct decimal point.
- Ex.90,000=1 significant digit Conversion of Units
1 m = 1000 mm Equivalence statement
1𝑚 1000𝑚
𝑜𝑟 Conversion factor
1000𝑚 1𝑚

Metric System
English System

Temperature

Density
o Amount of mass present on a given volume.
o d=m/v, m=dv, v=m/d o unit: g/mL or g/cm3
Matter
Matter o Anything that occupies space and has mass.
Atom o Building block of matter o Came from the Greek word “atomos” meaning small
Properties of Matter
a. Physical Property
- Are characteristics of a substance which can be observed without changing the composition
of the substance.
- Example of Physical Properties are:
▪ Color

▪ Odor

▪ Density

▪ Boiling point

▪ Melting point
Physical Properties is classified into two:
1. Intensive
2. Extensive
Intensive
- It depends upon the TYPE of the matter presented,
NOT the AMOUNT present
Ex. Hardness, Density, Melting Point

Extensive
- It depends on the AMOUNT of matter in the
sample Ex. Mass, Volume, Length

b. Chemical Property
- Are characteristics that a substance exhibits when it undergoes changes in composition
- Ability of a substance to undergo a chemical reaction
- Example of Chemical Properties are:
▪ Charcoal burning in air

▪ Iron rust

▪ Decomposition of wood
- Consider Term in Chemical Properties are:
▪ Burn

▪ Rot

▪ Rust

▪ Digest

▪ Ferment

States of Matter
- Can be classified according to its Physical States and its Composition
- States of matter is dependent on the temperature and pressure of its surroundings

Physical State: o Solid

o Liquid
o Gas

Classification of different states based upon:

o Particle Arrangement o Energy of Particles
o Distance between Particles

Solids
- Has definite shape and volume
- Its particles are held together in fixed positions - Their motion is restricted - Example:
o Woods o Chairs
o Tables
Liquid
- Fixed in volume but does not have shape
- It follows the shape of its container
- are free to move because they are held together less tightly - Slightly compressible - Example:
o Water o Oil
Gas
- Has neither fixed volume nor shape
- Its particles are far apart - Highly compressible - Example:
o Air
o Carbon Dioxide o Nitrogen
Changes of States
- Depends on the pressure and temperature o Melting – Solid to liquid

▪ Ex: melting of solid ice to water o Freezing – liquid to solid

▪ Ex. Freezing of water to solid ice o Evaporation – liquid to gas

 ▪ Ex. Boiling of water in a casserole o Condensation – gas to liquid

▪ Ex. Pouring of rain o Sublimation – solid to gas

▪ Ex. Dry Ice o Deposition – gas to solid

Two Changes in Matter

- Physical Changes o Occurs when a substance alters its physical state, but does not
change its chemical composition o Example:

▪ Grinding of cheese

▪ Cutting of Trees
- Chemical Changes o Involve changes in the composition of the
substance o Example:
▪ Rusting of Iron

▪ Spoiling of food Note: o Chemical change is also referred as

chemical reaction
o Chemical reaction consists of reactants and products
▪ Reactants – starting substances

▪ Products – substance that are formed or produced

• Example:
Water (H2O)
Classification of Matter
Pure Substance
- Have the same composition throughout
- Can be further classified as Elements and
Compounds

Element
- Is a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substance
- It only composed of one kind of atom
- May classified into Metals, Non-Metals and
Metalloids

Metals
- Usually solid except Mercury
- Conductor of heat
- Lustrous and shiny
- High density
- High melting and boiling point
- Ex. Iron uranium sodium

Non-Metals
- Poor conductor of electricity
- Usually gasses or brittle solid
- Non – lustrous
- Ex. Hydrogen, helium nitrogen

Metalloids
- Exhibits both metallic and non- metallic properties
- Solid
- Low melting and boiling point
- Intermediate electrical conductivity
- Ex. Arsenic and Antimony

Compounds
- Are formed when two or more elements combine together in a chemical change
- They can be broken down into simpler substances only by a chemical reaction
 a. Acids
- Compounds which contain hydrogen
- Sour taste
- Change blue litmus paper into red
a. Bases
- Are hydroxide of metals
- Bitters taste
- Change red litmus paper into blue
a. Salts
- Compound which contain the negative radical of an acid and the positive radical of a base
- A product formed when an acid reacts
with a base
Mixtures
- Combination of two or more elements or compound that can be separated by physical methods - Can
be classified as either homogeneous and heterogeneous

a) Homogeneous Mixture
- Has uniform composition and properties as seen by the naked eye - Indistinguishable
- Ex. Sea Water and Air

o Solutions
▪ Is a mixture of solute and solvent
o Solvent
▪ The liquid in which the solution is made of and
is in a greater amount
o Solute
▪ Dissolved in solvent, substance in a smaller amount
Ex. 30% Isopropyl alcohol

b) Heterogeneous Mixture
- is not uniform in composition
- distinguishable
- Ex. Halo – Halo and Salad
- Under Heterogeneous Suspensions and
Colloids Suspension o are heterogeneous mixtures that do not have uniform composition
o a heterogeneous mixture where the suspended particles can be seen and are large
enough to be trapped in a filter paper
o particles are visible with the naked eye and settle out upon standing
▪ Ex. Antibiotic suspension
Colloids
o particles are mixed but are not dissolved
o heterogeneous mixture with particles bigger than the particles of a solution but smaller
than suspension
▪ Ex. Toothpaste and whipped cream
Periodic Table of Elements
Elements
- Scientists have identified 118 total of elements, 90 of which are naturallyoccurring, while
the remaining 28 are manmade.
- The elements, alone or in combinations, make up our bodies, our sun, and in fact the entire
universe.
- The periodic table organizes the elements in a particular way. A great deal of information
about an element can be gathered from its position in the periodic table.
- Elements are organized on the table according to their atomic number.
- The atomic number refers to how many proton an atom of that element has.
- The atomic number is unique to that element. No two elements have the same atomic
number.

Basic Structure of an Atom

 What’s in a square?

Atomic Number
- This refers to how many protons an atom of that element has
- No two elements have the same number of protons
Atomic Mass
- refers to the weight of the atom
- It is derived at the adding the number of protons with the number of neutrons
Hydrogen
- The Hydrogen square sits a top of family Al, but it is not a member of that family.
- Hydrogen is in a class of its own.
- It’s a gas at room temperature.
- Hydrogen is a diatomic, reactive gas.
- It has one proton and one electron in its one and only energy level
- Hydrogen only needs 1 electron to fill up its valence shell
❖ The vertical columns of the periodic table are called are called groups/families
o All members a family of elements have the same number of valence electrons and similar
chemical properties.
❖ The horizontal columns are called period.

Development of the Periodic Table

Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner (1780-1849)

- In 1829, the German chemist Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner classified the elements with similar
properties into groups of three called “TRIAD”.
John Newland (1837-1898)
- In 1864, an English Industrial chemist John Newlands arrange the elements in increasing atomic
weights. He noted that every eight element has similar properties.

Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907)

- In 1869, the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev published his arrangement of the known element
in vertical columns. He noticed a regular (periodic) recurrence of physical and chemical properties
(Periodic Law).

- First, he left spaces in his periodic table for undiscovered elements

- Second, he corrected some atomic weight values of element

Lothar Meyer (1830-1895)

- The German chemist, Lothar Meyer, prepared a periodic table that closely resembles the
tale of Mendeleev but presented his results graphically.
 Ionization Energy
Trends of the Periodic Table - When the atoms loses or gains electrons from ions.
- Ionization energies measure how tightly bound of the electrons are
to atoms.
- The representative elements, the first ionization energy generally
increases from left to right across the period.
- REMEMBER: Ionization energy is always positively charged. Low
ionization energy indicates easy removal of electrons to become cation.
- SMALL ATOMS have high ionization energies while big atoms
have low ionization energies.

Ionic Radius Trend across a Period

- Negative ions are always larger than positive ions.

- As charge on positive ion increases, ionic radius decreases.
- As
charge on
negative ions
decreases, ionic
radius decreases.

Electron Affinity
(AE)

- The
amount of energy
 released when an electron is added to a gaseous atom.
- Elements with very negative electron affinities gain electrons readily to form
negative ions.
- The elements show greater attraction for an extra electron from the left to right
across the row in the periodic table, excluding - The Plum Pudding Model features a spherical cloud
noble gases. of positive charge encasing multiple electrons.

The Octet Rule

- States that atoms tend to gain, lose, or share

electrons in order to acquire a full setoff valence
electrons

4. Ernest Rutherford (1909)

- Discovered nucleus through gold foil experiment.

- Nuclear Model of an Atom o Made up of

nucleus (proton and neutron), and several
electrons.

Ionic Radius

- Metals have low ionization energies, so they form

positive ions readily. The loss of the outermost
electrons results in increased attraction by the 5. Niels Bohr (1913)
nucleus for the remaining electrons. - Planetary Model of an Atom

Atomic Models

Development of Atomic Structure

1. Democritus (400 BC)

-Matter is made up of indivisible particles called
“atomos”.
2. John Dalton (1803) - Atomic Theory
- Solid Sphere Model
3. Joseph John (J.J.) Thompson
- Discovered electron through cathode ray
experiment
- Plum Pudding Model
6. Erwin Schrodinger (1926)
- Electron Cloud Model

Chemical Formulas and Naming Compounds