Lecture 1

Introduction to the Structure of the English Language

Descriptive and Prescriptive Approaches to Grammar

I. Standard English VS Non-Standard English

Language serves as a tool for shaping and preserving thoughts that mirror the world around us. It also
facilitates sharing these thoughts during human interactions. Language is social by nature; it is
inseparably connected with the people who are its creators and users; it grows and develops together
with the development of society. Language comprises three essential components, all of which are an
integral part of it due to its inherently social character. These components are the phonological
system, the lexical system, and the grammatical system. It's important to note that a language only
emerges when these three elements come together; the absence of any one of them means that a
human language, as described above, does not exist.

The phonological system serves as the foundational aspect of language, determining how its
meaningful units sound. The lexical system encompasses the complete set of naming tools within a
language, including words and stable word combinations. The grammatical system, on the other
hand, encompasses the rules that govern how these naming tools are combined to create sentences,
embodying the thought process.

Each of these three fundamental components of language is studied by a specific linguistic discipline.
These disciplines approach their respective areas of study from different angles and provide
"descriptions" of language that organize and explain these components. For instance, the science of
phonology offers the phonological description of language, lexicology provides the lexical description,
and grammar deals with the grammatical description.

English is probably the most widely used language in the world, with around 400 million native
speakers and a similar number of bilingual speakers in numerous partially English-speaking countries,
and hundreds of millions more users in other countries where English is widely known and used in
business, government, or media. It is used for government communications in India; a daily
newspaper in Cairo; and the speeches in the parliament of Papua New Guinea. You may hear it when
a hotel receptionist greets an Iranian guest in Helsinki; when a German professor talks to a Japanese
graduate student in Amsterdam; or when a Korean scientist lectures to Hungarian and Nigerian
colleagues at a conference in Bangkok. A language so widely distributed naturally has many varieties.
These are known as dialects. That word “dialect” doesn't apply just to rural or uneducated forms of
speech; rather it encompasses the distinct ways of how all individuals communicate. Therefore, in
some sense, everyone speaks a dialect.

In the world English is spoken in various ways, primarily differing in pronunciation, also known as
‘accent’, and to a lesser extent in vocabulary. These linguistic features can provide insights into the
speaker's geographic origin and social background. In contrast, grammar, which encompasses the
structure of sentences and smaller language components like clauses, phrases, and words, operates
quite differently. The grammar of Standard English demonstrates far greater stability and uniformity
than its pronunciation or vocabulary. There is little dispute about what is considered grammatical
(adhering to the rules of grammar) and what isn't.

Certainly, the few points of disagreement, such as the "who" versus "whom" dilemma, tend to receive
significant attention in language columns and letters to the editor, giving the impression of
widespread turmoil. Yet, the strong emotions expressed over these controversial issues shouldn't
overshadow the fact that the vast majority of inquiries regarding what's acceptable in Standard
English have clear answers.

Furthermore, when presented in its written form, Standard English is universally accepted as a
dependable choice for serious topics in English-language newspapers worldwide, regardless of
whether it's in Britain, the USA, Australia, Africa, or India. While a few minor distinctions exist
between American English (AmE) and British English (BrE) forms of Standard English—like the
usage of "She may have done" in BrE versus "She may have" in AmE—using Standard English
generally doesn't indicate the user's geographical location or membership in any specific regional,
ethnic, or social group.

Alongside Standard English, there exist numerous distinct local, regional, and social dialects of
English that are indisputably non-standard. Many of these dialects are familiar to speakers of
Standard English through plays, films, songs, and everyday conversations in diverse communities.

Let us now compare and contrast two non-standard expressions with their Standard English
equivalents. Which forms do you believe to be non-standard and why?

1. (a) I did it myself / (b) I done it myself

2. (a) I ain’t told nobody nothing / (b) I haven’t told anybody anything

The word 'done' is a commonly used non-standard 'past tense' version of the verb 'do,' which
corresponds to the Standard English equivalent 'did.' In the standard dialect, 'done' serves as a 'past
participle,' used after 'have' (as in "I have done it") or 'be' (such as "It was done yesterday"). Therefore,
saying 'I done it myself' is regarded as a non-standard way of expressing ‘I did it myself’.

In the phrase 'I ain't told nobody nothing,' there are two distinctions between the standard and non-
standard forms. Firstly, 'ain't' is a well-known non-standard version, which in this context means
"haven't." Secondly, the phrase features a repetitive use of negation: the clause is negated three times
(in 'ain't,' 'nobody,' and 'nothing'), whereas in ‘I haven’t told anybody anything’, it is negated just
once (in 'haven't').

These characteristics wouldn't typically be employed in formats like a television news report or a
newspaper opinion piece, because they are generally recognized as non-standard. However, this
doesn't imply that dialects displaying these traits are inadequate, illogical, or inherently lesser than
the standard dialect. In fact, various standard languages (such as French, Italian, Polish, and Russian)
exhibit multiple instances of negation similar to the structure in 'haven't told nobody nothing.' It's a
special grammatical feature specific to Standard English that it doesn't allow the type of multiple
negation marking found in some other languages.

II. Formal and Informal Style

Formal style refers to a way of communicating that follows established linguistic conventions and
conventions of politeness. It is often used in professional, academic, and serious contexts, aiming to
convey information in a clear, structured, and respectful manner. In formal communication, language
is more sophisticated, sentences are often complex, and contractions and informal expressions are
minimized. This style is common in official documents, academic papers, business correspondence,
and public speeches where professionalism and a sense of authority are essential. The aim of a formal
style is to convey information in a clear, objective, and respectful manner, often maintaining a certain
level of distance from the audience.

Informal style in language refers to a casual, relaxed way of communication that is commonly used in
everyday conversations, personal writing, and informal settings. It often involves the use of colloquial
expressions, contractions, and a less rigid adherence to grammar rules compared to formal writing or
speech. Informal style is more spontaneous and reflects the way people naturally speak to friends,
family, and peers. It is characterized by a friendly and approachable tone, and it may include humor,
slang, and idiomatic phrases. The goal of informal style is to create a sense of familiarity and
connection between the speaker or writer and the audience, allowing for a more natural and laid-
back exchange of ideas.

The difference between standard and non-standard dialects of English is quite separate from the
contrast between formal and informal style.

Formal Informal
(a) He was the one with whom she worked (b) He was the one she worked with

(a) She must be taller than I (b) She must be taller than me

In these pairs, BOTH versions belong to the standard dialect. Standard English allows for a lot of
variation in style based on the context of language usage. The [a] versions are typically reserved for
formal situations. In casual conversations, they might come across as overly precise or overly
pompous. Thus, in most scenarios, the [b] version – the informal one – would be the preferred choice.
The informal Standard English sentences in [b] coexist with the formal variations; they are not
considered non-standard, and they are not inferior to the formal counterparts in [a].
Informal style is not solely limited to spoken language. It has found its way into newspapers,
magazines, and even academic books, creating a blend of styles that can be a bit more relaxed for
certain topics and slightly more formal for others. This trend is observable even in academic texts.

One significant distinction between style and dialect lies in the fact that switching between different
styles within your native dialect is a common skill possessed by everyone, whereas shifting between
dialects requires a specific ability held by only some individuals. Any speaker familiar with style
variations can adapt their language to sound more formal (sometimes appearing pompous) or more
relaxed and casual. Yet, mastering a different dialect involves a unique skill. If you weren't raised
speaking two dialects, switching between them calls for a certain level of acting ability or linguistic
knowledge. In either case, you need to acquaint yourself with the rules of the other dialect. Some
people excel at this, but it's not an expectation for everyone.

Many Standard English speakers may struggle to convincingly adopt dialects like London working-
class, African American vernacular, or Scottish Highlands. Nonetheless, they are capable of
distinguishing the stylistic differences between the [a] and [b] sentences and know when to use each
style.

III. Descriptive and Prescriptive Approaches to Grammar

Grammar and language are closely intertwined and interdependent aspects of communication.
Grammar refers to the set of rules and principles that govern how words are organized into sentences,
how sentences are structured, and how words are used to convey meaning. The relationship between
grammar and language is crucial:

 Structure: Grammar provides the structural foundation of language. It guides how words are
combined to create sentences, phrases, and clauses, allowing for effective communication.
 Meaning: Grammar rules help convey precise meanings by organizing words in a specific
order. Correct grammar ensures that the intended message is accurately communicated.
 Clarity: Proper grammar enhances clarity in language. It helps prevent confusion and
misunderstandings by providing a consistent framework for constructing sentences.
 Standardization: Grammar contributes to language standardization, allowing for a shared
understanding of how a language should be used. It enables effective communication across
different regions and communities.
 Variation: Different languages and dialects may have distinct grammar rules, reflecting
cultural, historical, and linguistic differences. Understanding these variations enriches our
understanding of language diversity.
 Communication: Grammar facilitates effective communication by enabling individuals to
express complex ideas and thoughts in an organized and coherent manner.
 Learning and Teaching: Grammar is a fundamental aspect of language learning and teaching.
It helps learners acquire the skills needed to communicate fluently and accurately.

In summary, grammar is the structural framework that underlies language, ensuring that words and
sentences are organized in ways that convey meaning effectively. Language, on the other hand,
encompasses the entire system of communication, encompassing spoken, written, and signed forms.
Together, grammar and language enable human interaction, expression, and understanding.

Descriptive grammar is a linguistic approach that involves examining a language in a thorough and
unbiased manner. Instead of telling people how they should speak, it seeks to understand and explain
how they actually do speak. This type of grammar focuses on analyzing the patterns and structures
that govern a language as it's used by its native speakers in their everyday interactions.

In the study of descriptive grammar, linguists observe and document the various ways that people
construct sentences, use words, and convey meaning. This can encompass everything from the
arrangement of words in a sentence to the nuances of pronunciation and word choice. Descriptive
grammar acknowledges that languages can have multiple dialects, variations, and registers, all of
which contribute to the richness and diversity of how a language is used.

One key aspect of descriptive grammar is that it doesn't make judgments about what is "correct" or
"incorrect" language. Instead, it aims to understand and present language as it naturally exists within
a particular community. For example, if a certain phrase is commonly used in a specific region or
group, descriptive grammar will document and explain that usage without labeling it as "right" or
"wrong."

In essence, descriptive grammar is a tool for linguists and language scholars to objectively explore the
intricacies of language, respecting its inherent complexity and diversity. By studying descriptive
grammar, we can gain insights into the fascinating and dynamic ways that people use language to
communicate and express themselves.

Prescriptive grammar is a linguistic approach that lays down rules and regulations for how a language
should be used. It offers a structured framework that aims to establish a "correct" or standardized way
of speaking and writing. This type of grammar is often associated with formal contexts such as
academic writing, professional communication, and official documents.

Prescriptive grammar guides individuals on matters like proper sentence structure, appropriate word
usage, and grammatical forms that are considered acceptable within a particular language
community. It serves as a reference point for maintaining consistency, clarity, and adherence to
established norms, ensuring effective communication in settings where precision and correctness are
crucial.

While prescriptive grammar can be valuable for maintaining linguistic traditions and creating a
shared understanding in formal communication, it's essential to recognize that languages naturally
evolve over time. As a result, prescriptive rules might not always align with how people actually use
language in everyday situations. In contrast to descriptive grammar, which observes and explains
how language is naturally used, prescriptive grammar prescribes a particular way of using language
based on cultural, historical, and traditional considerations.
Ultimately, understanding both prescriptive and descriptive grammar approaches can provide insight
into the dynamic interplay between linguistic rules, practical communication, and the ever-changing
nature of language.

There's a significant difference between two types of books on English grammar: descriptive and
prescriptive.

Descriptive books: These books aim to describe how language works in practice. They seek to explain
the grammatical system that underlies how people naturally speak and write. In essence, they
document how the language is used by its speakers.

Prescriptive books: Prescriptive grammar books, on the other hand, provide guidance on how people
should use language. They give advice on what is considered proper or correct language usage. These
books often come in the form of usage manuals or are used in educational settings.

In theory, descriptive and prescriptive approaches could coexist harmoniously. Descriptive grammar
books would tell you how language is used, and prescriptive ones would offer suggestions on avoiding
common mistakes while using it. Both would agree on the facts. Indeed, some usage books are based
on thorough descriptive research into how Standard English is spoken and written. However, there's
also a long tradition of prescriptive works that are problematic. They may not accurately represent
language usage, and some of their advice may be questionable.

Grammar rules should ultimately be rooted in how people genuinely speak and write. Without this
foundation, they lack credibility. These rules are meant to reflect the language as it exists, and the
people who use it are the ultimate authority on that. Additionally, when people differentiate between
formal and informal ways of expressing the same idea, grammar rules should encompass that
variation as well.

IV. Grammatical Terms and Definitions

Terminology refers to a specific set of words, phrases, or terms that are used within a particular field,
subject, profession, or context. These specialized words and expressions have precise meanings and
are employed to facilitate clear and accurate communication among experts or individuals with
knowledge in that specific area. Terminology is often developed to address the unique concepts,
phenomena, or technical aspects related to a particular subject or discipline, ensuring that everyone
within that domain can understand and discuss topics effectively.

Terminology is essential in grammar because it provides a standardized and precise way to

communicate and discuss linguistic concepts. Here's why terminology is important:

1. Clarity and Precision: Grammar involves understanding complex structures and rules governing a
language. Having specific terms allows for clear and precise communication about these structures. It
enables linguists, educators, and language learners to discuss grammatical concepts accurately and
effectively.
2. Consistency: Standardized terminology ensures consistency in the study and teaching of grammar.
When everyone uses the same terms to describe linguistic phenomena, it minimizes confusion and
promotes a shared understanding of concepts.

3. Effective Teaching and Learning: In educational settings, consistent terminology helps teachers
convey grammatical concepts to students more efficiently. It provides students with a common
vocabulary to discuss language, aiding their comprehension and ability to apply grammatical rules.

4. Research and Analysis: In linguistic research, terminology is essential for analyzing language
structures, patterns, and variations. It allows researchers to document and compare different
languages or dialects accurately, advancing our understanding of how languages work.
5. Language Standardization: Terminology contributes to the standardization of a language, ensuring
that grammar rules are clear and accessible to all speakers. This is particularly important for
maintaining a unified written language in formal documents and publications.

6. Cross-Cultural Communication: When discussing grammar across languages or among speakers of

various native languages, standardized terminology provides a common ground for understanding and
comparison.

7. Preservation of Knowledge: Using consistent terminology helps preserve and pass down knowledge
about a language's grammar from one generation to the next. It allows for the accumulation of
linguistic knowledge and the development of grammatical resources.

In summary, terminology is a fundamental aspect of grammar that facilitates clear communication,

learning, research, and the preservation of linguistic knowledge. It is an indispensable tool for anyone
studying, teaching, or analyzing language structures.

The tree standard terms that refer to the three main arias of grammar are morphology, syntax and
semantics. The first two deal with the dimension of form in grammar, while the third one has to do
with meaning.

Morphology: Morphology is the study of the structure and formation of words in a language. It deals
with how words are created from smaller units called morphemes, which are the smallest meaningful
units of language. Morphology explores how these morphemes combine to form different words, how
they can be inflected to show tense, number, gender, and other grammatical features, and how they
can be manipulated to create new words.

Syntax: Syntax refers to the rules and principles that govern the arrangement of words and phrases to
create well-formed sentences in a language. It involves understanding how different parts of speech
(nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.) interact with each other to convey meaning. Syntax addresses issues
like sentence structure, word order, agreement between subject and verb, and the formation of
phrases and clauses.
Semantics: Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It focuses on how words, phrases,
sentences, and texts convey meaning. Semantics delves into various aspects of meaning, including
word meanings (lexical semantics), the relationships between words (lexical relations), and the
interpretation of sentences (sentence semantics). It explores how language conveys information, how
words can have multiple meanings, and how context influences interpretation.

These three areas—morphology, syntax, and semantics—are fundamental to understanding the

structure, rules, and meaning of language. They provide insights into how languages are constructed,
how sentences are formed, and how meaning is conveyed through communication.

Grammatical terms include plenty of other quite familiar words, such as the following.
Which areas of grammar do you think they relate to?

Noun: A word that represents a person, place, thing, or idea.

Verb: A word that describes an action, occurrence, or state of being.
Adjective: A word that modifies or describes a noun by providing more information about its
attributes.
Adverb: A word that modifies a verb, adjective, or other adverbs, typically by describing how, when,
where, or to what extent something happens.
Pronoun: A word used in place of a noun to avoid repetition, such as "he," "she," "it," or "they."
Preposition: A word that shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words in a
sentence, often indicating location or direction, such as "in," "on," or "under."
Conjunction: A word that connects words, phrases, or clauses in a sentence, such as "and," "but," or
"or."
Article: A word that indicates whether a noun is specific or nonspecific, including "the" (definite
article) and "a" or "an" (indefinite articles).
Sentence: A group of words that expresses a complete thought.
Subject: The main topic or focus of a sentence.
Predicate: The part of a sentence that includes the verb and provides information about the subject.
Object: The noun or pronoun that receives the action of the verb in a sentence.
Phrase: A group of words that functions as a single unit within a sentence.
Clause: A group of words that contains a subject and a verb.
Tense: The form of a verb that indicates the time of an action or event.
Plural: The grammatical form indicating more than one of something.
Singular: The grammatical form indicating just one of something.
Conjugation: The variation of a verb's form to indicate different grammatical aspects such as tense,
person, and number.
Synonym: A word that has the same or a similar meaning as another word.
Antonym: A word that has the opposite meaning of another word.
Homonym: Words that sound the same but have different meanings.
Context: The surrounding words, phrases, and situation that help determine the meaning of a word
or sentence.

V. Some Notes on the Structure of the English Language

Language structure refers to the organized arrangement and interrelation of elements within a
language to convey meaning. It encompasses the rules and patterns that govern how words, phrases,
and sentences are formed and combined to express ideas and communicate effectively. Language
structure includes various components such as syntax (sentence structure), morphology (word
formation and inflection), and semantics (meaning), which collectively shape the way a language is
used and understood.

The structure of the English language encompasses various aspects that contribute to its organization
and meaning. Here are only a few main points about the structure of English:

Word Order: English typically follows a subject-verb-object (SVO) word order in simple sentences,
where the subject initiates the action, followed by the verb and then the object.
Noun and Pronoun Agreement: Nouns and pronouns must agree in number (singular or plural) and
gender.
Verb Conjugation: Verbs change their form to indicate tense (past, present, future), mood (indicative,
imperative, subjunctive), aspect, and voice (active or passive).
Tense and Aspect: English uses a combination of auxiliary verbs and verb forms to indicate different
tenses (past, present, future) and aspects (simple, continuous, perfect).
Prepositions and Prepositional Phrases: Prepositions indicate relationships between words and are
often part of prepositional phrases.

Understanding these structural aspects is essential for communicating effectively, writing coherently,
and comprehending the nuances of the English language.

English differs from other languages in several ways, including:

Alphabet and Writing System: English uses the Latin alphabet, which consists of 26 letters. Other
languages may have different writing systems, such as Cyrillic, Arabic, or Chinese characters.
Grammar and Syntax: English has a relatively simple grammar compared to some languages with
intricate inflectional systems. For example, English nouns generally have only two forms (singular
and plural), while other languages may have multiple cases and genders.
Word Order: English follows a subject-verb-object (SVO) word order in sentences, whereas other
languages may have different orders, like subject-object-verb (SOV) or verb-subject-object (VSO).
Verb Conjugation: English verbs have relatively few inflected forms compared to languages with
extensive conjugation patterns.
Articles: English uses articles ("the," "a," "an") to indicate specificity, which is not a feature in all
languages.
Tense and Aspect: English employs a complex tense system with auxiliary verbs for past, present, and
future tenses, whereas some languages convey time through different means.
Spelling and Pronunciation: English phonetics and phonology differ from other languages, leading to
distinct pronunciation patterns and challenging pronunciation for non-native speakers. English
spelling and pronunciation can be quite different. English spelling often doesn't reflect its
pronunciation accurately due to historical changes, borrowed words, and other factors. This
phenomenon can make English challenging for learners, as the way a word is spelled might not
match how it's actually pronounced. This irregularity in spelling and pronunciation is a distinctive
feature of the English language.
Vocabulary: English has a diverse vocabulary, often influenced by historical borrowings from other
languages. Different languages have unique sets of words and expressions.
Cultural Nuances: Language reflects cultural values, norms, and practices. English may convey
concepts differently compared to languages with different cultural backgrounds.
Idioms and Expressions: Every language has its idiomatic expressions and metaphors, making direct
translation challenging.
Influence and Global Use: English is widely used as a global lingua franca for business, science,
technology, and international communication, contributing to its global influence.

These differences highlight the rich diversity of languages and the complexities of how they convey
meaning and enable communication.

Further reading and homework:

 Rodney Huddleston & Geoffrey K.Pullum –Introduction to English Grammar, (2014)

Cambridge University Press, pp.1- 11
 Complete the exercises on pp. 9-10

Compiled by Valeria Purtseladze,

valeria.purtseladze@tsu.ge