River Bank Erosion Factors Only

BASU, R. & BHADURI, S. (ED, 2007): CONTEMPORARY ISSUES AND TECHNIQUES IN GEOGRAPHY, PROGRESSIVE PUB., KOLKATA: 36–72.
Riverbank and Coastal Erosion

Hazards: Mechanisms & Mapping
Sunando Bandyopadhyay
Department of Geography
University of Calcutta
1. INTRODUCTION
An environmental hazard is usually described as an extreme and uncommon physical
event that causes some kind of harm to the humans and their surroundings. A NATURAL
ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARD (NEH) can be differentiated from a HUMAN ENVIRONMENTAL
DISTURBANCE by the fact that while humans are entirely responsible for creating the
latter, they generally have no control over the generation of the former (Burton, 1989).
Humans, however, may exacerbate the effects of an NEH by modifying the physical
setting or landuse of a certain area. Humans also may expose themselves to an NEH,
unknowingly or knowingly, by simply occupying a hazard-prone region. There are two
approaches to studying NEH. The deterministic behavioural hazard paradigm, evolved
from the classical works of Gilbert White (1936, 1974), comprises the dominant view
(Smith, 2004:5). This centres on the physical characteristics of NEH events, human
responses and alleviation outlooks. The comparatively recent socio-centric structural
hazard paradigm, reflected in the works of O’Keefe et al. (1976), Susman et al. (1983)
Wijkman, and Timberlake (1988) and Blaikie et al. (1994), in contrast, stresses the
influence of political and socioeconomic parameters on NEH. It states that in poor and
underdeveloped sections of the society, scarcity of resources and marginalisation may
compel the choice of settling in an NEH-prone area. Thus, an NEH should never be
seen as an event caused purely by the nature. For whatever reason an NEH takes place,
there is a continuum in the NEH scale in terms of rarity and extremity of the events. For
example, coastal or riverbank erosion tends to be more dispersed and pervasive in
nature compared to an event like tsunami. Taking into account all these perspectives, a
working definition of NEH may be given as ‘a natural event which is harmful to
humans and cannot be considered by them to be part of the normal state or condition of
the environment; its potential to harm varies with the physical parameters of the event
as well as the socioeconomic condition and political situation of the place of its impact’
(Bandyopadhyay, 1997a:21).
Because of its unique physical setting that stretch from the Himalaya to the Bay of
Bengal, West Bengal is susceptible to a varied range of NEHs that no state of India has
to cope with (Table 1). Among these, coastline and riverbank shifts are two major
hazards that affect wide areas of this primarily riparian state. This article intends to
provide a preliminary theoretical background to these problems with an emphasis on
mapping them.
Bandyopadhyay: Mapping Coastline and Riverbank Hazards
Table 1: Natural Environmental Hazards (NEH) affecting West Bengal: A preliminary classification.
Hazard Type Risk

Areas affected / liable to be
Hazard Class Description Rating:
Main Consequent / Sub-type affected 1–5
I. 1. Earthquake Landslide, flood due to Entire WB: Darjiling Himalaya and Most earthquakes occur in this region from release of stress, built-up by the Himalayan 3
GEOLOGIC/ obstruction of river the southeastern part of lower orogeny. Possibility of reactivation of old en-echelon faults in the continental shelf zone and
HYDROLOGIC courses and subsequent deltaic Bengal is most susceptible liquefaction of semi-consolidated and saturated sedimentary deposits during shaking add to
breaching of the (‘High Risk’ Zone-IV in Geological vulnerability of the lower deltaic area (Reddy, 2000). Soft sediments increases the magnitude
obstruction. Survey of India Earthquake of seismic waves manifold. Absence of any record of major earthquake from lower delta
Vulnerability Rating). makes it more susceptible to one.
2. Tsunami Destruction due to wave Coastal WB—mainly the areas The southwestern reclaimed Sundarban (Sagar, Namkhana, and Patharpratima blocks) is 1
run-up, flood. exposed directly to the sea and most vulnerable due to low altitude, absence of mangrove buffer and proximity to the open
situated along the estuaries. sea. The trumpet-shaped Hugli and other major estuaries are likely to accentuate amplitudes
of tsunamis, inundating habitations along their shores. Dunes along the Medinipur coast may
provide some protection from onslaught of the wave in areas like Mandarbani and
Purushottampur of Dadanpatra sector but not from inundation.
3. Arsenic (As) Regular drinking of In Dec 2004, 79 Blocks were affected Reasons for the contamination are debated. One explanation is lowering of groundwater 4
contamination water with As cause in the districts of Malda (7 blocks) table during green revolution that brought arsenic-bearing minerals in contact with air that
of skin lesions that turn Murshidabad (19), Nadiya (17), oxidised it and made it soluble in water. The problem has shown rapid growth during the last
groundwater cancerous. Organs fail Bardhaman (5), Haora (2), Hugli (1), fifteen years: in 1993 and 1999, just 38 and 67 blocks were recorded to be affected (SATF,
due to As poisoning. North & South 24-Parganas (19 & 9). 2004).
4. Sea-level (SL) Coastal inundation, Low-lying areas of coastal WB. Warming atmosphere is causing glaciers to melt and seawater to expand thermally for the 1
Rise disturbed estuarine Vulnerable areas are best indicated last 10,000 years. Both are pushing up secular (absolute) SL. Accelerated rise in relative SL
equilibrium by coastal maps with contour due to global greenhouse effect and subsidence is a distinct possibility in coastal WB.
interval of 1 m or so. These maps However, no data, isolated from background effects like sedimentation and subsidence, is
are not available for the region till available from the region to prove that accelerated secular SL rise is actually taking place.
date.
5. Land Relative rise in SL Part of South and North 24- Works slowly over decades. Occurs mostly due to autocompaction of sediments by natural 1
subsidence Parganas district loading and artificial withdrawal of groundwater. Possibility of danger not imminent but its
past impact is visible in buried tree-trunks in many seaboard areas of South 24-Parganas.
II 6. Cyclone Rain, high-velocity Coastal areas exposed directly to Intensity of harm depends on Beaufort scale. India Meteorological Department (IMD) 4
CLIMATOLOGIC wind, storm surge, flood the sea and situated along the recognises three categories: depression (wind speed: <63 km h–1, Beaufort No: ≤7, recurrence
estuaries are most vulnerable to interval within 100 km of Sagar island: 0.59 y); cyclonic storm (63–87 km h–1, 8–9, 2.92 y)
storm surge and its return flow and severe cyclonic storm (>87 km h–1, ≥10, 3.28 y) (Bandyopadhyay, 1997b).
(ebb-surge). Destruction occurs Destructive potentiality of a given storm depends on adverse coincidence of a number of
more on the right side of storm’s factors (Coch, 1994). Surge develops as storm winds stack-up waves on gently sloping
path as speed of winds, revolving shelves and every millibar lowering of air pressure rises local SL by one cm.
anticlockwise, get superposed on Consequences of a surge depend largely on tidal condition during landfall of the storm. E.g.,
speed of system movement. tidal range of the lower Hugli estuary is about 4.5 m. The effect of a 4.5-m surge striking at
Incessant rain cause flood in lowest low-tide would be negligible but, superposed on highest high tide, it may cause
interior areas as discharge may get widespread destruction. The trumpet-shaped of estuaries also accentuate its effect upstream.
hindered due to rise in local SL.
2
7. Thunderstorm Hail, rain, lighting and Entire state Caused by powerful convection assisted by atmospheric instability, thunderstorms are 3
wind. Tornadoes may common phenomena experienced everywhere in West Bengal during pre-monsoon.
also form occasionally Regionally destroys crops and harms rural infrastructure for areas typically ranging between
25–2500 km2.
8. Tornado — Coastal and deltaic plains Formed by rapid rotation of updrafts within a severe thunderstorm, the linear pathway of the 2
spinning vortex of a tornado can unleash winds with speeds up to 450 km h–1. Although not
common at recurrence interval of 2~3 years, tornado damages in recent events like Gaighata
of Dantan were immense.
9. Fog / haze — Entire state, during winter. Communication disruption due to poor visibility at the night and early morning. Causes 1
some harm to potato crops.
10. Snowfall Avalanche (does not Present only in Darjiling district. Snowfall is not very common in the inhabited parts of Darjiling. The problems include 1
threat humans in WB) Hills above 1500 m: in some winters. disruption of traffic and water supply, pressure on rooftops of homesteads not constructed for
Hills above 3000 m: in all winters withstanding accumulation of snow.
11. Heat and cold — Heatwave conditions mostly occur By IMD definitions, these conditions are rare in West Bengal. E.g., heatwaves occur when, 2
waves in the western districts (Summer); for a number of days, daily maximum temperatures prevail (i) 7°C or (ii) 5°C above normal
coldwaves mainly strike northern in areas with normal maximum temperatures of (i) <40°C or (ii) >40°C (Borroughs, 2003).
and western parts (Winter). Impact of the problem heightens with high humidity. However, the hazards are present in
popular perception and deaths from excesses of heat and cold are not reported infrequently.
12. Drought Lowering of Plateau and plateau-fringe areas of Prolonged meteorological drought (>20% decrease from normal rainfall) may lead to 2
groundwater table Puruliya and Bankura districts hydrological drought (stream flow deficit) and agricultural drought (soil moisture deficit).
With improvement in irrigation and food distribution system, drought does not appear to be
as threatening as it used to be in the 1970s. However, scarcity of water in urban areas during
draught is still a major problem in some areas.
III. 13. Sand incursion / — Parts of East Medinipur, Sagar and Strong southwesterly winds aided by dry atmosphere causes sands from shoreface and 1
GEOMORPHIC Dune Namkhana coasts are affected frontal dunes to blow inland on the farmlands and villages. The problem is most pronounced
(AEOLIAN) / encroachment during pre-monsoon. in eroding sectors of the coastline where sands are reactivated and there is no vegetal cover
CLIMATOLOGIC on the frontal dunes.
IV. 14. Flood and — Lower and upper deltaic areas and By far the most important NEH affecting the state. Excessive rainfall from cyclonic systems 5
GEOMORPHIC / waterlogging Himalayan fans (Duars). Occurs aided by poor drainage is the common cause. Higher local sea level and saturated ground
HYDROLOGIC almost yearly during monsoons. condition of late monsoon augments to the problem.
15. Riverbank — Along most rivers of the deltaic Shifting of course is common to all meandering and braided rivers in their swing zones. Over 4
erosion plains and Himalayan piedmont many years this may cause loss of enormous amount of land and property as people occupy
(Duars). Ganga in Malda and the swing zones quite oblivious of the possibility of river migration. However, one positive
Murshidabad deserves special aspect of river erosion is that, removal and accretion proceeds simultaneously: people
mention. removed from one bank can be relocated on the other.
16. Coastal — Parts of Digha and Chandpur For east Medinipur and islands of the Hugli estuary, erosion and accretion reworked 3
erosion sectors of East Medinipur coast and sediments and were mainly cyclic: did not affect the entire coastline for a major length of
most southern islands of Sundarban time (Fig 6). In rest of South 24-Parganas including Sagar island, erosion was mostly
(South 24-Parganas) are affected. progressive, caused by abandonment of the distributaries of the western Ganga-Brahmaputra
delta and presence of Swatch of No Ground submarine canyon that act as a silt trap for the
sediments contributed by the Meghna estuary.
3
17. Channel Poor navigability, Most estuaries, some channels of Upper portions of most estuaries of Sundarban are getting silted-up due to construction of 2
siltation hindrance to port the lower and upper delta. marginal embankments that reduce tidal spill and disturb their morphological equilibrium.
operations Normal process of delta building has caused a number of distributaries of the Ganga and
Damodar to decay. Mining in Duars is accentuating sedimentation of certain channels.
18. Soil erosion Rainsplash. sheet and, Soil erosion, especially gullying, is Mostly caused by deforestation, sheet erosion affects any bare surface with some declination. 3
rill erosion, gullying. a major source of soil loss in the Rills and gullies are common in piedmont slopes and in lateritic areas where they meet
Channel siltation northern and western districts of lower-level alluvial plains through escarpments accentuated by riverbank erosion. Once
state. formed, they quickly cut back into the upland, evolving badlands.
19. Landslide — Hills of Darjiling district, takes Occurrence of events depends on relative balance of causative and protection factors. 4
place mostly during monsoons. Rainfall, absence of vegetation cover and construction in geologically unsuitable slopes are
the chief reasons. 136 major slides occurred in the last 103 years in Darjiling district and 81
major and minor slips and slides took place during the same period in Darjiling town (Basu,
2000; Majumdar, 2006).
Note: Mining-related subsidence, mine-fire and biological hazards like epidemics and animal attacks are not considered.
4
2. PROCESSES OF EROSION
GEOMORPHOLOGY concerns studying landforms: their shape and distributions; the
materials with which they are composed, the processes that evolve them and the
environments with which they are associated. MORPHODYNAMICS, on the other hand,
stands for ‘the mutual adjustment of landforms and fluid dynamics involving sediment
transport’ (Wright and Thom, 1977). Riverbank and coastal shifts, therefore, are subject
matters of fluvial and coastal morphodynamics respectively. Landform changes in
geomorphology are often classified on the basis of cyclic, graded and steady times that
typically range a millennia, a few decades or centuries and a few seconds respectively
(Schumm and Lichty, 1965). Among these, graded time has the closest affinity with
human timescales and the issues discussed here.
Coastlines and riverbanks are dynamic environments that change in response to a
variety of inputs. Many of these changes, reflected in the coastal and fluvial
morphologies, are CYCLIC in nature. It needs to be appreciated that what appears like a
PROGRESSIVE change in human timescale often turns out to be cyclic when larger
timescales are considered.
2.1 Riverbank erosion
Hydraulic action (corrosion), abrasion (corrasion) and attrition are well-known
geomorphic processes involving moving water. In study of coastal and riverbank
erosion, entrainment and removal of sediments—leading to a negative sediment
budget—are considered more important than breakdown of individual particles. BANK
EROSION means separation and entrainment of bank materials in form of grains,
aggregates or blocks by fluvial, subaerial and/or geotectonic processes. It is a common
form of geomorphic hazard associated with meandering or braided river systems and
floodplains. It must be appreciated that erosion and accretion of bank materials are
complementary processes and that bank erosion mostly involves reworking of
previously accreted materials. The mechanisms of bank erosion are grouped in the
following three processes (Lawler, 2004).
2.1.1 Fluid entrainment
Entrainment of particles into flowing water occurs when the motivating forces—lift and
drag—exceeds the friction, cohesion and gravitational forces that hold the particles into
place. Non-cohesive sandy bank materials usually get entrained grain by grain, while
cohesive silt- and clay-graded materials are removed as aggregates or crumbs, held
together by cohesive forces. Shear stress (τ), an index of drag and lift, is important for
initiating entrainment. Critical shear stress (τcr), required to move a grain of given size,
is a function of gravity (g), grain diameter (D), grain packing (η), water density (ρ),
sediment density (ρs) and the ‘pivoting angle’ (φ) between vertical and a line joining the
centre of gravity of the grain with the pivot on which the grain would move in the
direction of drag force (Fig. 1): τcr = η g (ρ–ρs) (π/6) D tan φ
The relationship is primarily dependant on grain size (τcr ∝ D); but higher cohesion of
fine particles complicates this and makes entrainment of silt- and clay-grade elements
more difficult (Fig. 2 & Table 2). Cohesion of bank materials resists erosion through
inter-particle electrochemical bonding. Among other things, cohesion depends on their
size, packing, mineralogy, dispersivity, moisture content and pH. Electric conductivities
of porewater and riverwater are also important (Osman and Thorne, 1988).
5
Figure 1: Lift and drag forces working on a submerged particle. See text for explanation. (modified after
Knighton, 1998)
Figure 2: The Hjulström diagram relating grain size, flow velocity and entrainment. Cohesion between
fine-grained particles resists erosion; therefore, same flow velocity is required to entrain a 0.005-mm grain
as well as a 10-mm grain into water. (from Knighton, 1998)
Table 2: Grain size classification.

Class Size range in mm Size range in Porosity 1 range
Clay ≤ 0.004 ≥8 0.40–0.70
Silt 0.004 to 0.062 8 to 4 0.35–0.50
Sand 0.062 to 2 4 to –1 0.25–0.40
Fine Sand 0.062 to 0.25 4 to 2 —
Medium Sand 0.25 to 1 2 to 0 —
Coarse Sand 1 to 2 0 to –1 —
Gravel ≥2 ≤ –1 0.33–0.67
Granule 2 to 4 –1 to –2 —
Pebble 4 to 64 –2 to –6 —
Cobble 64 to 256 –6 to –9 —
Boulder ≥ 256 ≤ –9 —
1: Defined as the ratio between pore volume and total (bulk) volume (from Dingman, 1984 in Roberts, 2003:59)
6
In large rivers, powerful shear stress developed in meso-scale horizontal eddies entrain
materials both from bed and bank and enlarge existing embayments in the process. The
projected parts of the bank between adjacent embayments become more vulnerable to
subsequent attacks. This is one of the chief reasons why banks of large rivers like the
Ganga often retreat discontinuously (Fig. 9) (Knighton, 1998). The fast rates of bank
retreat usually seen in meander apex are also explained by high shear stress generated at
the bend by higher flow velocity. Apart from directly entraining materials from the bank
face, the flow also scours its base that leads to oversteepening and failure (see below).
Apart from moving water, entrainment of bank materials is also possible by waves that
are generated on the surface by wind and/or movement of boats and launches.
2.1.2 Preparation
Preparation is a weakening process that increases erodibility of bank materials. Critical
shear stress required for removal of suitably weakened materials may be significantly
lower. Cracks formed due to desiccation, freeze-thaw action, development of needle ice,
network of animal burrows etc. are common manifestations of preparation. It also aids
mass failure in riverbanks.
On the other hand, certain landuse practices may prepare riverbanks to inhibit erosion.
Trampling by grazing animals can reinforce compactness of the top layer. Right type of
vegetation increases resistance to erosion manifold by their elaborate root systems.
However, in rivers with high banks, common in middle and lower reaches of large
rivers, effect of vegetation in arresting bank erosion tends to be limited.
Table 3: Factors influencing bank erosion. (based on Knighton, 1998)
Factor Characteristics
1. Flow properties • Magnitude-frequency and variability of stream discharge
• Magnitude and distribution of velocity and shear stress
• Degree of turbulence, generation of eddies
2. Bank material composition • Size, gradation, cohesivity and stratification of bank sediment
3. Climate • Amount, intensity and duration of rainfall
• Frequency and duration of freezing
• Wet-dry cycle
4. Subsurface conditions • Seepage forces, piping
• Soil moisture levels, porewater pressure
5. Channel geometry • Width, depth and slope of channel
• Height and angle of bank
• Bend curvature
6. Biology • Type, density and root system of vegetation
• Animal burrows, trampling, tracks
7. Anthropogenic factors • Urbanisation, land drainage, reservoir development, movement
of boats and vessels
• Bank protection structures
2.1.3 Mass failure

This has little deference from any other mass movement process seen in steep
unconsolidated materials with undercutting and unimpeded removal. Bank failure is
usually aided by high or fluctuating pore-water pressure; therefore, it is common for
failures to occur on recessional limbs of hydrographs. In increasingly more cohesive
7
banks, failures progressively take the forms of shallow slip (also called planer or
translational slide), deep-seated rotational slide and slab failure. In stratified floodplain
deposits, where banks are composed of heterogeneous materials generally in a fining-
upward sequence, failures largely depend on removal of the most erodible component
that causes the entire bank face to collapse (Robert, 2003). Here coarse, easily erodible
lateral accretion (or point bar) deposits are often overlain by fine, comparatively
resistant vertical accretion (or flood) deposits (Fig. 3A & B), making cantilever or
overhang failure commonplace. The factors that directly or indirectly influence bank
erosion are enlisted in Table 3. Main bank failure types are summarised in Fig. 4.
Figure 3A: Block diagram of a floodplain showing the association of erosional and accretional features.
Most of these features are transient and would get obliterated with riverbank erosion as the river would
swing across the floodplain and raise its elevation through horizontal and vertical accretions. (from Brown,
1997)
Figure 3B: Simplified cross-section along left edge of Fig. 3A. It illustrates the floodplain accretion types
and the complementary processes of bank erosion and accretion. As water overtops the channel during
floods, turbulence at channel bank helps accumulation of fast-settling coarse components of the entrained
sediments on the levee. (adapted from Hupp and Bornette, 2003)
8
Figure 4: Major types of bank failure (Adapted from Lawler, 2004). A: Slab failure (sliding or toppling)
B: Planer failure; C: Rotational failure; D: Cantilever failure.
Removal of bank materials through failure processes can be conceptualised as a

‘pseudo-cycle’ (Knighton, 1998) that involves: basal erosion → upper bank failure →
lower bank accumulation → entrainment of the failed blocks. As suggested by the
DOCPROBE (DOwnstream Change in the PRocess of Bank Erosion) model,
preparation process is most significant in the upstream reaches, fluid entrainment
processes dominate the middle reaches and mass failure processes prevail in the lower
reaches of a stream (Lawler, 2004). Average rates of bank erosion are best correlated
with stream power (discharge × slope), which maximises at the middle reach. They are
also correlated with discharge, bank wetness and the ratio between radius of curvature
and channel width (Bridge, 2003).
2.2 Coastal erosion
The COAST may be defined as a broad zone that extends from the landward limit of
marine processes to the seaward limit of alluvial processes. It includes beaches, chenier
plains, barrier islands, deltas, estuaries—all those parts of a seaboard region affected by
the proximity of a shoreline: a whole assemblage of landforms. The SHORELINE, on the
other hand, is a linearity between the sea and a beach. It, therefore, is local and non-
permanent. Coastal erosion refers to net landward shift of the shoreline and, with it, the
coast. In maps, coastline is defined as the landward limit of spring tide in fair-weather
conditions (Section 3.1).
A COASTAL SYSTEM conjures up the entire spectrum of interactions between the coastal
sediments and the three most important variables that govern coastal morphodynamics:
sediment input by rivers, sediment reworking by waves and sediment reworking by
tides. Among these, the first variable is accretional and the other two, primarily
erosional. Whether a particular coastal stretch would accrete or erode depends largely
on relative dominance of these variables. The type of landform assemblage of a coastal
9
zone also depends on the same three variables. Hence, coastal landforms are reliable
indicators of the dominant variable of a given littoral tract.
The major processes that are responsible for coastal erosion include wave- and tide-
induced currents. Basal erosion by waves and tides may also lead to mass failure of
cliffs and dunes.
2.2.1 Wave refraction
In rocky coasts, wave orthogonals converge towards promontories due to submarine
topography. This concentrates wave energy and cause erosion of the headlands;
accretion predominates at the bays.
Figure 5: Wave induced currents that remove sediments—longshore and rip. (adapted from Woodroffe,
2002)
2.2.2 Wave-induced currents: Rip cell

After breaking, wave transforms into current. Its shore-parallel component is called
longshore current and the seaward directed component, that transports water and
sediments back into the sea, is called rip current (Fig. 5). Rip occupies the position
where waves diverge and wave set-up is low. During storms rip current velocities
typically reach 2–10 m s–1 and the cells become major instruments of erosion of the
shoreface (cf: Fig. 2).
2.2.3 Beach drift
Beach drift operates in the swash zone and results from oblique wave approach. Saw-
tooth movement of obliquely approaching swash and gravity-controlled shore-normal
backwash actions sets up a net shore-parallel movement of sediments in the direction of
wave approach. Beach drift is a major factor of coastal erosion in sandy beaches.
2.2.4 Bi-directional tidal currents: Dominant ebb flow
Although not important along open shorelines, tidal currents are very effective in
estuaries and tidal channels especially where time-velocity asymmetry (i.e., flood or ebb
dominance) develops. In case of ebb dominance, this involves comparatively shorter
duration and higher velocity of the ebb currents than the floods, resulting in seaward
movement of sediments. Velocity of ebb flows can reach up to 1.5–10 m s–1 (cf: Fig. 2).
2.2.5 Mass movement
Mass movement becomes important where the shoreline terminates at frontal dunes,
10
clay banks or sea cliffs. Recession of the dune or the cliff becomes synonymous with
coastal retreat in such localities. The types of mass movements associated with coastal
region is not very different from the types discussed in Section 2.1.3. However, here
basal erosion is mostly provided by shore-normal waves and tides instead of bank-
parallel flows.
3 MEASURING COASTLINE AND RIVERBANK SHIFTS FROM
CARTOGRAPHIC SOURCES
Information sources for detecting changes in riverbank and coastline positions are most
prolific (Gurnell et al., 2003). They range from accurate depictions in high-resolution
satellite images to tentative impression acquired from oral histories (Table 4). Among
these, cartography, and ground survey provide the most reliable information on past
positions of coasts and banklines (Brierly and Fryirs, 2005).
Table 4: Changes in riverbank and coastline positions: Information sources.
Graphical sources
► Maps
● Cadastral maps
● Topographical maps
● Administrative (e.g: Police Station maps)
● Thematic Maps showing hydrography
► Images
● Aerial photographs
● Satellite images (Optical and Microwave)
► Hydrographic charts
► Photographs and pictures
Written and oral evidences
► Printed descriptions / travelogues
► Government reports
► Newspaper / periodical reports
► Oral evidences
Non-documentary sources
► Archaeological artefacts
► Morphology
► Sedimentary and depositional records
► Dendrochronology
► Pollen and other biological evidences
► Lichenometry
► Radiometric (14C) dating
► Thermoluminescence dating
Direct measurement
► Conventional survey
● Theodolite triangulation
● Offset measurement from fixed references
► Global Positioning System (GPS) Survey
► Erosion Pin and Photo-Electronic Erosion Pin (PEEP) Survey
A coastline is usually defined as the landward limit of seawater during the high spring
tides under normal (i.e. not stormy) conditions (Bird, 1985:4). A bankline, on the other
hand, is the linearity where riverwater is separated from land in the bankful condition.
11
Comparing maps, navigational charts, aerial photos and satellite images to determine
long-term coastline changes is a useful practice, employed the world over. The results of
such works are expressed in terms of area or line measurements over a specific period,
based on the dates of the materials used (Carr, 1962, 1980; DeBoer and Carr, 1969;
Hooke and Kain, 1982; Bird, 1985:5–8; Cooke and Doorncamp, 1989:282; Dugdale,
1990; Gurnell et al., 2003; Brierly and Fryirs, 2005).
While there may not be any problem to delineate riverbanks or coastlines that are
clearly-depicted in maps or charts, extracting this information from aerial photos and/or
satellite images is largely subjective and depends on one’s skill of visual analysis of
images. As noted by Bird (1985: 4-5), defining the limit of spring tides is a matter of
interpretation and often a problem by itself. This is inseparable from most studies
involving coastline shifts. In practice, especially when using aerial photos or satellite
images, coastlines are generally measured with reference to seaward limits of frontal
dunes, backshore vegetation or marginal embankments. Terrestrial vegetation and
embankments, wherever present, also become handy in picking up riverbanks when
they are lined by sand- or clay-banks during low-stage condition.
It is desirable that the time- and date-of-pass (DoP) of the image to be used for change
detection study should correspond to spring tide and/or bankful condition for reliable
representation of inundation levels. From the path-row, date and time information
available in satellite orbital calendars, it is not difficult to choose the ideal DoP for any
particular area and placing order accordingly. Taking a hypothetical example, at
Haldiya, spring high tide took place on 20 November 2005 at 9:58 am. Among the IRS
satellites, Resourcesat-1 had a DoP on the same day at 10:17 IST (Path-18 Row-57). If
this DoP is the closest match with the spring high tide condition during winter of 2005-
06 among IRS satellites in Haldiya area, it should be requested to the data-provider. 1
3.1 Graphical methods

To detect riverbank and coastline changes from maps and images, it is first required to
bring all available materials of the target area to identical scale. The preferred scale for
this should be determined on the basis of the RF of the available materials as well as the
feature of interest. For example, if one has a 1:63,360 map of 1942, a 1:50,000 map of
1968-69, a 1:50,000 FCC of 1990 and a 1:25,000 FCC of 2005, one should choose
1:50,000 as the standard because this would involve 126.72% enlargement of the
1:63,360 map and 50% reduction of the 1:25,000 image to 1:50,000 before extraction of
information. Two of the four materials can thus be left unaltered. The factor of reduction
or enlargement can be obtained by the ratio of the RFs of maps and images. Optical
enlargements beyond 150% generally results in noticeable increment in thickness of
lines and should generally be avoided. Conversely, reductions less than 50% degrade
quality of information. However, if only a small area of the map—e.g. curvature of a
meander—requires consideration, then enlargement of most of the materials may
become necessary.
1
For the Hugli estuary, yearly tide table is published by the SoI and sold by the Kolkata Port Trust.
Yearly orbital calendars of IRS satellites are available from NRSA on request.
12
Table 5: IRS images for coastline and riverbank change detection: Availability from NRSA.
Data Type Satellite / Product Pixel Approximate Requisition Info Price Remarks
Sensor 1 Size coverage & scale in Rs 2
Land-water interface may
IRS-1A/1B L2 15′×15′
36.25 m 5,000 appear fuzzy due to
LISS-2 Geocoded To be ordered by
Correspond to SoI coarse resolution
1:50k SoI topomap
IRS-1C/1D 1:50,000 maps: Ideal FCC for 1:50k
ID; e.g.: 73M10 or 9,000
LISS-3 L3 15′×15′ 28 km × 28 km comparison
23.5 m 79B08
IRS-P6 Geocoded To be procured for better
9,000
LISS-3 fidelity since Oct 2003
Correspond to Comparable to 1:25k
Pan 7½′×7½′
1:25,000 maps: 9,000 maps but geometric
Geocoded
IRS-1C/1D 14 km × 14 km accuracy not guaranteed
Pan Pan 7½′×7½′ Georeferenced with extra
Note: To be ordered by
Photoproduct Precision 9,000 care. Ideal for comparing
(FCC or Geocoded The panchromatic 7½′×7½′ square (or with 1:25k maps
B&W print photoproducts can 9′×9′ / 5′×5′ / 3¾
on paper) L4-mono 5.8 m also be ordered for
IRS-P6 ′×3¾′ / 2½′×2½′ To be procured for better
7½′×7½′ 5′×5′ (9 km×9 km)
LISS-4 square, as applicable) 9,000 fidelity of Pan scenes
Precision floating square at
Mono in lon/lat, after since Oct 2003
Geocoded the same price. RF delineating the area
IRS-P6 L4-mxl of 5′×5′ prints of interest in SoI Precisely georectified
LISS-4 7½′×7½′ enlarges to map(s). The area can 11,000 FCC that offer useful
Multi- Precision 1:12,500. be floating, i.e., can information on 1:12.5k
spectral Geocoded cover two or more (cadastral) level
As above. 5′×5′ & topographical maps. Pan-aft/fore sensors are
Pan-aft 2½′×2½′ floating designed mainly for
IRS-P5
7½′×7½′ 2.5 m squares also 10,000 urban mapping and DEM
Pan-After
Orthorectified available at a extraction. Provide more
reduced price. accurate cadastral info.
IRS-1A/1B To be ordered by
Full Scene 36.25 m 74 km × 87 km 3,000
LISS-2 Path/Row Digital data can
determined from conform to any scale
IRS-
Full Scene NRSA reference
1C/1D/P6 23.5 m 141 km × 141 km 7,000 and projection after
(incl SAT3) maps issued for
LISS-3 georectification by the
individual IRS user. Image(s) can be
satellites. This info generated for single
IRS-1C/1D Full Scene
70 km × 70 km is also available at 7,000
Pan or (incl SAT) band or with any band
www.nrsa.org combination /
IRS-P6
LISS-4 To be ordered by equalisation for better
Pan 7½′×7½′ — understanding. LISS
Mono 7½′×7½′ square in 7,000
Geocoded and Pan data can also be
Dataproduct lon/lat
(Digital data merged to get colour
IRS-P6 5.8 m
in CD) information on a higher
LISS-4 Full Scene
23.5 km × 23.5 km 9,000 resolution. Ideal ‘pan-
Multi- (incl SAT)
sharpening’ solutions
spectral
are L3+Pan (or L3+L4-
IRS-P6 mono) and L4mxl+Pan-
L4-mxl To be ordered by
LISS-4 After. Care must be
Precision 7½′×7½′ floating 10,000
Multi- taken to use close DoP
Geocoded square in lon/lat
spectral with same inundation
— level, if not the same
To be ordered by
Pan-aft Geo- DoP, for the scenes to
27.5 km ×27.5 km
IRS-P5 Pan referenced 2.5 m 8,000 be merged.
floating square in
Mono
lon/lat
1. Quality IRS-1A/1B data are not available after December 1997. IRS-P6 (Resourcesat-1) and IRS-P5 (Cartosat-1) data are obtainable
only after Oct 2003 and May 2005 respectively.
2. Prices are valid up to March 2010. NRSA allow 50% discount on DoP older than three years for any five products requisitioned by
academic users (students) upon production of certificate from the Head of the Institution.
3. SAT or Shift-Along-Track facility is used for ordering L3 or Pan data of areas falling between two adjacent rows along a satellite path at
no extra charge. E.g., L3 Scene of Path 108 Row 55 with 70% SAT covers southern 30% of Row 55 and northern 70% of Row 56.
13
Table 6: Useful maps for determining riverbank and coastline changes in West Bengal.
Map Type Producing Scale Approx Remarks
Agency Range of
YoS
Topographical maps: Survey of 1:63,360; 1909 Standard base materials for starting any comparative
Old ‘inch’, ‘two-inch’ India 1:31,680 & through study of coastline / riverbank shift. Two editions are
and ‘quarter-inch’ 1:253,440 1942 available for most areas of WB. Some old 1:63,360
editions maps used to show mouza borders as well.
Topographical maps: Survey of 1:25,000; Late Standard reference materials for coastline / bank
New ‘metric’ editions India 1:50,000 & 1950s to positions. Accuracy increases with scale. Some
1:250,000 Present 1:25k maps incorporate mouza boundaries.
Police Station / Block Land 1:63,360 1950s Required mainly for administrative boundaries and
maps updates, Records with have the advantage of coming in the same scale as
showing mouzas Department boundary ‘inch’ maps. Can be used as base material in areas
updates where ‘inch’ maps are unavailable. Lon/Lat are not
shown only in map borders.
Mouza maps with Land 1:3,960 As above Indispensable sources of cadastral borders but do
updates, showing Records not conform to any projection. Need to be
cadastral plots Department juxtaposed on block maps first on the basis of
mouza outlines. Instances of boundary mismatch are
common.
In less-than-ideal situations, it is not uncommon to come across a map or image the

scale of which is uncertain. This can be determined from spacing of latitudes or
longitudes, if present. The approximate ground distance of one minute of latitude, i.e.
one nautical mile, is 1,852 m. If the spacing of 15′ of latitudes in a map is 0.4384 m, its
RF can be worked out as (1,852×15′)/0.4384 = 63,367 ~ 63,360. Finding the same value
for longitudes is a bit tricky because distance between any two longitudes decreases
poleward. This necessitates multiplication by cos of the mid-value of the latitudinal
extension of the concerned map. (cos 0°=1, cos 90°=0.) For example, if the central
latitude of a map is 22°7′30″N, one minute of longitude of the map should equal 1,852
m × cos 22°7′30″ = 1715.6268 m.
The scale of a map with no longitude and latitude can only be determined by comparing
it with another map of the same area with known scale. Here at least two man-made
features must first be located in both maps and their straight-line distances found out.
The ratio between the two base line lengths can then be multiplied with the known RF
to find out the unknown RF. For example, if a 28.64-cm base line on a 1:50,000 map
measures 5.65 cm in a map with uncertain scale, the RF of the latter can be determined
as 28.64/5.65×50,000 = 253,451. In all probability the original RF of the map was
1:253,440 (1″ ≡ 4 miles); measurement inaccuracies and non-feasibility of measuring
beyond two decimal points of a cm lead to the mismatch. This example emphasises that
some error is unavoidable in studies like this due to measurement inaccuracies. Scale
error in old maps due to poor storage, paper shrinkage and repairing is not uncommon
and this should always be borne in mind when comparing maps and images.
3.1.1 Reduction and enlargement
There are at least three ways how scale reduction or enlargement of maps can be
attempted. Using mechanical pantagraph is the first possibility. It is rather a
cumbersome instrument to handle and difficult to run accurately on many thin and
delicate lines that conjure up a map of the littoral or riparian zone. Fixing an
enlargement- or reduction-ratio beyond the units graduated in the instrument is often not
possible. Optical pantagraphs form the second option. This equipment—e.g. Optomech
14
011—enlarges or reduces maps optically by a combination of light sources, mirrors and

lenses and projects an image on a glass plate for tracing. In some instruments—like the
Korestat A-31—reprographic image can be formed directly on paper. Typical
magnification range of these instruments is about 25% through 400%. Optical
instruments, unfortunately, introduces some distortions towards edges of the final
products (Carr, 1962). The problem becomes more pronounced in enlargement than in
reduction jobs. Analogue photocopiers that offer reduction and enlargement facilities for
certain fixed ratios typically introduce unacceptable amounts of geometric error and are
not recommended. Finally, digital reducer-enlarger setups—such as Xerox 033N—can
be employed. With magnification range varying between 10% and 400% (in steps of
0.1%), these facilities offer the most convenient and accurate way of getting the job
done. The equipment does away with mechanical or optical processes by scanning the
map / image into a raster file and then printing it through a large-format (A1/A0) inkjet
plotter after applying required magnification. Using the same principle, home / small
office printer-scanner-copiers like HP PSC-1210 offer magnification range of 50%–
400% (in steps of 1%) and produces acceptable results for maps and images smaller
than A4. An alternative way of using the home / small office setup is to scan the map at
100%, save it and then get it printed to the required size using options available in
graphics software like Adobe Photoshop (File > Print Options > Scale). Enlargement or
reduction possibilities in this method are practically limitless and are possible in steps of
0.01%.
3.1.2 Superposition
After bringing all the materials to same scale, they need to be superposed one on
another. This exercise, understandably, is completed on tracing table by copying the
required information from the map(s) and image(s) on a tracing film using 0.1- and/or
0.2-mm rapidographs. For tracing, polyester films are better option than papers because
the former are waterproof, tear-resistant and provide higher transparency and erase-
ability. Their archival quality is also superior.
Using individual tracing films for individual maps may not be a good idea as this
involves one extra step of copying and may affect accuracy. Intersection of latitudes and
longitudes present in maps and most NRSA geocoded images form convenient reference
points for superposition. Alternatively, fairly permanent physiographic features like
peaks, waterfalls or anthropogenic features like railway, road and canal crossings, bends
and junctions of embankments, corners of square-shaped ponds etc. are used. Riparian
and sedimentological features can change within a few years and should never be used
as references.
Once all required information is available on a single sheet, data extraction can begin.
Disparity between banks or coastlines of any two given years usually forms few or
many area units (or ‘polygons’ if this term can be borrowed from GIS!), which can be
colour-coded—red for erosion and green for accretion—to get a visual impression of
change. Next, areas of the individual polygons are measured and added together to get
the net area eroded or accreted in the studied stretch of riverbank or coastline.
Superimposition of mouza or block boundaries can further improve usefulness of the
data by categorising them according to administrative units.
3.1.3 Area and line measurements
Among various techniques for area measurement from paper, polar planimeters are by
far the most effective (Gardiner, 1990). Both analogue (e.g. Placom PM-II) and digital
(e.g. Sokkia Placom KP-90N) verities can be used and their accuracies are not
15
incomparable with GIS methods described later. Digital polar planimeters can be
programmed to measure maps of any conventional scale and results can be directly
displayed in any metric or imperial unit. Area of individual polygons can also be stored
in the equipment’s memory to display the cumulative results later. Accuracy of these
instruments usually stays within ±0.5%. Polar planimeters, however, encounter
difficulty in measuring very small and/or markedly narrow and elongated areas.
Therefore, their utility may become somewhat limited in areas where coastline or
riverbank shifts have been minimal. Counting 1-mm squares enclosed by polygons and
converting the results to appropriate scale produce acceptable level of accuracy.
Compared to planimeters, this may offer more reliability for small and elongated areas.
The method, however, is time-consuming and laborious; it is not a practical option for
large areas that usually include many polygons.
Apart from area estimates, at-a-point linear erosion/accretion rates can also be measured
orthogonal to coastlines or riverbanks, using dividers and diagonal scales.
3.2 Digital methods
3.2.1 Scanning
To digitally assess the impacts of altered riverbank and coastline positions, all maps and
areal photos are first scanned to raster format. 2 Scanning as 300 pixels-per-inch (ppi)
bitmaps into compressed Tagged Image File Format (tiff or .tif) suffices most
applications and is economical in file size (typically 2 MB for an A1 map). In maps with
high details, tiff-greyscale or tiff-colour formats are chosen. This however, increases the
file size dramatically (up to 80 MB). Using Joint Photographic Experts Group (jpeg or
.jpg) format in compressed form partially solves this problem but at the cost of loss of
image quality. The newer jpeg-2000 (.jp2), format, however, offers apparently loss-less
compression (i.e., it compresses without loss in resolution).
3.2.2 Datum, projection and resolution
At this point it is necessary to determine the target pixel size (spatial resolution),
reference spheroid (datum) and projection of the maps and images to be used for the
study. Pixel size of the satellite data—e.g. 5.8 m for Pan and 36.25 m for L2—are
normally kept unaltered. For maps, a rule of thumb is to multiply the RF with 2×10–4
and adjust it to the closest multiple of 2.5 m. This means that pixel resolution of a 1:
63,360 map should equal 63,360 × 0.0002 = 12.67 m ≈ 12.5 m. Works involving SoI
maps must agree to SoI datum, i.e., Everest 1830. Universal Transverse Mercator
(UTM: Zone North-45 for West Bengal) offers most wide compatibility to different data
systems and RS/GIS software and is recommended as the ideal projection.
3.2.3 Georectification
After bringing all materials into RS/GIS environment, the maps are georeferenced first
on the basis of longitudes and latitudes. Next, the scanned aerial photos and satellite
data are corrected on the basis of Ground Control Points (GCP), collected from the
already georeferenced maps. Anthropogenic and permanent natural features mentioned
in Section 3.1.2 are used as GCPs. The latest SoI map of a given area is used as standard
for referencing. The maps with no longitudes and latitudes are also geocoded on the
basis of GCPs.
2
Scanning of SoI topographical maps is not permissible outside selected government agencies. Required
features need to be traced on a film and it is the film that should get scanned.
16
Georeferencing and projection ascription to maps and images automatically bring all
materials to same scale and make them compatible to each other.
3.2.4 Image fusion, mosaicing and filtering
Merging of data from high-resolution panchromatic and low-resolution multispectral
sensors (Table 5) is done at this stage. In critical studies, it is advisable to merge the data
before attempting georectification to avoid the effects of georeferencing error, if any, on
the merged data. This also makes individual georeferencing of the two image files to be
merged unnecessary. However, mosaicing of maps and/or images—i.e. stitching
together two or more files representing adjacent areas into a single file—is always done
after geocoding them individually. It is customary to process the satellite images
through a 3-pixel × 3-pixel edge-detection filter to help easy identification of boundaries
of features during generation of vector layer (digitisation).
3.2.5 Area extraction and measurement
GIS packages cannot measure area unless the vector is a polygon. To automate
extraction of accreted/eroded areas due to shifts in coastlines or riverbanks, it is
important to digitise the features as polygons, not lines. This also facilitates colour-
filling of the water area in the final map output. For rivers, the entire area between the
two banklines is brought under a single polygon for any given year. The points where
the riverbanks terminate at the border of map are joined by a straight line. For coastline
of a given year, an arbitrary boundary is selected either in the seaward or landward side
and the polygon looks like a rectangle, but for the side representing coastline. Digitising
coastal islands presents no difficulty as they already are polygons. However, it is
sometimes required to isolate an island from water area enclosed by two riverbanks.
One convenient way of doing this is to form two separate polygons of water area from
upstream and downstream sides of the island, keeping it in the middle and then merging
the two polygons into one.
To bring out erosion and accretion information from the digitised riverbanks of two
different years, GIS methods called ‘overlay’, ‘union’ and ‘intersection’ are employed.
Firstly, the two riverbank polygons—say representing 1967-69 and 2005—are
superposed to create a third polygon representing areas common to both of the years.
This polygon stands for the river area that was subjected neither to accretion nor to
erosion between 1967-69 and 2005. Next, the Common Area polygon is overlaid on the
1968-69 vector to form a fourth polygon that includes only the areas that fall outside the
former. This polygon represents the area accreted due to riverbank shift. Similarly, the
Common Area vector is also placed on the top of the 2005 vector to produce a fifth
polygon representing the areas not common to any of them. This final polygon
corresponds to the areas eroded due to changes in bankline positions. Erosion and
accretion by coastline shift can also be brought out by the same principle but one has to
bear in one’s mind whether the polygons represent water or land area.
There can be another approach to this problem involving just one overlay and
subsequent attribute ascription. In this method, the 1967-69 and 2005 riverbank
polygons are overlaid to form a third polygon with intersected areas. In it, no area is
discarded and many new segments are formed as the two vectors intersect each other.
Next, in the attribute table of the newly formed polygon, all its segments are ascribed
either to ‘accretion’ or to ‘erosion’ or to ‘common area’. Instead of the full words, using
letters ‘A’, ‘E’ and ‘C’ saves time and may seem more convenient. If required, they can
always be changed later with the ‘replacement’ function of attribute table editor.
17
Consider a situation where the river being studied is narrow and shifts so much that its
2005 course has no common area with the 1967-69 course. If the river runs from north
to south and shifted west, the area eroded by its right (western) bank was accreted again
by the left (eastern) bank. Conditions like these cannot be brought out solely by overlay
union and intersection, and require more complex processing.
The final outputs of either of the two methods can further be processed by overlying
them on an administrative boundary polygon with attributes like JL number, mouza
name and block name. With selection of proper options in the GIS software, this final
overlaying automatically attaches administrative details on the accretion/erosion
segments and helps to sort data according to administrative units and status of change.
The final database can be colour-coded and displayed with all collateral information like
administrative boundaries, lines of communication, important settlements etc.
Preliminary processing of the data to achieve net results can be done within the GIS
programme itself or can be exported to standard statistical software like MS Excel or
SPSS for further analysis.
3.3 Accuracy issues
According to the standards of SoI map accuracy (Agarwal, 1974), 90 per cent of the
details featured in a map should be within 0.5 mm on the scale of publication. In a
1:50,000 map, paper distance of 0.5 mm represents 25 m of ground distance; in a
1:63,360 map, this equals 31.7 m. Therefore, when superposing these two types of
maps, a mismatch of 56.7 m (25 m + 31.7 m) between 90 per cent of the features cannot
be considered erroneous. This is equivalent of five-and-a-half 10-m pixels. For the
remaining 10 per cent of features, the range of error can be more but it seldom exceeds
1 mm on the scale of publication. Following the same principle, the limit of error in a base
line drawn between two features may be as much as 50 m (25 m × 2) in a 1:50,000 map and
63.4 m (31.7 m × 2) in a 1:63, 360 map. When comparing the same base line represented in
these two types of maps the mismatch may be as high as 113.4 m (50 m + 63.4 m) and still
stay within the SoI standard of accuracy.
Accuracy of the old 1:63,360 series maps surveyed during early 20th century vary by a
large amount in comparison to more recent and supposedly more accurate 1:50,000
maps. In one instance, 48 precise measurements of baselines between two check points,
made on original 1:63,360 and 1:50,000 maps, indicated that the errors introduced by
distortion of paper were not significant and the positional inaccuracies were present. In
27 per cent of the cases they exceed the SoI standard of accuracy, ±113 m, explained
above. The average value of error was –46.83 m, with a standard deviation of 98.72 m
(Bandyopadhyay et al., 2004). It therefore seems sober to accept that coastline and
riverbank shifts, derived by a study using the old editions of toposheets may have a
maximum error range of ±100 m (±2 mm on 1:50,000 or ten 10-m pixels).
Correctness of High Water Level (HWL) marked in a SoI map of coastal region also
needs assessing. The latest SoI ‘metric maps’ of WB coast were all surveyed between
1967 and 1970 on the basis of aerial photos with field checks. Interpreting HWL from
images is largely subjective and this is reflected even in the SoI maps. In non-reclaimed
Sundarban, water inundates the entire island floor during spring tides. If coastline is
defined as the limit of spring tide, no coastline can be drawn in these islands. In SoI
maps depicting non-reclaimed Sundarban, HWL rightly follow limits of mangrove
canopy while the mud- and sand-flats fringing the mangroves are shown as intertidal.
This situation changes in reclaimed Sundarban, where HWL invariably follow coastal
dykes and the mangrove patches fringing the embanked islands are shown as intertidal
18
(cf: map 79C/6). Elsewhere, in western Subarnarekha delta, a 7.5-km long and 0.25- to
2-km wide dense mangrove patch with prominent supratidal dunes is shown as
intertidal, with the HWL running north of a lagoon that separates the forest patch from
the mainland (cf: map 73O/6). Detection of map errors in representing coastline and
riverbanks go a long way in minimising misinterpretation of data and standardising
them. Subjective mistakes in interpreting feature boundaries or in discriminating
different types of features are not uncommon in most large-scale map series (Gurnell et
al., 2003).
The PS maps, prepared by the Land Records Department of the Government of West
Bengal come on 1:63,360 and are largely based on ‘one-inch’ SoI maps. There is no
accuracy standard available for the PS maps, and it is found to vary significantly from
one area of the map to the other.
For change detection study, accuracy of IRS data are comparable to that of any
international agency (Gilvear and Bryant, 2003). Geometric precision of IRS images,
especially in a deltaic plain, is much higher than the SoI standards. Using accurate GPS-
generated GCPs, the positional errors of IRS Pan scenes can be restricted well within
two 5.8-m pixels—i.e. within 11.6 m—in most cases. Therefore, the extent of mismatch
between an accurately geocoded Pan image and a 1:50,000 map should stay within the
range of 36.6 m (25 m + 11.6 m) in 90 per cent of features. This is equivalent to 0.7 mm
on 1:50,000 or three-and-a-half 10-m pixels.
3.4 Data Presentation
Standardisation of erosion/accretion data is important when comparing between
different time units. Maps for East Medinipur coast, e.g., is available for 1913-16 (PS
map), 1931-32 (SoI ‘inch’ map), 1968-70 (SoI ‘metric’ map) and 2005 (IRS-P6 L3
Image). This means, when generated, the spans of erosion/accretion datasets will be
quite disparate: 17 years, 37.5 years and 36 years. To overcome this problem, such
datasets need to be presented in yearly rates.
7.5
1913-16 -- 1931-32 (17 years)

1931-32 -- 1968-70 (37.5 years)
5
1968-69 -- 2001 (32 years)
2.5
Rate of Area Change (ha/yr)
-2.5
-5
-7.5
Talsari Digha Shankarpur Chandpur Jalda Dadanpatra
Coastal Sectors
Figure 6: Rates of area change in coastal sectors of East Medinipur. This diagram, drawn in MS Excel,
illustrates one way of presenting change-detection data that involve both erosion and accretion. Source:
PS Maps of 1913-16, SoI Maps 73O/6, 10 & 14 of 1931-32 & 1968-70, IRS 1D L3+Pan image of 2001.
19
Figure 7: Islands of the middle Hugli estuary in four different years between 1904-05 and 1922-23. Data
from RSD chart, SoI maps 79B/4, 79C/2 and IRS Pan+L3 fused image. All maps are shown in individual
panels with the changes highlighted in dotted lines. (from Bandyopadhyay et al., 2004)
Figure 8: Changes in mouza areas of Mousuni island as portrayed in different editions of SoI map 79C/2
and IRS Pan+L3 data. High water levels of all years are superposed in a single map. (from
Bandyopadhyay et al., 2004)
20
Table 7: Changes in mouza areas in Mousuni island, Hugli Estuary: 1922-23—2001. (Based on Fig.
8)
Area in ha Area Index (Base: 1922-23)
JL No Mouza Name 1
1922-23 1942 1967-69 2001 1942 1967-69 2001
62 Mousuni 534.92 416.94 972.51 768.66 77.94 181.81 143.70
63 Baliara 1,132.09 888.43 968.62 815.04 78.48 85.56 71.99
72 Bagdanga 684.63 651.03 548.97 512.50 95.09 80.18 74.86
73 Kusumtala 893.17 826.02 805.55 731.60 92.48 90.19 81.91
— Total of 4 mouzas 3,244.81 2,782.42 3,295.65 2,827.80 85.75 101.57 87.15
Source: Bandyopadhyay et al., 2004.
Linear coastline or riverbank shift data, presented as yearly rates, provide useful
approximation of severity of the situation. Maximum rates of linear erosion/accretion
(transgression/regression in coasts) also serve as good indicators for comparison
between different coastal sectors or time units. Figures 6–9 and Table 7 show some
typical ways of presenting erosion/accretion data.
Figure 9: Successive left bank positions of the Ganga, eroding towards east, overlaid on cadastral plots of
Jot Kasturi mouza, Kaliyachak-II block, Malda district. Positions in January 2003 (dotted line, IRS L3 data),
December 2003 (dashed line, IRS Pan data) and March 2005 (continuous line, GPS survey). Studies like
this, conducted in real time, help to identify plot-owners requiring compensation and/or relocation.
4 MEASURING COASTLINE AND RIVERBANK SHIFTS FROM FIELD

SURVEYS
4.1 Conventional Survey
For large areas, where change detection comprises many kilometres of riverbank or
coastline mapping, working on data from secondary sources like maps and images may
form the only feasible option. However, when the work involves high-resolution study
on 1:2,500~5,000 involving few kilometres or so, field survey has little alternative. Not
only it is cost-effective for a research group with limited resources, but it also can
delineate coastline or riverbanks more precisely then images. Accuracy of images is
always restricted by their spatial resolutions: e.g., anything smaller than 5.8 m cannot be
picked up by the IRS Pan sensor. This can be overcome by high-resolution sensors like
1-m Ikonos-Pan or 0.6-m QuickBird-Pan but these add to the data cost and complexity
of georeferencing. Moreover, some critical ground conditions deter feature
discrimination in standard satellite images or aerial photos. E.g., in sandy coasts it often
becomes problematic to differentiate bare dunes from dry sands of the backshore to
21
locate spring tides lines. Their digital signatures in standard spectral bands (Red, Green,
Blue, NIR and SWIR) are almost same and not separable in standard FCCs.
Changed positions of riverbanks or coastlines—especially landward shifts—can be
plotted with simple instrumentation (may be only with a tape or chain) if a 1:3,960
Cadastral Map is updated with some help from an āmin who is conversant with local
plot boundaries and survey pillars. The updated map yields information not only on
amount of land eroded or accreted but also on plot owners and landuse.
If repeated surveying is planned to monitor shifts in coastline over a given timeframe,
then it is most convenient to survey a baseline some distance away from the strandline
and mark it with permanent pillars or pegs. To prevent obliteration of the baseline, it is
important to estimate the rate of retreat of the strandline before undertaking the survey.
Among different survey techniques (Table 8), theodolite traversing is usually practised
to fix a baseline with reference to any benchmark locatable in a SoI map. With absence
of SoI or Irrigation Department benchmarks, it is substituted with a prominent and
permanent point like corner of a concrete building, jetty or lock gate identifiable in the
map or image. Its position is photographed and recorded in detail so that it can be
located during resurvey of the area in the future. In this way the surveyed data also gets
compatible with any dataset created on the basis of SoI datum.
Table 8: Basic survey techniques.
Method Description Applicability Equipment
Trilatration Solving triangles by lengths of sides Not practicable over long distances Tape / Chain / EDM 1
Triangulation Solving triangle by angles Standard for high accuracy over Ideally Total Station /
large areas Theodolite / Theodolite +
EDM or Tape /
Traversing Taking angles and lengths along a Standard for positioning baseline
circuit or line from which offsets are measured Prismatic compass + Tape /
Plane Table may be used in
Radiation Measuring lengths and angles of Widely used for measuring offsets
situations where accuracy
offsets from a reference station from stations on baseline
can be compromised by a
Intersection Solving triangle by one side and two Widely used for fixing points from large extent.
angles two stations on a baseline
Resection: Measuring lengths of offsets from Not practicable over long distances Tape / Chain / EDM / GPS
interpolation many reference stations that surround receiver(s)
the point to be fixed
Resection: Measuring lengths of offsets from Principle employed in GPS
extrapolation many reference stations that lie on positioning
one side of the point to be fixed
1. EDM stands for Electronic Distance Measurer
Once a baseline is fixed, measurement of orthogonal offsets up to the coastline or

riverbank can be taken up at every five to ten metres of the line after a desired time
interval and plotted on a suitable scale. In normal conditions, measurements before and
after the monsoons and immediately after events like cyclones or floods usually suffice.
4.2 GPS Survey
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a constellation of 24 signal-transmitting
satellites in six near-circular orbits at an altitude of 20,200 km. The geometry and
dynamics of the constellation ensure that at any given time, a minimum of four and a
maximum of 12 satellites are visible from any point of the earth. The basic principle of
GPS positioning relies on extrapolated resection (Table 8).
4.1.1 Types of GPS positioning

GPS positioning may be classified into three classes. In point or absolute positioning,
22
location of a stationary or moving point is determined with respect to a co-ordinate

system by using a single GPS receiver and observing four or more satellites. All hand-
held GPS receivers are capable of this. In differential GPS or DGPS, the differences
between observed and computed co-ordinate ranges (called differential corrections) of a
known point are transmitted to GPS receivers to upgrade their accuracy in real-time.
Some hand-held GPS sets—like Garmin GPS-12—come pre-installed with ‘beckon
receiver’ to avail this facility. The entire coastline of India is covered by DGPS. The
DGPS beckon-transmitting station of West Bengal is situated at southwestern Sagar
island. Any location falling roughly within 300 km of this station can receive its signal.
Lastly, in relative positioning, the co-ordinates of an unknown point (rover) are
determined with respect to a control point with known co-ordinates (base). This is
achieved by determination of azimuth and length of the baseline between the two
stations by simultaneous observation of four or more satellites from both points and
then by post-processing the data. Conducting GPS survey with Rover-and-Base
bundle—like the Leica GS-20—is the best option if compatibility to SoI coordinates is
required.
Under ideal PDOP conditions (Section 4.1.2), approximate accuracy levels of these
three positioning methods are ±30 m, ±3 m and ±0.1 m respectively.
4.1.2 Planning for GPS survey
Because number of visible GPS satellites and their constellation varies over time at any
one point of the globe, prior planning of GPS survey sessions is necessary for proper
timing. The strength of GPS constellation geometry is expressed by the dimensionless
value of Positional Dilution of Precision or PDOP. A PDOP value of 5 or lower is
considered adequate for most GPS surveys.
Figure 10: GPS satellite position and Positional Dilution of Precision (PDOP). Left diagram: Relative
geometric strength of GPS satellites: (a) strong geometry and low PDOP; (b) weak geometry and high
DOP. Right diagram: Plot of number of satellites visible and PDOP over changing local time of a given
station. (from Effeck, et al. 1995)
A part of the data transmitted by the GPS satellites (called ephemeris) is used by GPS
mission planning software to give minute-by-minute predictions of PDOP values,
number of visible satellite as well as their azimuth (with respect to true north) and
elevation (in degrees above horizon) several months in advance (Fig. 10). The predicted
positions can also be plotted graphically. Planning for the survey also includes thorough
consideration of terrain characteristics. The GPS signals cannot penetrate dense foliage;
therefore a fairly clear and unobstructed view of the sky from the antenna is a
prerequisite. The intended vectors that the receiver will generate also need to be planned
23
and uploaded into the receiver.

ON-FIELD DIGITISATION: Most high-end GPS receivers of today come integrated with
powerful GIS and mapping tools and are designed for carrying in backpacks for field
data collection. Before a survey session, a directory file, detailing the types of GIS
vectors to be generated in the field, is uploaded to the rover receiver from a PC. For
example, a typical directory may contain polygon entries like river island, water body or
property boundary; line entries like riverbank, coastline, gully channel or road and point
entries like tree, survey pillar, road crossing etc. During the survey session, the user
opens the directory file using the LCD display and keypad of the rover receiver, selects
the appropriate entry and starts walking (or driving) along the desired feature. The
receiver continues to log position data at pre-set intervals till the user exits from data
collection. The logging interval may range from one second to few hours. After
returning from field, the recorded vector is transferred to a GIS or mapping package for
further analysis or for plotting. In the vector, the points of data-logging are represented
as nodes. It is also generally possible to export the file to all popular GIS programmes
and RS packages.
USE IN GEOREFERENCING: The capability of field generation of vector files by the GPS
receivers also has significant application in defining control points for geocoding a
satellite image or orthophoto where no cultural or permanent physical feature is
available in a reference map to tie it down (e.g. in deserts and forests). In situations like
these, co-ordinates of distinct physical features like river confluence or water bodies are
located with GPS to use as GCPs. The GPS survey, however, has to be planned on or
very near the DoP of the image so that the features used as GCPs do not change their
positions at the time of imaging.
Figure 11: Relation between elevation (H), geodetic height (h) and geoid height (N). The relationship may
be expressed as H = h – N. (from Effeck et al. 1995)
Table 9: Comparative properties of Everest and WGS-84 Ellipsoids.
Reference ellipsoid Year of Semimajor Semiminor Flattening / Origin (initial point)
definition axis (m) axis (m) Ellipticity
EVEREST 1840 6,377,301 6,356,100 1/300.98 Kalyanpur (24°07′11.26″N / 77°39′17.57″E)

(Datum D076 or — where the separation between ellipsoid
Ellipsoid E901) and geoid is assumed as zero; i.e., H – h = 0
(see Fig. 11)
WGS-84 1984 6,378,137 6,356,752 1/298.26 Earth’s centre of mass and gravity
(Datum D000 or
Ellipsoid E012)
24
4.1.3 GPS and Survey of India datum

GEODESY: Stated simply, geodesy is the science that deals with precise measurement of
the elements on earth’s surface on the basis of gravity field and a global frame of
reference. To define a position mathematically, geodesy makes use of three surfaces:
earth’s actual exterior, geoid and reference ellipsoid. • Earth’s physical surface is the
actual topographic surface on which earth measurements are made. It is not suitable,
however, for precise mathematical computations because the formulae, which need take
its irregularities into account, necessitate a prohibitive amount of calculations. • The
Geoid is an equipotential surface of earth’s gravitational attraction and rotation. It is
nearly ellipsoidal but still a complex surface. Geoid cannot be described geometrically
and must be determined by point by point observations. Geoid, however, is a physical
reality, which can be apprehended through Mean Sea Level observations. At geoid
surface, the direction of gravity and axis of a levelled theodolite are perpendicular. This
is why geoid is used as the reference datum for measurement of heights (Fig. 11). In
spite of that, the geoid is not suitable as a surface for performing mathematical
computations. • The reference ellipsoid (or spheroid) is an arbitrary and user-defined
geometrical figure that can be described mathematically. It closely approximates the
geoid or the actual topographic surface. Since the reference ellipsoid is a mathematical
figure, computations can be conveniently performed on this surface. It is ideal for
defining horizontal positions of points on the earth’s surface.
The idea is schematically elaborated in Figure 12. In it, Xw,Yw and Zw axes represent
the WGS-84 frame of reference. Its centre, Cw, is located at the earth’s centre of gravity.
Using WGS-84, a point on the earth’s surface, P, is defined by co-ordinates
PXw,PYw,PZw. The same point, however is defined by different co-ordinates
PXe,PYe,PZe if Everest frame of reference is used, which is represented by axes Xe,Ye
and Ze.
The reference ellipsoids are of two categories: geocentric and local. In a geocentric
reference ellipsoid, the centre is located at the centre of gravity of the earth. Conversely,
a local reference ellipsoid is chosen to fit a given local datum as close as possible. Its
centre, therefore, does not coincide with the mass centre of the earth. Several local (or
national) reference ellipsoids are used by various countries—each conforming to
different local datums. Survey of India (SoI), for example, uses the Everest ellipsoid as
the basis of its topographic surveys. The GPS, on the other hand uses a geocentric
ellipsoid called World Geodetic System 1984 or WGS-84. For this reason the location of
a place—either in terms of latitude/longitude or in terms of 3-dimensional rectangular
co-ordinates (X,Y,Z)—is defined differently by the SoI and the GPS. The disparity
typically ranges into few hundred metres. In southern West Bengal, the linear mismatch
of a position defined by Everest co-ordinates is about 350 ±50 m southeast from the
same WGS-84 co-ordinates.
USING GPS IN SOI FRAME OF REFERENCE: The problem that real-time GPS or DGPS co-
ordinates do not match SoI ones can be overcome by relative positioning (Section 4.1.1)
if SoI co-ordinates are used to define the known (base) station. The differences between
X- Y- and Z-components of the two reference ellipsoids then automatically get adjusted
to yield SoI-compatible values for the unknown (rover) stations.
25
Figure 12: Schematic comparison between Everest and WGS-84 ellipsoids. (adapted from Agrawal, 1999)
Table 10: Approximate conversion of WGS-84 coordinates into Everest-1830 coordinates on the basis
of seven control points from Digha township, East Medinipur. Units are in metre (UTM Zone 45Q).
Waypoint WGS-84 Everest Difference
Sl. Locality
ID E N E N E N
1–7: Control Points collected simultaneously from field (WGS-84) and geocoded L3+Pan merged image (Everest)
1 D342 551291 2391101 551511 2390852 –220 249 Science Centre crossing
2 D343 550168 2391046 550386 2390787 –218 259 Digha Border crossing
3 D362 551928 2391141 552146 2390888 –218 253 Youth Hostel crossing
4 D401 554186 2391247 554412 2390999 –226 248 Shivalay Road crossing (S)
5 D432 554073 2392152 554293 2391897 –220 255 Shivalay Road crossing (N)
6 D433 554357 2392331 554580 2392083 –223 248 Bypass crossing
7 D436 554492 2391469 554710 2391218 –218 251 Tourist Lodge Junction
Average deviations (corrections to be applied to WGS-84 data) = –220 252 —
Standard deviation = ±3 ±4 —
8–14: Unknown Points collected from field (WGS-84) and converted to Everest for plotting on the geocoded
database
8 DN-1 555060 2391473 555280 2391221 –220 252
9 DN-2 555056 2391476 555276 2391224 –220 252
10 DN-3 555053 2391482 555273 2391230 –220 252 Points taken along retreated
11 DN-4 555061 2391496 555281 2391244 –220 252 coastline east of Digha
12 DN-7 555060 2391517 555280 2391265 –220 252 township in January, 2006
13 DN-8 555073 2391530 555293 2391278 –220 252
14 DN-9 555083 2391545 555303 2391293 –220 252
Alternatively, if only one GPS receiver is used, WGS-84 coordinates of a number of

well-distributed control points are obtained first from the area to be mapped. The
Everest coordinates of the same points are determined next from SoI maps to find out
the longitudinal and latitudinal difference of each of the points. Finally, the differences
are averaged and applied to all unknown points along a riverbank or coastline to convert
the WGS-84 values into SoI-compatible figures. This method operates most suitably in
conjugation with RS/GIS programmes, where co-ordinate of any location can be
obtained by simply placing the cursor on the map or image (and vive versa). Because
26
calculations using easting and northing values are more convenient than using longitude
and latitude values, this technique works best if both the GPS receiver and the RS/GIS
software are configured to metric units and to UTM projection. Both systems can then
use the same easting and northing values. Table 10 provides an example of obtaining
Everest-WGS-84 disparity values for an area of interest. It must be noted that, because
of geoidal properties, there cannot be any unique disparity value for a large area; the
value differs by tens of metres from one area to another. The average easting and
northing values of deviations obtained in Table-10 would not apply, for example, in
Kolkata.
This method of transferring WGS-84 positions to SoI frame of reference works with
reasonable accuracy in one to two adjacent 1:50,000 toposheets. It is not recommended
for mapping on a scale larger than this. For areas larger that a toposheet or two, fresh
sets of control points are taken.
4.3 Erosion Pin and Photo-Electronic Erosion Pin (PEEP) Survey
Conventional methods like resurvey techniques and long iron pins (called erosion pins)
driven into vertical face of eroding river banks are useful for revealing net change to a
site since the previous field visit. They, however, cannot reveal the temporal distribution
of erosion and deposition. Conceptualised by Damian Lawler, The PEEP (Photo-
Electronic Erosion Pin) system allows automatic monitoring of these activities. The
timing, magnitude and frequency of any at-a-site erosion/deposition event can be clearly
identified. E.g., it is not unknown that in many instances riverbank retreat maximises
during falling stage as the groundwater seeps out from its bottom (Section 2.1.3). Data
from PEEP survey in conjugation with discharge records can provide data to prove or
disprove this observation. In Figure 13, bank failure occurred at the recessional limb of
the hydrograph but two days after peak discharge.
Figure 13: Pattern of riverbank erosion revealed by is data from Photo-Electronic Erosion Pin (PEEP),
superposed on discharge data. (from Lawler, 2004)
A PEEP sensor is basically a narrow transparent acrylic tube containing an array of

photosensitive cells. PEEP sensors are installed in a sediment surface much like
conventional erosion pins (Fig. 14). PEEP sensors output a millivolt signal proportional
to the length of PEEP tube exposed to light. Erosion, therefore, increases voltage
outputs, while deposition decreases outputs. The connected data-logger can record the
changes at required intervals, usually in multiples of 24 hours because the setup cannot
record any data during night. The active tip of most PEEP equipment—e.g. Ricky
Hydrological Company’s PEEP-200—is about 50 cm long, with an active tip of about
27
20 cm. This, however, is quite inadequate in monitoring most dynamic riverbanks of

tropical region where removal often takes place in slumps measuring 1~3 m in width.
Figure 14: Schematic diagram of a Photo-Electronic Erosion Pin installation. (adapted from
www.rickly.com/ss/peep.htm)
5. CONCLUDING NOTES
Understanding the processes of riverbank and coastal erosion and learning the ways of
mapping them goes a long way for holistic evaluation of the hazards and vulnerability
assessment of a social group (Bankoff et al., 2004). Comparative cartographic studies
reveal long-term trends in migration of riverbanks and coastlines. This information,
supported by study of aerial or satellite images for traces of former courses of a river or
positions of strandline, can be used for floodplain or coastal zonation in terms of their
susceptibility to erosion. With guidance from a hazard zonation map, the concerned
authorities can prepare long- and short-term plans for hazard mitigation that address
different future scenarios. Usually these plans make a detailed cost : benefit analysis of
many different schemes of hazard prevention and alleviation in the perspective of
vulnerability ratings of a given area. In one end, the options try to adjust to the natural
changes and advocates landuse modification and relocation to allow the erosion to
continue. On the other end, the choices promote complete technological control of the
problem. For example, Table-11 shows different engineering solutions to coastal
erosion. Many of these structures mentioned in the table are also applicable for checking
riverbank erosion (Julien, 2002).
28
Table 11: Summary of coastal protection work: hard options. (from Masselink and Hughes, 2003:313)
MANAGEMENT ENGINEERED TYPES DESCRIPTION PROBLEMS
ISSUE SOLUTION(S)
A wall constructed out of rock blocks, or bulkheads of
VERTICAL Rock walls are highly reflective, bulkheads less so.
wood or steel, or simply semi-vertical mounds of
WALL Loose rubble however, absorbs wave energy
rubble In front of a cliff
CURVED Quite reflective, but the concave structure introduces a
A concrete-constructed concave wall
WALL dissipative element
Cliff / shoreline SEAWALL / A rectilinear stepped hard structure: as gently sloping
erosion STEPPED The scarps of the slopes are reflective, but overall the
COASTAL DYKE / as possible, often with a curved wave-return wall at the
WALL structure is quite dissipative
COASTAL top
EMBANKMENT
A sloping rectilinear stepped hard structure
constructed with less reflective material, such as The slope and loose material ensure maximum
REVETMENT
interlocking blocks (tetrapods), rock-filled gabions, dissipation of wave energy
and asphalt.
A free-standing bank of earth and loose material, often May be susceptible to erosion, and overtopped during
EARTH BANK
at the landward edge of coastal wetlands extreme high-water events
Coastal inundation
Barriers built across estuaries with sluice gates that Extremely costly, and relies on reliable storm surge
TIDAL BARRIER —
may be closed when threatened by storm surge warning system (e.g. Thames Barrier)
Shore-normal walls of mainly wood, built across
GROYNE — Starve downdrift beaches of sediment
beaches to trap drifting sediment
Beach stabilisation
BEACH Adding sediment to a beach to maintain beach levels Sediment is often rapidly removed through erosion and
—
NOURISHMENT and dimensions needs regular replenishing; often sourced by dredging
Structures situated offshore that intercept waves before
Offshore protection BREAKWATER — Very costly and often suffer damage during storms
they reach the shore. Constructed with concrete.
The jetties protrude into the sea and promote sediment
Tidal inlet Walls built to line the banks of tidal inlets or river
JETTY — deposition on the updrift side, but also sediment
management outlets in order to stabilise the waterway for navigation
starvation and erosion on the downdrift side
Bandyopadhyay: Coastline and Riverbank Erosion Hazards
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Sri Debashis Ghosh, Sm Dipanwita Mukherjee, Dr. Subhamita
Chaudhuri and Dr. Lakshmi Sivaramakrishnan for their help in preparing this write-up.
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32
I
Riverbank and Coastal Erosion

Hazards: Mechanisms & Mapping
Sunando Bandyopadhyay
Department of Geography : University of Burdwan
CONTENTS
1. Introduction ..................................................................................... 1
2. Processes of Erosion ........................................................................... 5
2.1 Riverbank erosion ....................................................................... 5
2.1.1 Fluid entrainment ................................................................. 5
2.1.2 Preparation ......................................................................... 7
2.1.3 Mass failure......................................................................... 7
2.2 Coastal erosion .......................................................................... 9
2.2.1 Wave refraction.................................................................. 10
2.2.2 Wave-induced currents: Rip cell .............................................. 10
2.2.3 Beach drift........................................................................ 10
2.2.4 Bi-directional tidal currents: Dominant ebb flow .......................... 10
2.2.5 Mass movement .................................................................. 10
3 Measuring coastline and riverbank shifts from cartographic Sources ................ 11
3.1 Graphical methods.................................................................... 12
3.1.1 Reduction and enlargement ................................................... 14
3.1.2 Superposition..................................................................... 15
3.1.3 Area and line measurements .................................................. 15
3.2 Digital methods ....................................................................... 16
3.2.1 Scanning........................................................................... 16
3.2.2 Datum, projection and resolution ............................................ 16
3.2.3 Georectification ................................................................. 16
3.2.4 Image fusion, mosaicing and filtering ........................................ 17
3.2.5 Area extraction and measurement ........................................... 17
3.3 Accuracy issues........................................................................ 18
3.4 Data Presentation..................................................................... 19
4 Measuring coastline and riverbank shifts from field surveys ........................... 21
4.1 Conventional survey .................................................................. 21
4.2 GPS survey ............................................................................. 22
4.1.1 Types of GPS positioning ....................................................... 22
4.1.2 Planning for GPS survey ........................................................ 23
4.1.3 GPS and Survey of India datum................................................ 25
4.3 Erosion Pin and Photo-Electronic Erosion Pin (PEEP) survey ................... 27
5. Concluding notes ............................................................................. 28
Acknowledgements .......................................................................... 30
References .................................................................................... 30
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Natural Environmental Hazards (NEH) affecting West Bengal: A

preliminary classification.
Table 2: Grain size classification.
Table 3: Factors influencing bank erosion. (based on Knighton, 1998)
Table 4: Changes in riverbank and coastline positions: Information sources.
Table 5: IRS images for coastline and riverbank change detection: Availability from
NRSA.
Table 6: Useful maps for determining riverbank and coastline changes in West
Bengal.
Table 7: Changes in mouza areas in Mousuni island, Hugli Estuary: 1922-23—
2001. (Based on Fig. 8)
Table 8: Basic survey techniques.
Table 9: Comparative properties of Everest and WGS-84 Ellipsoids.
Table 10: Approximate conversion of WGS-84 coordinates into Everest-1830
coordinates on the basis of seven control points from Digha township, East
Medinipur. Units are in metre (UTM Zone 45Q).
Table 11: Summary of coastal protection work: hard options. (from Masselink and
Hughes, 2003:313)
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Lift and drag forces working on a submerged particle. See text for
explanation. (modified after Knighton, 1998)
Figure 2: The Hjulström diagram relating grain size, flow velocity and entrainment.
Cohesion between fine-grained particles resists erosion; therefore, same
flow velocity is required to entrain a 0.005-mm grain as well as a 10-mm
grain into water. (from Knighton, 1998)
Figure 3A: Block diagram of a floodplain showing the association of erosional and
accretional features. Most of these features are transient and would get
obliterated with riverbank erosion as the river would swing across the
floodplain and raise its elevation through horizontal and vertical
accretions. (from Brown, 1997).
Figure 3B: Simplified cross-section along left edge of Fig. 3A. It illustrates the
floodplain accretion types and the complementary processes of bank
erosion and accretion. As water overtops the channel during floods,
turbulence at channel bank helps accumulation of fast-settling coarse
components of the entrained sediments on the levee. (adapted from Hupp
and Bornette, 2003)
Figure 4: Major types of bank failure (Adapted from Lawler, 2004). A: Slab failure
(sliding or toppling) B: Planer failure; C: Rotational failure; D: Cantilever
failure.
Figure 5: Wave induced currents that remove sediments—longshore and rip.
(adapted from Woodroffe, 2002)
Figure 6: Rates of area change in coastal sectors of East Medinipur. This diagram,
drawn in MS Excel, illustrates one way of presenting change-detection
data that involve both erosion and accretion. Source: PS Maps of 1913-16,
SoI Maps 73O/6, 10 & 14 of 1931-32 & 1968-70, IRS 1D L3+Pan image
of 2001.
Figure 7: Islands of the middle Hugli estuary in four different years between 1904-
05 and 1922-23. Data from RSD chart, SoI maps 79B/4, 79C/2 and IRS
Pan+L3 fused image. All maps are shown in individual panels with the
changes highlighted in dotted lines. (from Bandyopadhyay et al., 2004)
Figure 8: Changes in mouza areas of Mousuni island as portrayed in different
editions of SoI map 79C/2 and IRS Pan+L3 data. High water levels of all
years are superposed in a single map. (from Bandyopadhyay et al., 2004)
Figure 9: Successive left bank positions of the Ganga, eroding towards east, overlaid
on cadastral plots of Jot Kasturi mouza, Kaliyachak-II block, Malda
district. Positions in January 2003 (dotted line, IRS L3 data), December
2003 (dashed line, IRS Pan data) and March 2005 (continuous line, GPS
survey). Studies like this, conducted in real time, help to identify families
requiring compensation and/or relocation.
Figure 10: GPS satellite position and Positional Dilution of Precision (PDOP). Left
diagram: Relative geometric strength of GPS satellites: (a) strong
geometry and low PDOP; (b) weak geometry and high DOP. Right
diagram: Plot of number of satellites visible and PDOP over changing
local time of a given station. (from Effeck, et al. 1995)
Figure 11: Relation between elevation (H), geodetic height (h) and geoid height (N).
The relationship may be expressed as H = h – N. (from Effeck et al. 1995)
Figure 12: Schematic comparison between Everest and WGS-84 ellipsoids. (adapted
from Agrawal, 1999)
Figure 13: Pattern of riverbank erosion revealed by is data from Photo-Electronic
Erosion Pin (PEEP), superposed on discharge data. (from Lawler, 2004)
Figure 14: Schematic diagram of a Photo-Electronic Erosion Pin installation. (adapted
from www.rickly.com/ss/peep.htm).

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BASU, R. & BHADURI, S. (ED, 2007): CONTEMPORARY ISSUES AND TECHNIQUES IN GEOGRAPHY, PROGRESSIVE PUB., KOLKATA: 36–72.

Riverbank and Coastal Erosion

Hazard Type Risk

Table 2: Grain size classification.

2.1.3 Mass failure

Removal of bank materials through failure processes can be conceptualised as a

2.2.2 Wave-induced currents: Rip cell

3.1 Graphical methods

In less-than-ideal situations, it is not uncommon to come across a map or image the

011—enlarges or reduces maps optically by a combination of light sources, mirrors and

1913-16 -- 1931-32 (17 years)

4 MEASURING COASTLINE AND RIVERBANK SHIFTS FROM FIELD

Once a baseline is fixed, measurement of orthogonal offsets up to the coastline or

4.1.1 Types of GPS positioning

location of a stationary or moving point is determined with respect to a co-ordinate

and uploaded into the receiver.

EVEREST 1840 6,377,301 6,356,100 1/300.98 Kalyanpur (24°07′11.26″N / 77°39′17.57″E)

4.1.3 GPS and Survey of India datum

Alternatively, if only one GPS receiver is used, WGS-84 coordinates of a number of

A PEEP sensor is basically a narrow transparent acrylic tube containing an array of

20 cm. This, however, is quite inadequate in monitoring most dynamic riverbanks of

edition, Harper Collins Publishers, London: 321–344.

Riverbank and Coastal Erosion

Table 1: Natural Environmental Hazards (NEH) affecting West Bengal: A

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