3 Heat and Solute Transport Slides

Petroleum and Natural Gas Engineering Dept.
PETE 509 Modeling of

Geothermal Reservoirs
Heat and solute transport in porous media
Part-3
1
Conservation of heat and solute mass in a porous medium
Governing equations for a single-

phase coupled heat, mass and
solute transport system, including
conservation of momentum
(Darcy’s Law, Navier–Stokes, and
Cauchy equation), the
conservation of energy, the
conservation of solute mass (the
convection–diffusion–reaction
equation), conservation of solid
and fluid mass, and constitutive
laws.
(Steefel et al., 2005)

2
Conservation of heat in a porous medium

Heat balance of the Earth The heat flux (solar radiation) from the Sun to the
• The Earth’s heat budget balances with various Earth’s surface is approximately 2.5×1024 J per year
heat incomes and expenditures. The heat
originated from the Earth´s formation and the
radioactive isotopic decay of minerals in rocks is
classified as internal income and the solar
radiation results in the diurnal and seasonal
temperature fluctuations and contributes to the
thermal regime as an external income. As the
surface is heated or cooled, the heat diffuses
through the subsurface.
Geothermal flux is 1.4× 1021 J per year
• The earth also loses heat due to volcanism and
long-wave heat radiation from its surface.
Earth
3

Thermal regime of porous media
• The prevailing underground temperature regime is controlled by two heat transport
processes: convection, diffusion and conduction.
• Moreover, physical properties such as density, heat capacity, thermal conductivity,
chemical composition of minerals and water contents within rocks also determine the
distribution of heat fluxes in the subsurface.
• Conductive heat flux results from the geothermal gradient and the thermal
conductivity of porous media.
• The advection of heat due to the convection is driven by recharge and discharge in the
surficial zone as well as by the hydraulic gradient.
4

Heat storage
• Heat is stored in the Earth by virtue of the heat capacity of its rocks and fluids. The
amount of heat stored in gas in the Earth is negligible.
Heat capacity C is defined as the ratio of heat ΔQL (Joule) required
To raise the temperature of a body by ΔT. For each molecule this temperature increase requires an
energy of (f/2) kΔT, where f is the number of degrees of freedom of the molecules and
k=1.3806503×10-23 J K-1 the Boltzmann constant. For a body of mass M=mNA
Avogadro’s number
A temperature increase by ΔT requires an energy of ΔQL = (M/m) (f/2) k ΔT. m is the mass of the molecules
Thus the heat capacity of the body is:
QL M f f
C= = k = N Ak
T m 2 2
Specific heat capacity c of a substance is defined as heat capacity C related to unit mass:
γ is atomic mass relative to the mass of the
QL k f kf
c= = = hydrogen atom mH = 1.67×10-27 kg.
M T m2 2 mH 5

Heat transport
The heat transfer occurs as the motion of the molecules which leads a thermal gradient,
when a substance is heated.
The heat migrates from the high temperature region to the low temperature region as
conductive and convective / dispersive fluxes in a porous medium. If there is no fluid flow
through a porous domain, the conduction only takes place.
The Fourier’s law of heat transfer expressed that the rate of the heat transfer Q through a
substance is proportional to the thermal gradient, the substance thermal conductivity λ
and to the cross-section area A. The Fourier law of conduction in one dimension (1-D)
given as:
Q T
Local heat flux density = Temperature gradient
A x
T is the temperature, x is the distance (m), Q is the thermal energy (heat) transfer rate (W),
A is the cross-section area (m2) that the heat flows 6

Heat transport equation
The general heat transport equation in geothermal reservoirs includes conduction and
convection through an advective term related to the transport of energy by the moving
fluid in the pores and fractures. These combined energy transfer processes governed by
conduction-convection equation are modeled by the following partial differential
equation in 3-D:
T m
 m cm +   (m T ) −   (  m cmTu ) = QH am =
t  m cm
Rate of change Conduction part Convective part Source and sinks Thermal diffusivity (m2 s-1)
of temperature
T is temperature, t is time, vector u represents the Darcy’s fluid velocity (m s-1), QH (W m-3) is the volumetric thermal
energy production, ρmcm (ρ density (kg m-3), c specific heat (J kg-1)) is the bulk volumetric heat capacity of medium (rock
and fluid).
7

Heat transport parameters
The specific heat capacity cs of a solid rock is the amount of heat ∆QL (Joule) which is
needed to change the temperature of a substance unit mass Ms (kg) by a unit
temperature increase (Kelvin). The specific heat capacity of a solid rock can be calculated
as follows:
(J K-1 kg-1) QL
cs =
M s T
Volumetric heat capacity is related to the unit volume heat capacity multiplied by the solid rock density ρs
QL
cs ρs = ρs
M s T
8

In a porous medium (fluid and solid phase), thermal properties of rock are strongly
influenced by both volumetric fluid content and volume fraction of solid. Various models
have been suggested to describe the bulk thermal properties in systems. The arithmetic,
harmonic and geometric mean calculations can be applied without any structural
information (e.g., grain size, particular shape).
The bulk volumetric heat capacity of the porous medium, ρmcm, that can be calculated in a water-
saturated medium with the arithmetic mean of the solid volumetric heat capacity (ρscs) and the fluid
volumetric heat capacity (ρfcf) as: -1 -3
Solid part (J K m ) Fluid part (J K-1 m-3)
arithmetic mean calculation  m cm = (1 −  )  s cs +  f c f
Bulk (J K-1 m-3) porosity

9

Arithmetic mean given is related to the heat flow which is parallel to a layer, and the perpendicular
assumption can be expressed with a harmonic mean. These calculations, respectively, give the upper limit
and the lower limit of the thermal property of fully fluid-saturated porous medium (single-phase).
1
=
(1− )
+

harmonic mean calculation
m cm  s cs  f cf
For the bulk thermal conductivity λm, some researchers suggest the geometric mean which provides
satisfactory agreements between measured and calculated values of medium. The bulk thermal
conductivity that can be calculated as the weighted geometric mean of the solid and fluid thermal
conductivity as:
(1− )  geometric mean calculation

m = s f
Fluid thermal conductivity
bulk thermal conductivity (J s-1 K-1 m-1)
10
Watt = J s-1 Solid grain thermal conductivity

The comparison of different expressions with increasing porosity for the bulk thermal conductivity and bulk
volumetric heat capacity of a porous medium.
Bulk thermal conductivity Bulk volumetric heat capacity The arithmetic and harmonic
calculations tread as a
system of electrical
resistance in parallel (upper
value) and in series (lower
value), respectively. The
geometric mean equation is
in between arithmetic and
harmonic mean calculations
because the geometric mean
provides a well weighted
calculation.
Thermal conductivities of 8 W m-1 K-1 and 0.6 W m-1 K-1 are taken for solid (quartz) and fluid phase (water), respectively at 25 ºC
temperature. Volumetric heat capacities of solid and fluid are taken as 2.3 MJ m-3 K-1 and 4.2 MJ m-3 K-1, respectively.
11

Heat transport differential equation to analytical solution form
The conservation of the heat equation expressed with differential equation can be
described with an analytical solution if the problem is reduced to a linear process.
Analytical solution in mathematics particularly used to calibrate the numerical models
for spatial (mesh/grid) and temporal (time steps) arrangements. The reason is that
when the partial differential equations are solved in a numerical model, the
considered time steps and the intensity of grids or mesh elements affect the results.
However, an analytical solution provides exact result which can be used to validate a
numerical model.
12

The conservation of the heat equation in a porous medium in which the conduction dominates the heat transfer
system is traditionally described in 1-D as follows:
T
 m cm −  ( m T ) = 0 partial differential equation (PDE)
t
The boundary value problem of this equation can be solved with the corresponding initial and boundary conditions.
For instance for 1-D, the initial temperature distribution of the function f(r) is set within a specified range of distance
as 0 < r < R (r = (x2 + y2 + z2)1/2), and the boundary conditions as the time t > 0, then the temperature at the
boundaries are set as T (r = 0, t) = T (R = 0, t) = 0.
The separation of variables method to the partial differential equation (PDE)
 am  T Constant which will be used
  = RW '
T  m  2T  t W ' R '' for different cases as
− =0 RW ' =  R ''W → = =k
t   m cm r 2   2T W R eigenvalues (trivial solution)
  = R ''W 13
  r 2 R ''− Rk = 0

Afterwards, by applying the separation of variables method to the partial differential equation (PDE), we can obtain
two ordinary differential equations (ODE). The ODEs account for a separation constant (i.e. eigenvalue), a function of
only t on one side and a function of only r on the other side (i.e. Eigenfunctions). If these linear ODEs are solved, the
Eigenvalues and their corresponding Eigenfunctions can be composed into a solution by using the Fourier series.
partial differential equation (PDE) Two ordinary differential equation (ODE) solution by using the Fourier series
Boundary value problem Initial value problem (here an example)
 am  T
  = RW '
T  m  2T  t
− =0
t   m cm r 2   2T
  = R ''W
  r 2
In the following link a heat transfer equation is solved by separation of variables method
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VBn1diQCykQ&ab_channel=MathemaEducation
Temperature
14

In the closed form solution of the PDE of the heat transfer equation, a heat source Q is submitted to an infinitesimal
point. This heat source, so called a point heat source, releases an infinite, uniform and constant amount of energy in
the radial direction of an infinite porous medium respect to the initial temperature T0. The infinite point source (IPS)
equation is given as:
Heat equation expressed as Point source of analytical solution for only conduction dominated heat
partial differential equation (PDE) transfer system in radial symmetry coordinates
 am  a point heat source in Watt (injection or production rate)
 
T  m  2T    r 
exp ( −  )d  = T0 +
− =0 Q 2 Q
t   m cm r 2  T ( r , t ) = T0 + 
2
erfc  
8  m r  4m r  4a t 
  r  m 
  4 am t
initial temperature T0
Thermal diffusivity (m2 s-1) Time (s)
r is the distance between the heat source and the considered point in the medium, at where the
temperature change is evaluated, erfc(r/(4amt)1/2) is the complimentary error function, and am is
15
the thermal diffusivity (am = λm/ρmcm).

By the superposition of the point sources each of which has an equal heat transfer rate along the finite length H. The
finite line source model (FLS), in which applying the method of images to satisfy the boundary conditions of the
model, can be constructed as:
Point source analytical solution for only conduction dominated heat transfer system in radial symmetry
coordinates
a point heat source in Watt (injection or production rate)
  r 
exp ( −  )d  = T0 +
Q 2 Q
T ( r , t ) = T0 + 
2
erfc  
8  m r  r 4m r  
 4 am t 
4 am t
Taking the integration of equation above respect to z direction that means you take the superposition of your point source along the depth
a superpositioned point heat source Line source analytical solution For instance, think that 1000 W point source of
heat is extracted from the ground on a plane
in Watt per meter (injection or production rate)
surface. If you want to evaluate this along the
qL  1  r   r  
H 0
1 depth (a well screen of 100 m), you extract heat
T ( r , t ) = T0 +
4m  0 r
 erfc   dz '−  erfc   dz '
 4a t  r  4a t   from the ground 10 W per meter, So you will
  m  −H  m   obtain temperature decrease results along the
depth in the ground. 16

Furthermore, an infinite line source model (ILS) can be derived for a geothermal wellbore in a reservoir. The thermal
unsteady problem in the system can be approximately solved by considering the wellbore is a linear heat source for
injection or production. The ILS with a constant heat extraction or injection rate qL is given as:
Infinite line source analytical solution for only conduction dominated heat transfer system in radial symmetry
coordinates
a superpositioned point heat source
E1(r2/4amt) is the exponential integral function
in Watt per meter (injection or production rate)
qL

exp ( −  ) qL  r2 
T ( r , t ) = T0 +  d  = T0 + E1  
4m r2
 4m  4amt 
4 am t
17

• Several line source and cylindrical source models can be adopted to evaluate the
thermal characteristics of the ground particularly for shallow geothermal aquifers,
sometimes it can be used only for special cases in deep geothermal systems. For
instance, to evaluate temperature in the vicinity of an injection well in a specific depth
range (e.g., well screen around 100 m to 400 m).
• Most likely, those approaches are used to deduce the thermal properties of the
ground, controlling the heat input. Knowing the ground properties, it is also possible
to deduce reversely the heat flow rate per meter through back-analysis, based on the
initial temperature and the temperature evaluation at a given distance r.
18

Energy taken from the ground
The heat flow rate per meter can be calculated with the volume integration respect to
temperature change, for instance for a reservoir. If the temperature distribution in the
reservoir is dominated by conduction, the volume integration can be solved in radial
symmetry as follows:
Q (W/m) heat extraction
R 2 1
m cm T ( z, , R) R
Q= dzd dR
0 0 0
t wellbore
temperature decrease around
the wellbore
ΔT is the temperature change as the functions of the distance, R,
from the wellbore to the far-field (out of the thermal radius of
influence), the radial degree θ and the depth z. Δt is the time
interval of temperature change. temperature isotherms
19

Energy taken from the ground
Assuming axisymmetric conditions, the integration with respect to θ and z gives:
R 2 1 Q (W/m) heat extraction

m cm T ( z, , R) R
Q= dzd dR
0 0 0
t wellbore
the wellbore
2m cm R
qL =
t 0  T ( R) RdR
temperature isotherms
The integral respect to R can be approximated by a sum function as:
2m cm n d is the interval distance of the observation points and R

qL =
t
 ( T  R  d )
i =1
i i i distance increases with the distance from the wellbore to each
observation point. 20

Energy taken from the ground As an example, this figure graphically visualizes how the parameters
Assuming axisymmetric conditions, the used in the equation are taken.
wellbore
integral respect to R can be approximated by
a sum function as: R distance increases with the
distance from the wellbore to each
observation point
2m cm
Temperature °C
n
qL =
t
 ( T  R  d )
i =1
i i i
Away from wellbore

In order to obtain precise results, time and
Temperature °C
distance interval of temperature
measurements must be as small as possible.
However, it requires extremely fine Temperature drop in
discretization for a numerical model, while it Distance (m) two time frame
is not appropriate for experimental or field 2.5 m
measurements due to a limited number of
observation points.
Distance (m)
21
d is the interval distance of the observation points

The Energy taken from the ground
t R 2 H R t = 60 years
Energy =    m cm T ( z, R, , t ) dzdRd dt = 2 H mcm  i =0
Ti ( R ) dRt
0 0 0 0 0
The bulk ground energy deficit of a reservoir for a single wellbore

In a conduction dominated ground (for instance, for a ground heat exchanger) Q (W/m) heat extraction
wellbore
the wellbore
temperature isotherms
22
30 years of production requires nearly equal time to recover the energy
Conservation of solute transport in a porous medium
Solute transport equations

• Diffusion is a common molecular phenomenon in porous reservoirs that occurs due to the
presence of different concentrations of aqueous chemical species in the fluid. Diffusion is the
mechanism by which particles of a fluid mixture are transported from regions of high
concentration to regions of lower concentration similar to the heat transport. The diffusion
phenomenon is the macroscopic effect of a molecular random motion. Diffusion can occur in
gases, liquids, and solids.
• The chemical substance dissolved from a mineral is called as the solute, and the substance that
triggers the dissolution is called as the solvent. Solutes diffuse at different speeds, the fastest in
gases, and the slowest in solids. In aquifers, reservoirs and in geothermal systems, the solvent is
the water (H2O) and the solutes are salts (e.g., NaCl, CaCl etc.), gases, organic or inorganic
constituents. The non-homogeneous distribution of gases and salts in a reservoir fluid starts the
diffusion process.
23

The transport of an artificial tracer injected into a porous system also occurs by diffusion. The substance
dissemination occurs in the same direction in which its concentration decreases. The resulting flux is
proportional to the concentration gradient of the solute.
Reservoir model
Tracer arrival times to production wells
tracer injected
from injection
wells
tracer observation at
production wells
24

Fick's laws of diffusion describe diffusion of solutes. Fick's second law predicts how diffusion causes the concentration
to change with respect to time.
The molecular diffusivity D (m2 s-1) is a parameter that describes how fast or slow the molecules of the solute diffuse.
For diffusion in porous rocks, the equation takes into-account the presence of both the pores and the solid grains. Fick's
second law in porous media is a partial differential equation in 1-D can be written as:
c  2c
=D 2
t x
c is the concentration (mol m-3), which is the number of molecules of solute per unit volume of the solution, and c
is a function that depends on location x (m) and time t (s)
1 g/m3 = 1 mg/L = 1 ppm.

Likewise, one milligram per cubic meter (mg/m3) is the same concentration in water as one microgram per liter (μg/L),
which is about 1 ppb.
25

The governing equation of the solute convection-diffusion in 3-D Cartesian coordinates in a porous media is
given as follows:
c   2 c  2c  2c  c
=  Dx 2 + Dy 2 + Dz 2  − u x +s
t  x y z  x
hydrodynamic dispersion coefficient (m2 s-1)
c is the concentration (mol m-3), which is the number of molecules of solute per unit volume of the solution, and c
is a function that depends on location x (m) and time t (s), s is zero-order source or production term, ux is the flow
velocity.
26
Solute transport analytical equations

Fick's second law has the same mathematical form as the heat equation and its fundamental solution is the
same as the heat solution. The difference is that the thermal conductivity λ is switched with diffusion
coefficient D (m2 s-1). Hence, its analytical derivation is similar to the heat equation as in 1-D:
location x (m)
1  x  2
c ( x, t ) = c0 + exp  − 
4 Dt  4 Dt 
diffusion coefficient (m2 s-1)

c0 is the initial concentration (mol m-3)
27
Diffusion coefficient
The parameter D is called the diffusivity or coefficient of molecular diffusion in the porous rock and
depends on the substances contained in the fluid.
It can be a constant number in 1-D, or a tensor in 2-D or 3-D. It also depends on the spatial coordinates and
on time. In general, D grows with temperature and decreases with pressure. Diffusivity is proportional to
the velocity of the particles of solute and this velocity depends on both fluid temperature and viscosity.
In 2-D and 3-D, the diffusion flux becomes a vector, but due to the tortuous pathway and the presence of
the interface between the fluid and the solid grains, the coefficient D in porous rocks is lower than the
diffusivity D0 in pure aqueous solutions as:
D = D0
Tortuosity (-)
28
Diffusion coefficient
D = D0 Tortuosity (-)
The tortuosity factor τ can be between 0.3 and 0.7, for most consolidated porous rock τ is
around ≈ 0.67.
The major ions in groundwater and reservoir fluids (Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Cl−, HCO−3 , and
SO2−4) have diffusion coefficients in the range 1-2×10−9 m2 s-1 at 25 ºC. Considering water
as the solvent substance, there are different values of D0 for the following solutes such as
D0 = 1.46 × 10−9 m2 s-1 for CO2 at 10 ºC; D0 = 1.77 × 10−9 m2 s-1 for CO2 at 20 ºC; D0 = 1.26 ×
10−9 m2 s-1 for NaCl at 18 ºC and 0.05 kmol m-3 of solute concentration; D0 = 1.54 × 10−9 m2
s-1 for NaCl at 18 ºC and 5.4 kmol m-3 of concentration.
29
Diffusion coefficient temperature dependence

The diffusion coefficient D in solids at different temperatures can be predicted with the
Arrhenius equation approach as:
 Ea 
D = D0 exp  − 
Ea is the activation energy (J mol-1)
 RT 
D0 can be the diffusion coefficient at 25 ºC T is the temperature here is in Kelvin (K)
R is the universal gas constant (J mol-1 K-1)
30
Diffusion coefficient temperature dependence

In liquids, the diffusion coefficient can be defined as temperature dependence give
by Stokes-Einstein equation as:
DT 1 T1 T 2 Dynamic viscosities at T1 and T2 (Pa s)

=
DT 2 T2 T 1
D1 and D2 are the diffusion
coefficients at T1 and T2 T1 and T2 is the temperature, Kelvin (K)
This equation can be considered, for instance, a tracer injection into a geothermal reservoir at 100 ºC (T1) that mixes
with the reservoir fluid at 200 ºC (T2). μ is the dynamic viscosity (Pa s) at that temperature and pressure which can be
found from steam and fluid tables.
31
Concentration gradient and diffusion

The difference in concentration between two regions of the porous reservoir is called the
concentration gradient.
There is not any mechanical mixing is involved. For instance, if c is an artificial tracer, a
drop of tracer added to geofluid will diffuse down the concentration gradient until evenly
mixed.
Diffusion occurs more rapidly across a higher concentration gradient and at higher
temperatures. Diffusion is quite different from the movement of molecules when fluid is
flowing. In the last case, movement is not random, all molecules are moving together and
in the direction of fluid flow. The coefficient D is closely related to the thermodynamic
state of the porous medium and on the diffusing substance.
32
Concentration gradient and diffusion

The general solute flux in porous rocks with fluid movement has three components:
diffusion, advection and mechanical dispersion.
Advection occurs either due to groundwater’s natural movement can transport the
solutes or forced convection between injection and production wells in a reservoir.
Mechanical dispersion (hydrodynamic dispersion) results from groundwater moving or
geofluid in a reservoir at rates both greater and less than the average linear velocity. This
leads to a mixing called mechanical dispersion and results in distribution of the solute at
the advancing edge of flow. The dispersive-advective flux can be defined as:
Transversal dispersivity (m)
Longitudinal dispersivity (m)
DhL = D0 +  L u x Fluid flow DhT = D0 + T u x

velocity (m)
Longitudinal hydrodynamic dispersion (m2 s-1) Transversal hydrodynamic dispersion (m2 s-1) 33
Hydrodynamic dispersion and dispersivity

The general solute flux in porous rocks with fluid movement has three components:
diffusion, advection and mechanical dispersion.
Advection occurs either due to groundwater’s natural movement can transport the
solutes or forced convection between injection and production wells in a reservoir.
Mechanical dispersion (hydrodynamic dispersion) results from groundwater moving or
geofluid in a reservoir at rates both greater and less than the average linear velocity. This
leads to a mixing called mechanical dispersion and results in distribution of the solute at
the advancing edge of flow. The dispersive-advective flux can be defined as:
Longitudinal dispersivity (m) scale dependent parameters Transversal dispersivity (m)
DhL = D0 +  L u x Fluid flow DhT = D0 + T u x

velocity (m)
Longitudinal hydrodynamic dispersion (m2 s-1) Transversal hydrodynamic dispersion (m2 s-1) 34

Solute propagation in a 1-D homogeneous isotropic reservoir column: a) continuous solute
injection at one-side of the column; b) Solute concentrations at the exit boundary of the column
when the solute is solely transported by advective movement of the water; c) when additional
mechanical dispersion occurs.
35
(Bundschuh & César Suárez 2010)

The flow velocities along the different parallel flow lines of the water in the column are not exactly the
same through a cross section of the column. Thus, solute tracer along flow lines in the middle of the cross
section, have a different propagation velocity compared to those closer to the wall. Therefore, the solute
tracer particles do not reach exactly the exit boundary at the same time.
36

Spreading increases with time and distance
Hydrodynamic dispersion and dispersivity from the solute tracer source and
If 2-D and 3-D transport are considered, correspondingly the peak concentration
dispersion also causes transversal decreases along the flow path.
spreading (e.g., y- and z-directions). This
causes a reduction of the solute tracer
concentration behind the longitudinal
zone of spreading, since mass spreads
laterally. Figure shows an example for the
2-D case for both, instantaneous and
continuous solute tracer injection. In
case of instantaneous injection at t = t0,
the injected tracer zone spreads
symmetrically around the site of solute
tracer concentration maximum as
demonstrated for two times t1 and t2.
37
Longitudinal and transversal dispersivities

Dispersivities αL and αT are empirical field-scale parameters, which indicates
how much solute spreads away from the macroscopic field-scale velocity of
the fluid due to natural or forced advection. Longitudinal dispersivity αL
describes the spreading of the solute particles behind or in front of the fluid
motion (in macroscopic flow direction), whereas the transversal dispersivity
αT quantifies the spreading of the solute particles perpendicular to the
macroscopic fluid flow direction. However, dispersivity is not really a
measurable parameter for field problems.
38

• Dispersivity can only be determined in small areas, such as in the direct vicinity of a
well or in very well-defined simple aquifer fabric, such as it is found in some
experimental test sites. For real reservoir or aquifer problems, dispersivity is merely a
fitting parameter that covers the lack of knowledge of the true flow patterns. It is not
a real reservoir property.
• Dispersivity is considered as an reservoir adjustment for the lack of information about
the modeled system and the error of the assumptions, such as averaging when using a
macroscopic field-scale description. Hence, there are different reservoir
characteristics that determine dispersivity.
• There may be small-scale inhomogeneities in the reservoir as well as larger-scale
heterogeneities. Therefore, in the same reservoir, the dispersivity can be different.
39

Dispersivity is often spatial-scale-dependent and so a time-dependent variable in the
modeling. Thus, a single constant value does not often well describe what is measured or
wish to predict in the field. In consequence, both the concept and the methods of its
determination are topics of many studies and an issue of controversy.
The longitudinal dispersivity αL which relates to the measured plume length L can be empirically estimated
with the following equation:
 L = 0.83( Log10 L )
2.414
In practical applications, and in absence of further data, the transversal dispersivities are often deduced from
the longitudinal dispersivity. Depending whether the transversal dispersion occurs in horizontal or vertical
direction, it is recommended to calculate αT as 1/10th and 1/100th of the value of αL.
40

Gelhar et al., (1992) who discussed extensively the issue of dispersivities in various
geologic formations.
The authors summarized literature data of αL values for different scales of individual
studies (scale value is defined as distance between site of originating solute e.g. the point
of contaminant release or tracer injection and the site of observation), the type of rock
(sediment or hard rock) and the reliability of the data.
In reality, αL values will change along the pathway of the solute traveling from the source
point to the point of observation (for examples of multiple snapshots of the variation of αL
along the pathway at a single site. Gelhar found no significant difference in dispersivities
determined in fractured and porous rocks.
41

• αL increases continuously with scale.
• Most of the large-scale data are derived
from numerical models. However, the
reliability of dispersivities from
numerical models is considered as low-
reliability data. Reasons are: i)
Undocumented numerical dispersion,
may lead to wrong estimates of
dispersivity and ii) in other modeling
applications, unrealistic αL were used,
which do not correspond to the real
field values.
• Considering the most reliable data, a
positive correlation between αL and
scale data is still present.
42

Fitting with measured tracer observations and simple analytical solutions (particularly
derived for this purpose) provide important parameters
Analytical models ϕ (i) h (m) α (m)
Porosity Hydraulic αL αT
apperture
Eq. 23 ϕf ≈ 1×10-4 260 αL×0.4
0.025
Sauty (1980) – -- -- 150 αL×0.2
uniform porous
model, Eq. 25
Tracer injection test results Bullivant & -- 3×10-3 -- --
In a geothermal reservoir O’Sullivan (1989) -
Single fracture, Eq.
27
Bullivant & ϕm = 3×10-3 -- --
O’Sullivan (1989) - 0.005
fracture-matrix, Eq.
29
Houseworth et al. -- 2×10-4 -- --
(2013) fracture-
matrix, Eq. 30
43
Back to heat transport in a porous medium

Dispersivity in heat transport in porous media
Dispersivity parameter is also important for the heat transport and it corresponds to the
thermal conductivity of the porous medium and called as the effective thermal
conductivity Can be used identical as in
Longitudinal dispersivity (m) Transversal dispersivity (m)
solute transport
x −eff = m +  L u x  y , z −eff = m + T u x
Bulk thermal conductivity
of the porous medium
what we calculated with
geometric mean
m = s (1− )  f 
44
Back to heat transport in a porous medium

Dispersivity in heat transport in porous media
Temperature plumes in 2-D plane view for different longitudinal dispersivity parameters
Longitudinal dispersivity (m)
45
Heat and solute transport in a porous medium

Summary
Solving the general partial differential equations herein presented is a
difficult task.
The analytical methods can handle some simplified aspects of solute and
heat transport in porous media. Nevertheless, because of the complexity of
the equations involved, the analytical solutions are restricted to uniform
velocities and to radial flow geometries.
46
Fluid and rock properties as a function of temperature

Viscosity as a function of temperature
The properties of geothermal fluids strongly depend on temperature and salinity.
The dynamic viscosity of the fluid phase is typically regarded as a function of
concentration and temperature as:
dynamic viscosity of the

fluid as a function of
temperature
 1 + 1.85 − 4.1 2 + 44.5 3
dynamic viscosity of the =
fluid at 20 °C
0 1 + 0.7063 − 0.04832 3
with mass fraction and relative temperature coefficients: ω = C/ρ, ς = (T – 150) / 100 (K), C is
the specific heat capacity of the fluid (J kg-1 K-1), ρ is the density of the fluid (kg m-3) 47

Density as a function of temperature
The equation of state for the fluid density is related to reference temperature,
reference pressure, and reference concentration.
Density of the fluid as a
function of temperature
and salinity  C 
 =  1 − T (T − T0 ) +  P ( P − P0 ) +
1 1
( C − C0 ) 
Cs − C0
0
 
Density of the fluid at 20 °C
The flow and transport equations for convection are non-linear and strongly coupled
since temperature, pressure, and salinity control the fluid density. 48

Thermal conductivity as a function of temperature
The functional relation for rock thermal conductivity is:
Thermal conductivity of rock as a

function of temperature and salinity
 (T ) = 20 − 10 −3
(
(T − 293)( 20 − 1.38) 20 (1.8 10 −3
T)
−0.2520
)
+ 1.28 20−0.64
Temperature (K)
Thermal conductivity of rock at 20 °C
49

Variable hydromechanical fluid properties, density and viscosity
• In terms of the influence of the state
variables, the effects of changes in Density Viscosity
pressure are smaller than those of
temperature and salt concentration.
• Higher salinity has larger density, as the
temperature increases the density
decreases.
• Higher salinity leads to lower viscosity of
the fluid, as the temperature rises viscosity
increases.
Pressure (bar)
Temperature (C) Temperature (C)

(Huenges 2010) 50

Variable hydromechanical fluid properties, density and viscosity
• Pressure do not have a significant impact
alone on both heat capacity and thermal
Heat capacity of rock Thermal conductivity of rock
conductivity of a rock
• If temperature is high and pressure is low,
the heat capacity increases.
• Thermal conductivity increases from the
temperature 0 to 150 °C but then it
decreases again.
Pressure (bar)
Temperature (C) Pressure (bar) Temperature (C)

(Huenges 2010) 51
References
Bundschuh, J., & César Suárez A., M. (2010). Introduction to the Numerical Modeling of Groundwater
and Geothermal Systems: Fundamentals of Mass, Energy and Solute Transport in Poroelastic Rocks
(1st ed.). CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/b10499.
Clauser, C., (2006). Geothermal Energy, In: K. Heinloth (Ed), Landolt-Börnstein – Numerical Data and
Functional Relationships, New Series, Vol. VIII: Energy Technologies, Subvolume 3: Renewable Energies,
Springer Verlag, Heidelberg-Berlin.
Huenges, E. (2010). Geothermal Energy Systems: Exploration, Development, and Utilization.
Wiley‐VCH Verlag GmbH, doi:10.1002/9783527630479.
Steefel, C., DePaolo, D., J., Lichtner, P. C. (2005) Reactive transport modeling: An essential tool and a new
research approach for the Earth sciences. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 240, 539– 558.
doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2005.09.017.
52

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Petroleum and Natural Gas Engineering Dept.

PETE 509 Modeling of

Conservation of heat and solute mass in a porous medium

Governing equations for a single-

(Steefel et al., 2005)

Conservation of heat in a porous medium

Conservation of heat in a porous medium

Conservation of heat in a porous medium

Conservation of heat in a porous medium

Conservation of heat in a porous medium

Conservation of heat in a porous medium

Conservation of heat in a porous medium

arithmetic mean calculation  m cm = (1 −  )  s cs +  f c f

Bulk (J K-1 m-3) porosity

Conservation of heat in a porous medium

(1− )  geometric mean calculation

Conservation of heat in a porous medium

Conservation of heat in a porous medium

Conservation of heat in a porous medium

Conservation of heat in a porous medium

Conservation of heat in a porous medium

Conservation of heat in a porous medium

Conservation of heat in a porous medium

Conservation of heat in a porous medium

Conservation of heat in a porous medium

Conservation of heat in a porous medium

R 2 1 Q (W/m) heat extraction

2m cm n d is the interval distance of the observation points and R

Conservation of heat in a porous medium

Away from wellbore

Conservation of heat in a porous medium

The bulk ground energy deficit of a reservoir for a single wellbore

Conservation of solute transport in a porous medium

Solute transport equations

Conservation of solute transport in a porous medium

Conservation of solute transport in a porous medium

Solute transport equations

1 g/m3 = 1 mg/L = 1 ppm.

Conservation of solute transport in a porous medium

Solute transport equations

hydrodynamic dispersion coefficient (m2 s-1)

Conservation of solute transport in a porous medium

Solute transport analytical equations

diffusion coefficient (m2 s-1)

Conservation of solute transport in a porous medium

Conservation of solute transport in a porous medium

D = D0 Tortuosity (-)

Conservation of solute transport in a porous medium

Diffusion coefficient temperature dependence

R is the universal gas constant (J mol-1 K-1)

Conservation of solute transport in a porous medium

Diffusion coefficient temperature dependence

DT 1 T1 T 2 Dynamic viscosities at T1 and T2 (Pa s)

Conservation of solute transport in a porous medium

Concentration gradient and diffusion

Conservation of solute transport in a porous medium

Concentration gradient and diffusion

DhL = D0 +  L u x Fluid flow DhT = D0 + T u x

Conservation of solute transport in a porous medium