PETE 509 Modeling of Geothermal Reservoirs: Course notes part 5

1. Flow to wells in homogeneous isotropic medium

Some useful equations are defined here for simple geometries of isothermal fluid flow in
reservoirs. Radial horizontal flow shown in Figure 1a describes fluid flow towards a well.
In this case, flow is distributed uniformly along the entire well axis. This situation is valid
for fully penetrating wells and is an important approach when the near flow field around
a well is considered. This type of flow can be simulated with 2D axisymmetric numerical
model. Linear horizontal flow (Figure 1b) to a well is of interest when considering the
impact of fluid extraction by a well on the far fluid flow field. Spherical flow (Figure 1c)
considers fluid flow towards a point, making it applicable to partially penetrating wells or
wells with filter sections not extending over the entire well axis (e.g., point source).

Figure 1. a) Radial horizontal, b) linear horizontal and c) spherical flow to a well

(Bundschuh & César Suárez 2010)

1.1. Radial flow

In the case of steady state radial flow, the gravity is neglected in the reservoir and the
fluid discharge per unit porous area is assumed constant:

QV  dP
v= , A = 2 rba → QV = − (1)
A  f dr

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PETE 509 Modeling of Geothermal Reservoirs: Course notes part 5

where QV is the volumetric flow rate (m3 s-1), A is the cross-section area (m2), ba is the
reservoir thickness (m), r is the radial distance (m), κ is permeability (m2), P is pressure
(Pa), μf is dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pa s). Integrating from P(rw) = Pw to P(r):

P r
 f QV  f QV r
dr  f QV  r 
 dP = 
Pw rw
A
dr = −
2 ba r r 2 ba ln  rw 
= − (2)
w

The pressure at a distance r from the well rw is:

P
 f QV  r 
 dP = P − P → P ( r ) = Pw − ln   (3)
2 ba  rw 
w
Pw

If the pressure at some radial distance re > rw, P(re) = Pe is known, then the volumetric
production or injection rate can be computed:

2 ba Pe − Pw
QV = − (4)
f ln ( re ) − ln ( rw )

The radial flow pressure is:

Pe − Pw r 
P ( r ) = Pw + ln   (5)
ln ( re / rw )  rw 

The average reservoir pressure is:

1 1 
r
 f QV  r  
 ( )
V rw 
P= P r dV =  P − ln   dr (6)
 dV V 2 ba  rw  
w

Taking the integration, the average reservoir pressure in a homogeneous reservoir of

radial geometry is:

 f QV   r  1 
P = Pw +  ln   −  (7)
2 ba   rw  2 

1.2. Linear flow

In the case of steady state linear flow, gravity is not considered. Knowing the pressure
at two different points x1 and x2, pressure can be calculated as:

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PETE 509 Modeling of Geothermal Reservoirs: Course notes part 5

2 P  P1 = cx1 + c0 
= 0 → P ( x ) = cx + c0  
x 2  P2 = cx2 + c0  (8)
P −P  A  dP 
→ P ( x ) = P1 + 2 1 ( x2 − x1 ) , QV =
x2 − x1  f  dx  x =0

1.3. Spherical flow

In a reservoir with steady state spherical flow, the flow equation is:

d  2 dP  c
r =0 → P ( r ) = + c0 ; Pe = P ( re ) , Pw = P ( rw ) (9)
dx  dx  r

Replacing the known values of the pressure at two different points we obtain the fluid
pressure at any radial distance from the center of the sphere:

Pe − Pw  1 1  re Pw ( re − r ) + re Pe ( r − rw )
P ( r ) = Pw + − =
1 1  re rw 
(10)
− r ( re − rw )
re rw

The constant volumetric rate can be computed, integrating as follows:

 4 Pe − Pw 4 Pe − Pw
QV dr = − 4 r 2 dP → QV = = rr (11)
f f 1 − 1  f rw − re e w
re rw

1.4. Darcy’s law and the equation of state of slightly compressible fluid
It is assumed that a single-phase fluid flows in the reservoir and has a slight and
constant compressibility, such as water or oil for example, and that the pressure
gradients are relatively small and the physical properties of the system are
approximately constant. The mass conservation and Darcy’s laws are in this case:

 
t
(  f  ) + div (  f v ) = 0, v =−
f
P (12)

The compressibility of isothermal water implies that:

1  V f  1 df
Cf = −   = → V f = V0 exp ( −C f ( P − P0 ) ) ,  f = 0 exp ( −C f ( P − P0 ) ) (13)
V f  P T  f dP

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PETE 509 Modeling of Geothermal Reservoirs: Course notes part 5

where Cf is the compressibility (Pa-1). The fluid mass is Mf = ρfVf, ρ0 = ρf(P0), performing
a Taylor series expansion of its density:

 C 2f 
 f ( P ) = 0 exp ( C f ( P − P0 ) ) = 0 1 + C f ( P − P0 ) + ( P − P0 ) + ... 
2
(14)
2! 
 

Assuming that Cf is small, we can neglect the terms beyond the quadratic expression to
obtain the equation of state for slight compressible isothermal fluid:

 f ( P )  0 exp (1 + C f ( P − P0 ) ) (15)

This equation of state can be combined with Eq. 12 to obtain:

   
t
( )
0 exp ( C f ( P − P0 ) ) =   0 exp ( C f ( P − P0 ) ) P 
 f 
 
P 0 
C f 0 exp ( C f ( P − P0 ) )
t
=
f
( f
)
 exp ( C f ( P − P0 ) ) P + 0 exp ( C f ( P − P0 ) )  2 P (16)

P  2 
= P + 2 P
t  f  f C f

By hypothesis, the pressure gradient is small; for that reason, the square of its module
was canceled. Thus, if we assume constant rock parameters and a small constant Cf,
we obtain the classic hydraulic diffusion equation ηH (m2 s-1):

 1 P
H = , .P =  2 P = (17)
 f C f  H t

1.5. Transient flow of slight compressible fluids

The fluid is slightly compressible, and reservoir is a confined homogeneous cylinder.
The flow is radial and the pressure gradients are relatively small. It is also assumed that
the physical properties of the reservoir are approximately constant. Therefore, we can
apply the hydraulic diffusion equation given in Eq. 17 in cylindrical coordinates:

P 1   P  1  2 P  2 P
=  H P → P = r + + (18)
t r r  r  r 2  2 z 2

Assuming radial symmetry for the whole reservoir, the angular and vertical components
θ and z have no influence in pressure; thus, the corresponding partial derivatives are

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PETE 509 Modeling of Geothermal Reservoirs: Course notes part 5

zero. The reservoir has a very large radius; the production/injection takes place at its
center. The velocity, given by Darcy’s law, must equal to the production/injection rate at
the center. That means: Arvr = QV (m3 s-1), where Ar = 2πrba is the flow area; Pi
represents the initial constant pressure of the aquifer. The simplified mathematical
model, with internal and external boundaries and initial conditions, is:

P  2 P  P
= H 2 + H , P ( r, t )  0
t r r r
initial condition: P ( r , 0 ) = Pi , r  0
(19)
external boundary: lim P ( r , t ) = Pi , t  0
r →0

 P  Q 
internal boundary: lim  r  =− V f
r →0
 r  2 ba

To solve this model, we use a Boltzmann transformation:

r2  2  2 2  
 ( r, t ) = 0 → = ; = 2 and =− (20)
4 H t r r r 2
r t t

Replacing this variable, Eq. 18 is transformed into:

1 P    P   1 P   dP d 2 P 4 2 dP 4
=  + → = +
 H  t r   r  r  r  H t d d 2 r 2 d r 2
(21)
d 2P dP
in terms of  ( P ) →  + ( + 1) =0
d 2
d

This ordinary differential equation can be solved exactly. Let P’ be equal to dP/dω:


dP '
= − ( + 1) P ' → 
dP '
= −
( + 1)d + c
d  0
P' (22)
dP
→ ln ( P ') = − − ln ( ) + c0 →  = c1 exp ( − )
d

The internal boundary condition for the new variable ω is:

 P   P    P  QV  f
lim  r  = lim r  = lim  2  = 2c0 = −
r →0
 r  → 0
  r  → 0
   2 ba
(23)
P Q 
→ = − V f exp ( − )
 4 ba

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PETE 509 Modeling of Geothermal Reservoirs: Course notes part 5

The corresponding integral solution for the Boltzmann variable is:

Pi 
QV  f exp ( − ) Q   exp ( −u )
 dP = Pi − P = − d → P ( ) = Pi + V f  du (24)
P  4 ba  4 ba  u

The semi-infinite integral appearing in this solution is called as ‘‘exponential integral’’

defined by:


exp ( −u )
− Ei ( − ) = E1 ( ) =  du (25)
 u

Replacing the value of ω, the final solution of model Eq. 19, satisfying the boundary and
initial conditions, is:

QV  f  r2 
P ( r , t ) = Pi + E1   (26)
4 ba  4 H t 

If QV > 0, then the fluid is entering the reservoir (injection). If QV < 0, the fluid is being
extracted from the reservoir (well production). This practical formula is known as the
Theis solution. This analytical solution is capable of determining the characteristics of a
reservoir and predicting how fluid level change during pumping. The formula is used
often by petroleum engineers and hydrogeologists and is the foundation of pressure
analysis techniques. The Theis solution is for flow to a point well and has several
practical applications: it is used to calculate pressure drawdown in geothermal
reservoirs, aquifers and oil reservoirs, and to explore the inverse modeling of reservoir
properties (porosity, permeability, reservoir dimensions). It is very useful as a first
analytical approach to reservoir tests.

1.6. Flow to a well of finite radius, wellbore storage

Wellbore storage is an important example of fluid flow to wells; its effects have been the
subject of many studies in hydrogeology, geothermal and petroleum engineering. The
wellbore storage effect is defined immediately after a production start-up or shut-in,
when the pressure behavior at early times is dominated by the compressibility and
volume of the wellbore fluid.

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PETE 509 Modeling of Geothermal Reservoirs: Course notes part 5

Pumping from a completed well removes the fluids, in the borehole and the casing,
before fluids from the reservoir enter the well. The magnitude and duration of the
wellbore storage’s impact depends on the size of the well and casing. These effects are
important particularly at early times, typically when engineers assess the viability of
reservoirs. For large-scale projects with big wells, these ‘early time’ effects can linger for
many months and significantly inhibit production. Wellbore storage can be modeled by
adding a time-dependent ordinary differential equation to the well boundary. The
equation governing the flow is Darcy’s law included in the continuity equation, in terms
of pressure and specific storativity. The term ρfgCB is neglected:

P f g 
 f C f g= (
 P −  f gez  + gq f)
t   f 
(27)
S P K H
( )
gq f
 sp =  P −  f gez +
 f g t  f g f g

Defining Sp [m s2 kg-1) as the specific storage for pressure and neglecting gravity in
Darcy’s law:

Ssp P K H 2 q
Sp = → Sp =  P+ f (28)
f g t  f g f

where KH is the hydraulic conductivity (m s-1). This mathematical model is applied to the
flow at a well of finite radius, employing radial coordinates in the Laplacian of the
pressure. We assume that the fluid from the reservoir moves into the well obeying
Darcy’s law:

K H P QV
vr = =− (29)
 f g r 2 rwba

where vr is the radial flow velocity and rw the effective radius of well screen. The model
can account for wellbore storage by including a second drawdown pressure when r = rw,
as follows:

K H 2 rwba P  r 2 dP
QV = − ( rw ) + c w (30)
f g r  f g dt

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PETE 509 Modeling of Geothermal Reservoirs: Course notes part 5

where QV is the total volumetric pumping rate (m3 s-1), ba is the the thickness of the
reservoir, rc is the radius of the well casing (m), Pw(t) and dPw / dt are the pressure and
the pressure drawdown in the well, respectively. This equation states that withdrawals
from the well consist of two parts: the first part is the flux into the well from the aquifer;
the second part is the fluid coming from the wellbore itself. The main hypothesis is that
the pressure just inside the well equals the pressure just outside of the well, Pw(t) =
P(rw, t). This is a continuity hypothesis for the pressure at the interior well’s boundary.

1.7. The Brinkman equation and the coupled flow to wells

The fluid flow regime from reservoir to well changes from slow to fast flow in fractures,
faults, and wells and is critical in many practical situations. The modeling of transitioning
flows requires coupling different mathematical expressions of flow laws. The Brinkman
equation is used to account for transitional fluid flow between boundaries in porous
heterogeneous media with more than one porosity, such as micro-porous rocks with
fractures, or rocks with two, three, or more different, contrasting porosities. In these
cases, the global structure of the porous medium is at different length scales.
Sometimes it is possible to divide the porous medium into two regions: one for larger
porosity and another one for smaller pores. In the first region, the Navier-Stokes
equation for incompressible flow holds. In the second region, Darcy’s law describes the
flow. The two boundary conditions to be satisfied at the common interface are continuity
of the fluid velocity and the shear stress. Darcy’s law alone is not sufficient to satisfy
these boundary conditions. The Brinkman equation is an extension of the traditional
form of Darcy’s law created to match boundary conditions at an interface between two
regions with very different porosity and permeability.

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PETE 509 Modeling of Geothermal Reservoirs: Course notes part 5

Figure 2. Model geometry demonstrate zones and boundary conditions for coupling
Darcy’s law (1 m < r < 4 m), Brinkman equations (0.1 m < r < 1 m) and the Navier-
Stokes equations inside the well (r < 0.1 m). Fluid flows from the right-side of the model
area to the well and enters through the well (Bundschuh & César Suárez 2010).

Brinkman’s original equation is semi-empirical in nature and defined as:

e2vB + vB = − KH h (31)

The correction term is defined by the Laplacian of the Brinkman fluid velocity 𝑣⃗B. The
term μe is an effective viscosity parameter that accounts for flow through both media, it
is not the real fluid viscosity. The effective viscosity is only a parameter that allows for
matching the shear stress boundary condition across the free-fluid/porous medium
interface. Eq. 31 is defined in terms of fluid pressure coupling a transitional zone
between two different flow regimes.

Figure 2 shows the fluid moves slowly through a thin porous layer towards a well and
moves into the well. The coordinate r represents the radial direction from the well to the
reservoir. The fluid flow follows Darcy’s law in the far field (1 m < r < 4 m) and the
Brinkman equations near the well opening (0.1 m < r < 1 m). The permeable layer is
0.875 m thick and confined at its top and bottom by impermeable materials. For
simplicity, it can be assumed that the reservoir is homogeneous and has isotropic
hydraulic properties, and that the fluid has constant density and viscosity. The fluid flux

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PETE 509 Modeling of Geothermal Reservoirs: Course notes part 5

at the inlet at the right-side and the pressure at the well entrance are known. The flow
field is stationary. In terms of fluid pressure, the Brinkman equations for steady-state
flow are:

.
f
 ( )
T 
vB + ( vB ) = f vB + PB ;

vB = 0 (32)

where μf is the dynamic viscosity (Pa s), 𝑣⃗B equals the velocity vector (m s-1), PB is
pressure (Pa), both in the Brinkman region, and κ (m2) denotes the permeability, which
is assumed to be the same in both flow zones.

The Brinkman equations allow the description of fluid flow in those porous media where
flow velocities are high enough so that momentum transport by shear stress becomes
significant. From the Brinkman side of the Darcy-Brinkman interface the fluid velocity is
constrained since the boundary condition on the Darcy side fixes the pressure. The
velocity constraint on the Brinkman side of the interface reflects that velocities are
dependent variables in the Brinkman equations but not in Darcy’s law for 𝑣⃗f. The
boundary condition on velocities is:

vB = v f (33)

Since the confining layers and the well casing are impermeable to flow, 𝑣⃗B equals zero
to eliminate all components of the velocity at the boundary. Obtaining a unique solution
to this problem requires the definition of the pressure at the well since the model
prescribes fluid flux conditions for all other boundaries. The constraint on pressure is PB
= Pw .

1.8. Coupling the Darcy-Brinkman-Navier-Stokes equations in the flow to

wells
In the previous chapter, it is demonstrated how Darcy’s law describes slow flow
velocities in porous rocks at a distance from the well; closer to the well the Brinkman
equations apply when the fluid moves in porous media but shear is non-negligible. On
the other hand, the Navier-Stokes equations describe movement of fluid inside the well
and in open faults. In general, the Navier-Stokes equations govern open-channel flows.

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PETE 509 Modeling of Geothermal Reservoirs: Course notes part 5

Figure 2 present a transition in three flow regimes: slow flow in porous media to through
a well and ultimately moves into and up the well. This example couples Darcy’s law with
the Brinkman equations and with the Navier-Stokes equations, which model the flow
within the wellbore at a radius r < 0.1 m, producing a fully coupled simulation for three
different flow laws (Figure 3). The interface between the Brinkman and Navier-Stokes
flow zones is in the vicinity of the well into the well (open channel). The coupling
problem requires the fluid velocity in the well to be equal to the Navier-Stokes velocity.
At the Navier-Stokes/Brinkman boundary the conditions are PNS = PB and vNS = vB. At
the Brinkman/Darcy boundary the conditions are PB = PD and vB = vD (Figure 2). Using
the same data, a simulation of this Darcy-Brinkman-Navier-Stokes coupled problem can
be performed.

Figure 3 shows the results of a numerical model for flow that transitions from Darcy’s
law in the far field (r > 1 m), to the Brinkman equations in the intermediate zone (0.1 m <
r < 1 m) and to the Navier-Stokes equation in the well (r < 0.1 m). The pressure
distribution (surface plot and contours) and velocities (streamlines) vary smoothly with
no disruption at either the Darcy-Brinkman interface (r = 1) or the Brinkman-Navier-
Stokes interface (r = 0.1 m). The streamlines show fluid moving through the boundary of
the well and up the well.

Figure 3. solution for fluids following Darcy’s law (1 m < r < 4 m), the Brinkman
equations (0.1 m < r < 1 m), and the Navier-Stokes equations (r < 0.1 m). The results

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PETE 509 Modeling of Geothermal Reservoirs: Course notes part 5

shown are pressure (surface plot and contours) and velocities (streamlines). The
vertical axis is expanded for clarity (Bundschuh & César Suárez 2010).

References
Bundschuh, J., & César Suárez A., M. (2010). Introduction to the Numerical Modeling of
Groundwater and Geothermal Systems: Fundamentals of Mass, Energy and Solute
Transport in Poroelastic Rocks (1st ed.). CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/b10499.

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