FUNDEC Kanyilmaz L1

Lesson 1,
15 April 2024
Alper Kanyilmaz, FUNDEC Training "Mastering LCA for Building Structures", Lesson 1 0
WHY ARE
WE HERE?
Global carbon footprint share of
construction industry 40%
(1/3 of this: Structural system)
IEA (2018) Global Status Report. Toward a zero-emission, efficient and resilient buildings and construction sector, Global Aliance for Building and Construction and UN environment
S.C. Kaethner, J.A. Burridge, Embodied CO2 of structural frames, The Structural Engineer Journal, The Institution of Structural Engineers (2012) 33–40.
23 January 2050
2.5
billions more
230billions more m2
people on earth of new
in 2050 construction
London Energy Transformation Initiative, Embodied carbon primer, 2020.

International Energy Agency, United Nations, Global status report 2017
International Energy Agency, United Nations, 2019 Global status report for buildings and construction, 2019.
Global floor area growth projections (IEA, IPCC, 2023)
Housing
Bridges
Renewable energy
…
…
A challenge & Opportunity for:
Building
Structures!
FUNDEC Training course “MASTERING LIFE CYCLE
ANALYSIS FOR BUILDING STRUCTURES”, 2024
Lesson 1: Life Cycle Analysis, and its Stages for Building Structures (2.5h)
q Introduction, overview of the course and learning outcomes.
q The power of the construction community to reduce the Greenhouse Gases (GHGs).
q Life Cycle Analysis and its stages related to a building’s structural system:
Ø Product stage “raw materials” (A1), “transport” (A2), “manufacturing” (A3), construction stage
“transport” (A4) and “installation” (A5).
Ø End-of-life stages (C1, C2, C3, C4).
Ø Beyond Life (D), circular economy principles (reuse, recovery and recycling potential).
q Q&A
Lesson 2: Calculation of Embodied Carbon for a Building Structure (2.5h)
q How to calculate the embodied carbon of a building structural system?
q What are Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs), and how are they used?
q What are the current regulations (worldwide, European and Portuguese) about low-carbon structural
design and construction?
q Strategies to reduce the embodied carbon by means of structural design.
q Q&A
Lesson 3: Life Cycle Sensitivity Analysis, and hands-on exercise with participants (2.5h)
q Sensitivity studies comparing the embodied carbon impact of buildings in terms of: span length,
number of stories, slab types (e.g. composite), lateral resistant systems, material type (e.g. high
strength steel, concrete with GGBS, timber options), different databases and EPDs.
q Balancing the cost efficiency and embodied carbon reduction in structures.
q Hands-on exercise together with attendees to compare different building structures and analyze their
embodied carbon (an open access LCA tool will be shared with attendees).
q Q & A and round-table discussion.
Glossary for the Webinar
GHG: Green House Gases
GWP: Global Warming Potential
LCA: Life Cycle Analysis
EC: Embodied Carbon
EPD: Environmental Product Declaration
GIA: Gross Internal Area
CO2e: CO2 equivalent emissions (“carbon footprint”)
kgCO2e/kg: 1 kg CO2e emitted to create 1 kg of material
kgCO2e/ton: 1 kg CO2e emitted to create 1 ton of material
kgCO2e/m2: 1 kg CO2e emitted to create 1 m2 of a building
tCO2e: Total amount (tons) of CO2e emitted to create the building
C02 footprint for a person from Lisbon to Milano:
150 kgCO2e (approximate value)
Please take note of this number for the rest of the Webinar.
Margin of improvement with optimization for the
same flight: 25 kgCO2e (approximate value)
Please take note of also this number for the rest of the Webinar.
Some highlights from the next 2 sessions
How to calculate embodied carbon of structures?
Total ECA-C = ∑$!"# 𝐸𝐶%! + ∑'&"# 𝐸𝐶(&
Analysis of Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs)
Sensitivity analysis
Jonathan M. Broyles, Michael W. Hopper, Assessment of the embodied carbon

performance of post-tensioned voided concrete plates as a sustainable floor solution in
multi-story buildings, Engineering Structures, Volume 295, 2023,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2023.116847.
«Exercise to bring to
Session 3»
Prepare a Bill of Quantity

(BoQ) & main items of a
project of yours.
Estimate its embodied carbon

value.
Let’s start…
Challenges and opportunities for
the construction community
during the climate crisis
Climate Crisis =
Green House Gases
Affecting
+
Resource consumption
What are “Green House Gas (GHG) Emissions” causing the
Climate Crisis?
Greenhouse effect
Natural warming of the earth that results when

gases in the atmosphere trap heat from the sun
that would otherwise escape into space
(identified in the 1800s).
Climate Crisis?
Major Green House Gases
Carbon dioxide (CO2): Burning of fossil fuels, waste,

biological sources, chemical reactions (e.g steel, cement
production).
Methane (CH4): Originates from coal, natural gas, and oil
production/transport, agricultural practices, land use, and
decay of organic waste.
Nitrous Oxide (N20): Arise from agricultural activities, land
use, industrial processes, combustion of fossil fuels and
solid waste, and wastewater treatment.
Fluorinated Gases: Chemicals used in household,
commercial, and industrial applications. Emitted in smaller
quantities, but have high global warming potentials
(GWPs), trapping significantly more heat than CO2.
Climate Crisis?
Major Green House Gases
Carbon dioxide (CO2): Burning of fossil fuels, waste,

biological sources, chemical reactions (e.g steel, cement
production).
Methane (CH4): Originates from coal, natural gas, and oil
production/transport, agricultural practices, land use, and CO2 CH4
decay of organic waste.
Nitrous Oxide (N20): Arise from agricultural activities, land
use, industrial processes, combustion of fossil fuels and
solid waste, and wastewater treatment.
Fluorinated Gases: Chemicals used in household,
commercial, and industrial applications. Emitted in smaller
quantities, but have high global warming potentials
(GWPs), trapping significantly more heat than CO2.
N 2O F.G
What is “Global Warming Potential” ?
GWP term is used to describe the relative potency of a GHG, considering how long it remains
active in the atmosphere.
If we do nothing:
THE PLANET WILL BE FINE!
WE WILL NOT!
(cite: George Carlin)
Global Warming Potential
Why 1.5 °C limit is important ? Because, beyond it, the effects get significantly worse.
GWP of the major GHGs
💨
Carbon dioxide (CO2): Primary GHG emitted through human activities, GWP: 1 (Reference
gas), remains in the atmosphere thousands of years
🐄 Methane (CH4): GWP: 30 over 100 years, remains in the atmosphere 10 years, high energy
absorption.
🌾 Nitrous Oxide (N20): GWP: 273 over 100 years, remains in the atmosphere thousands of
years
🧊 Fluorinated Gases: GWP: 1000+
While CO2 makes up 79% of global GHG emissions, emissions from other GHG can have also a big
impact on warming in the short term.
Breakdown of emissions by gas
Source: Climate Watch GHG Emissions -

Last updated: April 25, 2022
While CO2 makes up 79% of global GHG emissions, emissions from other GHG can have also a big
impact on warming in the short term.
q The GWP takes into account the fact that many gases are
also effective at warming Earth than CO2, per unit mass.
q GHG emissions are often measured in (CO2) equivalent

“CO2e, CO2-eq”
q To convert emissions of a gas into CO2 equivalent, its

emissions are multiplied by the gas's Global Warming Source: Climate Watch GHG Emissions -
Last updated: April 25, 2022
Potential (GWP).
Worldwide efforts to slow down GWP by reducing GHG Emissions
A key step after 23 years of discussions: Paris Agreement 2015
q International treaty on climate change adopted by 196 parties in COP21 in Paris, 2015.
q Aims to limit GW to 1.5° C compared to preindustrial levels.
q Every 5 years, countries are invited to submit updated targets and actions to reduce their GHGs.
q To achieve the objectives, emissions must reach net-zero by 2050.
LETI Embodied Carbon Primer
Policy efforts worldwide GWP projections, different scenario
what can WE do?
Augustus
Vitruvius
Building in Roman Empire:
Vitruvius on Archtitecture by Thomas Gordon Smith

Augustus
Building in Roman Empire:

Build larger, more impressive structures to impress
(Big problems of 63 BC- 14 AD) Alper Kanyilmaz, FUNDEC Training "Mastering LCA for Building Structures", Lesson 1 35
Vitruvius on Archtitecture by Thomas Gordon Smith

Building in 2024:
Build larger large enough, more impressive sustainable buildings
(Big problems of 2020+)
q Green new Deal, 2018, US

q European Green Deal, 2019, Europe
q グリーン成⻑戦略, 2020 Japan
q…
Year 2050
Building in 2024:
Build larger large enough, more impressive sustainable buildings
Portugal praises
climate consensus
reached at COP28
Previous Portugal Prime Minister

António Costa at COP28
https://www.portugal.gov.pt/en/gc23/communication/news-item?i=portugal-praises-climate-consensus-reached-at-cop28
Demand from the construction community:
Reduce energy and material consumption
Reduce waste
Reduce building carbon (CO2e) footprint
Building carbon (CO2e) footprint =
embodied carbon
operational carbon
Alper Kanyilmaz, FUNDEC Training "Mastering LCA for Building Structures", Lesson 1
Suzy De horatiis et. Al., M odern Steel Construction, Decem ber 2019
39
What are “operational” and “embodied” carbon ?
Operational Carbon: The amount of carbon emitted during the in-use phase of a building
(e.g. heating, cooling, hot water, pumps, ventilation, lightening)
What are “operational” and “embodied” carbon ?
Embodied Carbon: The amount of carbon emitted during the extraction of raw materials,
manufacturing, transportation, construction and disposal of building
materials
Building carbon footprint = Operational carbon + Embodied carbon
Operational
Carbon
Embodied Embodied Embodied Embodied

Carbon Carbon Carbon Carbon
Building carbon (CO2e) footprint =
Structural system
(15-80 % share)
embodied carbon Raw materials
Manufacturing (e.g. cutting, welding)
Surface treatment
Transportation
+
heating, lighting,
cooling and
operational carbon maintaining the
building («passive
design»)
Alper Kanyilmaz, FUNDEC Training "Mastering LCA for Building Structures", Lesson 1
Suzy De horatiis et. Al., M odern Steel Construction, Decem ber 2019
43
Why are embodied CO2 emissions (becoming) so important? LETI Embodied Carbon Primer
Traditional Focus on Climate Change:

q Concentrated on lowering carbon emissions from
operational energy use.
q As buildings become more energy-efficient,
operational carbon has decreased (Decarb. of
electricity generation aids in this reduction).
Rising Importance of Embodied Carbon:

q Can account for 40-70% of Whole Life Carbon in
new buildings.
q Operational carbon reduction will lead to shift the
focus in Embodied carbon.
LETI Embodied Carbon Primer
COP Embodied
28, carbon:
December 2023, Dubai
Buildings: 400 – 1200 kgCO2e/m2
Structural system
of the buildings: 100 – 600 kgCO2e/m2
Bridges: 800 – 6000 kgCO2e/m2
The carbon intensity of buildings is calculated by dividing total CO2 emitted from energy use, including electricity, by global total floor area. This
indicator differs from the energy intensity of buildings in that it reflects not just how much energy they use, relative to their size, but also where that
energy comes from and how much carbon is emitted from producing and consuming that energy.
CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY!
Industry Incentives
BREEAM (Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method)
• Established in 1990 by the Building Research Establishment (BRE) in the UK

• A sustainability assessment method for master planning projects, infrastructure, and
buildings
• Buildings are awarded ratings: Pass, Good, Very Good, Excellent, and Outstanding.
• It has certified over 565,000 buildings worldwide
LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design)
• Developed by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) in 1993.

• An internationally recognized green building certification system, providing third-party
verification that a building or community was designed and built
• Certification levels: Certified, Silver, Gold, and Platinum.
• Adopted in over 180 countries
Country Regulations
Denmark
q All new buildings in Denmark must include a 50-year
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) for environmental impact
in their building permit applications (Applies to all
buildings from 2025, no matter size).
q Introduces a limit of 12 kgCO2/m2/yr from Jan 2023 for
buildings over 1,000 m2 (for 50 yrs: 600 kgCO2/m2)
q Limit value reduces by 1.5 kgCO2/m2/yr biennially,
targeting 7.5 kgCO2/m2/yr by 2029.
q Measures whole-life carbon (LCA stages A-D) in
kgCO2/m2/yr. The module D phase must be calculated
and stated, but is not included when benchmarking.
q https://reductionroadmap.dk/ recommends 5.8
kgCO2/m2/yr to reach 1.5°C target
https://www.istructe.org/resources/guidance/international-drivers-of-low-carbon-structural-des/
https://www.oneclicklca.com/construction-carbon-regulations-in-europe/
Country Regulations
Netherlands
q All office buildings over 100m2 and residential buildings
must comply with the Milieu Prestatie Berekening
(MPG, a nationally used method for construction
projects). Based on a whole-life LCA (excluding
operational energy (B6) and water (B7) usage)
according to European standard EN 15804 + A2.
q Environmental impact values (e.g. GWP, ozone layer
depletion) are converted into a shadow price (e.g.,
€0,05/kgCO2eq, €30/kgCFC-11 eq, €4/kgSO4eq).
q The combined shadow price per floor area of the
project is limited to 1,0 €/m2/yr:; the limit for residential
buildings was tightened to 0,8 €/m2/yr in 2021, a
further reduction to 0,5 €/m2/yr is proposed for 2030).
q https://milieudatabase.nl/en/: The Dutch Environmental
Database
https://www.istructe.org/resources/guidance/international-drivers-of-low-carbon-structural-des/
https://www.oneclicklca.com/construction-carbon-regulations-in-europe/
More on the regulations, coming
soon during the Training…
The current situation of 11 countries

will be presented.
Role of construction materials in GHGs
https://www.architecture2030.org/why-the-built-environment/
Steel
7%
of global GHG emissions.
q Steel producers, designers and users have a major responsibility

+ opportunity to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
Steel
• Manufacturing needs high
temperatures, chemical reactions
releasing CO2e.
• Raw materials include coal.
• Resource intensive joints (To

construct a steel frame, 30-40% of
the resoureces are spent for joint
fabrication)
Concrete
q Most common construction material in the world (14 million m3 / year)
Gartner et.al., Eco-efficient cements: Potential

economically viable solutions for a low-
CO2 cement-based materials industry, 2018
Concrete
8%
of global GHG emissions. Expected to
rise to 25% by 2050.
q Most common construction material in the world (14 million m3 / year)

q Concrete producers, designers and users have a major responsibility +
opportunity to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
Concrete
• Manufacturing needs high
temperatures, chemical reactions
releasing CO2e.
• The majority of these emissions

come from the production of the
clinker used in the concrete
Timber
1 tCO2
a tree can absorb in its lifetime if not cut.
q Timber producers, designers and users have a major responsibility +

opportunity to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
Timber
Mass timber has become
synonymous with carbon
neutrality, leading to the
fallacy that all "mass-
timber buildings are
carbon neutral" due to the
stored carbon offsetting
the emissions expended
by them.
How can
construction
community reduce
its carbon footprint?
How does a building share the embodied carbon?
Structures and
foundations are the most
long-lasting parts of a
building
and
account for more than
half of the building
embodied carbon.
Brand, S., 1994, How Buildings Learn: What Happens After They’re Built
Medium-large scale housing
Structural system
• Substructures (foundations,
basements)
• Superstructure (columns,
beams, slabs, walls)
• Facade elements
• Internal finishes (partitions, floors)
• MEP (e.g. plants, ducts, pipework,
cables)
LETI Climate Emergency Design guide, 2020
Small scale housing
Structural system
basements)
• Facade elements
cables)
Commercial offices
Structural system
basements)
• Facade elements
cables)
School buildings
Structural system
basements)
• Facade elements
cables)
Circular economy
An economy that is life
restorative and regenerative
by design, and that aims to
keep products, components
and materials at their highest
utility and value at all times,
distinguishing between
technical and biological life
cycles. cycle
(more on this on
Later today)
Life Cycle Assessment
q A methodology to assess the

environmental performance of a
building or product over its life-
cycle
q Helps to find the major sources
of emissions, and allows project
team to examine design options
to lower emissions.
q It comprises several steps
defined in the ISO 14000 series
of standards that address
environmental management
systems (inventory analysis,
impact assessment,
interpretation of impacts)
10 minute break
3 min of it: a short quiz
Common LCA approaches: Cradle to Gate: A1-A3
Upfront carbon Whole life
Cradle to Site: A1-A5
q A methodology to assess the Cradle to Grave: A–C carbon
environmental performance of a Cradle to Cradle: A–C and D
building or product over its life-
cycle
q Helps to find the major sources
of emissions, and allows project
team to examine design options
to lower emissions.
q It comprises several steps
defined in the ISO 14000 series
of standards that address
environmental management
systems (inventory analysis,
impact assessment,
interpretation of impacts)
LCA reports:
q Fossil fuel depletion q Global Warming Potential (GWP)
q Renewable / non-renewable resource use q Ozone depletion
q Water use q Acidification
q Global Warming Potential (GWP) q Toxic releases to air, water, and land
Kibert C.J., , Sustainable Construction, 2022
How to calculate GWP by means of embodied
carbon?
(Example) 453 kgCO2e 253 kg steel 1.79 kgCO2e/kg
Embodied carbon = quantity × carbon factor

(kgCO2e) How much The quantity of CO2
material is emitted per kg of material
involved within its life cycle.
(i.e. how much carbon was
(mass, kg) used to create 1 kg of that
material)
(kgC02e/kg)
Recommended steps for reporting on LCA
Published by the Royal Institution of

Chartered Surveyors (RICS)
Civil Engineering life

cycle stages and
information modules
(adapted from
EN 15978, EN 17472
and EN 15643, with
additions to illustrate
biogenic carbon) by
RICS WLCA, 2nd edition.
(Probable future of
EN15978).
RICS, Whole life carbon assessment of the built environment, 2nd edition
Dynamic LCA
q Accounts for the fact that the earlier an
emission happens the more harm it causes,
and to consider the benefits of biogenic
carbon temporarily stored in buildings.
q Puts a heavier weight on impact generated

now (A1-A5 steps) versus those created in
the future (C and D).
q Static and dynamic approaches can yield Early emissions Future emissions
similar results for products like concrete

and steel, where emissions are
predominantly during manufacturing.
Life cycle stage A
Covers all carbon emissions and removals
from any activities necessary to complete the
construction of the asset.
A0: Non-physical steps before construction.
q Covers non-physical pre-construction activities, such as surveys and activities

associated with the design.
q Can be a significant economic cost, but for buildings do not normally have a
significant environmental impact.
q Assumed to be negligible for buildings. However, for infrastructure projects
or where the design team uses sets up a project-specific office, may be
significant.
STEEL
A1, A2, A3: Steps needed to create a construction product.
A1 A2 A3
Extraction of the Transport (road, Manufacturing
raw material (iron rail, sea) of the (Ironmaking, Steel
ore, limestone, raw material to making, Casting,
coal, scrap) manufacturing Rolling, Steel
unit profile production)
CONCRETE
Ready Mix Concrete, EPD, The International EPD system, S-P-04982
PRECAST CONCRETE
PRECAST CONCRETE COLUMN AND BEAM from Finja Prefab, The International EPD system, S-P-01453 Precast Column and Beam
TIMBER
KLH® - CLT (Cross Laminated Timber) from KLH Massivholz GmbH, The International EPD® System
STEEL
A1 Extraction of the raw material (iron ore, coal, scrap)
The most significant component of the A1-A5 carbon emissions in a steel product
Iron Ore:
q Accounts for 34Mt CO2e/year emissions, with 55% on diesel use and 35% from non-
renewable electricity (McKinsey & Co., “Creating the zero-carbon mine,” 2021)
q Decarbonisation of the grid and using hydrogen fuel cell and electric vehicles in mining could
reduce emissions.
STEEL
The most significant component of the A1-A5 carbon emissions in a steel product
Coal:
q Accounts for 2000Mt CO2e/year emissions, 70% is attributed to methane released into the
atmosphere during the underground extraction.
q Carbon capture technology can help preventing methane from reaching the atmosphere.
STEEL
The most significant component of the A1-A5 carbon emissions in a steel product.
An opportunity to reduce A1 impact: Recycled steel
q (up to 100%) Scrap material is used to produce new

steel in electric arc furnaces (EAF).
q (up to 30%) Scrap material can be used to produce new
steel in Blast Furnace (BF)
q Currently, most suitable for Rebars, hot rolled structural
steel sections.
q Steel production from scrap uses roughly 1/8th the
energy compared to iron ore.
q Limitations: Current steel production exceeds past
production levels, scrap recycling insufficient to fulfil the
entire raw material requirement.
More on this:
https://www.iea.org/reports/iron-and-steel-technology-roadmap
https://worldsteel.org/steel-topics/raw-materials/, by Baris Ciftci, Director, Industry Analysis, Worldsteel.org
CONCRETE
A1 Extraction of the raw material (aggregates, water, admixtures, cement)
The most significant component of the A1-A5 carbon emissions in concrete production
Cement: Consists of 10-20% of the mass of
concrete, accounts up to 90% carbon emissions
of the A1-A3 emissions (CEM 1 cement: 900
kgCO2/t)
Aggregates: Consists of 75% concrete volume,
accounts up to 5% of the A1-A3 emissions.
Water: Accounts for less than 1% of the carbon
emission in stage A1.
Admixtures: Accounts for up to 2% carbon
emissions of A1-A3 stages, can help reducing
the water usage by increasing the workability of
the mix.
Buildings & Infrastructure Priority Actions for Sustainability Embodied Carbon Concrete Reference:
07762000-RP-SUS-0003, Arup, 2023
CONCRETE
The most significant component of the A1-A5 carbon emissions in concrete production
Main source of emissions in cement

production:
Reproduced from Bruno dal Lago presentation

q Calcination reaction in the kiln
CaCO3 + heat → CaO + CO2 .
q To heat the kiln up to 1500°C

q Energy needed for the grinders.
CONCRETE
The main factor affecting the GHG is the ratio of clinker consumed, which can vary between
35% (for a CEM III cement) and 97.5% (for CEM I).
CONCRETE
Opportunities to reduce A1 impact:
Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs): by-

products of other industries that can replace a
substantial portion of clinker in the cement mix.
Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS), by
product of steel production (40-70 kgCO2e/t). Used as
a substitute for carbon intensive cement clinker to
reduce carbon emissions of concrete.
Pulverised Fuel Ash (PFA, or fly ash), by product of
the coal combustion (4 kgCO2e/t)
Silica fume, by product of silicon alloy production (30
kgCO2e/t)
https://ukcsma.co.uk/what-is-ggbs/
CONCRETE
Opportunities to reduce A1 impact
BUT:
The estimated global availability and
use of Portland cement and SCMs
q Concrete can handle up to 50% cement
replacement, and global SCM supply is
limited (15 % of cement usage today).
q Increasing GGBS content for your project
may reduce the same possibility of
another project.
Scrivener et. al. 2018
Conclusion: While global supplies must continue to be fully utilised, locally increasing
GGBS use is unlikely to decrease global emissions.
CONCRETE
BUT:
The estimated global availability and
use of Portland cement and SCMs
q Concrete can handle up to 50% cement
replacement, and global SCM supply is
limited (15 % of cement usage today).
q Increasing GGBS content for your project
may reduce the same possibility of
another project.
q Higher GGBS content, longer setting
times than CEM I. Scrivener et. al. 2018
Conclusion: While global supplies must continue to be fully utilised, locally increasing
GGBS use is unlikely to decrease global emissions.
CONCRETE
LC3 “Limestone Calcined Clay Cement”
q Can reduce half of the clinker

content
q Up to date, around 25
applications were built using
LC3 in India and Latin
America.
BUT: https://lc3.ch/about-lc3/
Research is ongoing before industrial implementation at global scale.
CONCRETE
q Recycled concrete aggregates (crushed

concrete) with delivery distance < 15 km.
BUT:
q Due to crushing, RAs contain fine material that
increase water demand, and there may be a Shutterstock
need to increase the cement content of the Concrete type Allowable percentage
of Recycled
concrete as well. Aggregates
q Quantities may be limited by local regulations GEN0 to GEN3 100%
and physical properties RC20/25 to RC40/45 20%
FND1 20%
RC40/50XF 0%
PAV1 and PAV2 0%
FND2 to FND4 0%
The Concrete Center, Specifying Sustainable Concrete, Structures, 2021
CONCRETE
Calcium rich materials such as limestone, chalk, and silica, and

alumina rich materials such as clay and shale, are extracted from
rock quarries. This process account up to 5% of the emission for
the cement production:
q Electricity used during drying and grinding account for 8-13%

of indirect emissions of cement production
q These carbon emissions could be reduced or eliminated
through electrification of mining, drying, grinding
operations
CONCRETE
The biggest opportunity to reduce A1 impact:
There is no market-ready and

significant solution yet, the only way to
minimize the quantity of cement is a
well-designed structure making an
efficient use of material.
TIMBER
A1 Extraction of the raw material (wood, adhesives)
Accounts up to 25% of the A1-A5 fossil carbon emissions.
q Trees remove carbon dioxide from the

atmosphere through photosynthesis, they store
approximately one tonne of CO2 per cubic metre
of wood; carbon that is stored in this form is
called ‘biogenic carbon’.
q When timber is sourced from a well-managed,

sustainable forest, the benefits of sequestration
can be considered in carbon calculations.
q Re-growing cut-down trees is essential
TIMBER
A1 Extraction of the raw material (wood, adhesives)
Adhesives:
q The adhesives used are typically made from oil
which is a finite resource, and energy intensive to
extract
q CLT and Glulam typically contain 1-2% and 1.5-

2.5% by volume of adhesive respectively.
q The GWP of the adhesive are approximately 10

times higher than GWP of the wood per each kg
Pinterest.com
STEEL
A2 Transport (road, rail, sea) of the raw material to manufacturing unit
Commonly accounts up to 10% of the A1-A5 carbon emissions in a steel product
By Sea: 17 kgCO2/t/1000 km By rail: 27 kgCO2/t/1000 km By road: 107 kgCO2/t/1000 km
Ø The electrification of railways, and development of hydrogen powered heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) are
two changes which will hopefully see their carbon contributions fall over the coming years. In theory,
carbon emissions associated with the transportation of steel could become near-zero in future.
STEEL
A2 Transport of the raw material
https://www.trademap.org/
Steel exporting countries Steel importing countries
CONCRETE
A2 Transport of the raw material (cement, SCMs, aggregate) to batching plant
The carbon emission quantity is based on the distance between the quarries and factories
to the concrete batching plants can be categorized from local to global. Most commonly,
local and national values are used.
q Local <50km 0.005 kgCO2e/kg
(50 km by road)
q National <300km 0.032 kgCO2e/kg

(300 km by road)
q Regional <1500km 0.161 kgCO2e/kg

(1500 km by road)
q Global >1500km 0.183 kgCO2e/kg

(10,000 km by sea and
then 200km by road)
two changes which will hopefully see their carbon contributions fall over the coming years.
CONCRETE
Recycled Aggregates GHG impact of different traveling distances.
Buildings & Infrastructure Priority Actions for Sustainability Embodied Carbon Steel Reference: 07762000-RP-SUS-0001, Arup, 2023
CONCRETE
At global level, raw materials are abundant.
https://www.trademap.org/
Cement exporting countries Cement importing countries
TIMBER
A2 Transport (road, rail, sea) of the raw material to manufacturing unit
Commonly accounts up to 10% of the A1-A5 carbon emissions in timber product
By Sea: 17 kgCO2/t/1000 km By rail: 27 kgCO2/t/1000 km By road: 107 kgCO2/t/1000 km
two changes which will hopefully see their carbon contributions fall over the coming years. In theory,
carbon emissions associated with transport could drop to zero.
STEEL
A3 Manufacturing (Ironmaking, Steel making, Casting, Rolling, Steel profile
production)
Commonly, the second most significant component of the A1-A5 carbon emissions in a steel product
Processing Post-processing
STEEL
production)
Processing
Basic oxygen steelmaking

Used for making steel products from virgin iron ore.
q Coking: using a coke oven to turn coal into coke.
q Sintering: using a sintering plant to make sinter from iron
ore and limestone fines.
q Iron making: producing pig iron from coke, sinter and
limestone pellets in a blast furnace.
q Steelmaking: obtaining a liquid steel, then cast, by blowing
the pig iron, lime and recycled steel, reducing the carbon
content.
q In Europe, basic oxygen furnace (BOF) is typically used to
produce cladding, decking, hollow sections, and plates.
STEEL
production)
Processing
Electric arc furnace (EAF)

Used for producing steel products from recycled steel
elements (about 90% of recycled content).
q Putting recycled scrap steel in an arc furnace.

q Melting the steel through electricity and temperature.
In Europe, EAF is used for rebar, standard open sections,

and sheet piles.
Most of the carbon emission is from electricity and, with

the decarbonization of the grid, will eventually decrease
towards net zero.
STEEL
production)
Processing
If demand for new steel was matched by the supply of scrap, and all steel processing plants
were based on electrified technology (EAF or a new variation of it), powered by 100%
renewables, theoretically steel could be produced for extremely low amounts of carbon.
However:
q Currently only 30% of steel plants are EAF, and these plants are part-powered by fossil fuels
q At present, global demand for steel is approx. three times greater than the supply of scrap.
STEEL
production)
Post-processing
Secondary production
q Involves rolling (hot rolling and cold forming).

q Mainly for steel sections, reinforcing bars and metal
deck/panels.
Hot rolling
q Involves reheating the steel, rolling it, then slowly cooling it.
q Produces about 0.2-0.3 kgCO2e/kg of steel.
STEEL
production)
Post-processing
Fabrication processes
Joining: by arc welding Machining: cutting and drilling Bending: cold or hot bending
STEEL
production)
Post-processing
Painting
q Airless spraying of atomized particles to protect the steel.
Galvanising
q Involves immersing the steel in molten zinc to create a coating.

q Produces about 0.1-0.3 kgCO2e/kg of steel
CONCRETE
A3 Manufacturing (Batching of concrete)
q The components are stored at the batching plant

in silos, and mixed either in a plant mixer of truck
mixer, then transported to the site.
q Mainly fueled by electricity or diesel depending
on the batching facility and this is the main
contributor to CO2 emissions during this stage
Emissions, per kg concrete in situ 0.0007 kgCO2e/kg
Emissions, per kg precast 0.0142 kgCO2e/kg

Buildings & Infrastructure Priority Actions for Sustainability Embodied Carbon Concrete Reference:
07762000-RP-SUS-0003, Arup, 2023
TIMBER
A3 Manufacturing (processing of the raw materials, the kiln-drying,
Fabrication)
Commonly accounts up to 10% of the A1-A5 carbon emissions in a timber product
Processing Post- Processing
https://www.naturallywood.com/ The CLT Handbook
TIMBER
Fabrication)
Processing
Stripping and cutting
q the logs are sawn into the required section sizes
Buildings & Infrastructure Priority Actions for Sustainability, Embodied Carbon, Timber, 2023
TIMBER
Fabrication)
Processing
Kiln drying
q The fresh wood will be

dried to approximately 12-
18% moisture content.
q Usually fueled by either

natural gas, or using offcuts
and forest waste
TIMBER
Fabrication)
Processing
Sorting, gluing and finishing
q The timber is transported to the

manufacturing site and is graded
according to its strength
properties.
q Can be used to internal finishes

or to use in engineered timber
TIMBER
Fabrication)
Processing
Engineered timber (CLT, Glulam)
q Can be manufactured to custom sizes
q Processing consist of finger jointing, Gluing and bonding and CNC finishing.
Buildings & Infrastructure Priority Actions for Sustainability, Embodied Carbon, Timber, 2023
TIMBER
Fabrication)
Post Processing
Fabrication processes
TIMBER
Fabrication)
Post Processing
Fire protection
q Oversizing member to maintained the required strength in case of fire so added carbon
emission
q Or using plasterboard/fire rated board.
Moisture control
q Structures should be designed to avoid standing water, hidden leaks, and reliance on roof
membranes alone
A1-A3 comparison (example)
Entire Structural Steel building (RC slabs + foundation): Steel recycled content = 13.7% post-consumer
3200 2982,85
2800
Carbon emission (tCO2e)
2400
2000
10-storey steel building with metal deck floor, 15x7.5 m,
1600 S275 (beams), S355 (col.)
Kanyilmaz A., Chehade M., Carr J., Harpin R., Strategies for
1200 Embodied Carbon Intensity Reduction, 2024 (ongoing study)
EPD references:
Structural steel:
800 Nordec, “Environmental Product Declaration”, 2020,
https://oneclicklcaapp.com/app/sec/util/getEpdFile?resourceId=rtsSteelStruc
HotRolledSection&profileId=Nordec2020
400 233,18 Concrete C30/37:
140,27 70,72 75,22 66,57 66,77
FEDBETON, “Environmental Product Declaration”, 2019,
18,91 3,71 https://www.fedbeton.be/docs/H7H7S5Q1K5/B-EPD-21-0069-002-00-01-EN-
Fedbeton-signed.pdf
0 Reinforcing bars:
CELSA, “Environmental Product Declaration”, 2021,
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 C1 C2 C3 C4 https://api.environdec.com/api/v1/EPDLibrary/Files/b8f8bd47-8c39-480b-
3a09-08d98fadb225/Data
Production Construction End of Life Corrugated Sheets:
Llentab Steel AB, “Environmental Product Declaration”, 2022,
https://oneclicklcaapp.com/app/sec/util/getEpdFile?resourceId=epdhub_LL_
(Structural steel frame, steel recycled content = 13.7%) HighProfileSheet_epdHub0056_fixAug2023&profileId=LlentabSteel2022
A4, A5: Steps needed to construct a building
A4 A5
Transport (road, rail, Construction and
sea) of the steel installation
product to the site
STEEL
A4 Transport (road, rail, sea) of the steel product to the construction site
Accounts for 2-10% of the A1-A5 carbon emissions in a steel product.
Includes all stages of the journey of the products from the final manufacturing plant to the project
site, including return journeys.
(50 km by road)

(300 km by road)

(1500 km by road)

Gibbons et Al., “How To calculate Embodied Carbon”, 2022
then 200km by road)
CONCRETE
A4 Transport of the concrete product to the construction site
q Minimal transport time is desired for the
concrete quality (16 km average value, UK).
q Transporting the concrete from the batching
plant to the final site contribute relatively small
amounts of CO2 to the total A1-A5 emissions.
TIMBER
A4 Transport (road, rail, sea) of the timber product to the construction site
Accounts up to 50-55% of the A1-A5 carbon emissions in a timber product.
Includes all stages of the journey of the products from the final manufacturing plant to the project
site, including return journeys.
(50 km by road)

(300 km by road)

(1500 km by road)

then 200km by road)
STEEL
A5 Construction and installation
Accounts for 1-5% of the A1-A5 carbon emissions in a steel product
Site activity emissions A5a
q Related to on-site electricity and fuel use
q Depends on the equipment present on site

(excavators, cranes, access lifts, static/mobile
working platforms etc..).
q Electrical equipment could be powered by

renewable energy, leading to reduce GHG.
q Can benefit from the off-site manufacturing

techniques.
STEEL
Accounts for 1-5% of the A1-A5 carbon emissions in a steel product.
Site waste A5w
q Often related to the manufacturing waste (module A3).

q Most of steel waste (scrap) is recovered.
q Can benefit from the off-site manufacturing techniques.
Metal deck: 2% waste Reinforcement steel: 5-15% Steel sections: near 0% waste
waste
CONCRETE
Accounts up to 15% of the A1-A5 carbon emissions of in-situ concrete
Site activity emissions A5a
Placing concrete:
q fuel for activities such as pumping or skipping

concrete, assumed as 0.0090tCO2e/m3
(Nazari and Sanjayan, Handbook of low carbon concrete, 2017)
Formwork
q Commonly re-used up to three times.
CONCRETE
Site waste A5w
q Depends on the processes used by the contractor.

q Average value is considered around 5%, but can be as much as 13% due to extra-ordering for
precaution.
q Additional elements should be considered like concrete blinding, temporary works including
timber formwork and falsework.
Concrete in situ : 5% waste Concrete precast (beams Timber formwork: 10% waste
and frames): 5% waste
TIMBER
Accounts up to 10-15% of the A1-A5 carbon emissions of a timber product.
q CLT and Glulam elements are prefabricated are quickly

installed on site, with small installation crews.
Site waste-permanent timber
q CLT/Glulam usually always come to site ready with little
waste
q Sawn softwood timber products will produce waste if
segregated properly, it should be easy to recycled.
q Can benefit from the off-site manufacturing techniques.
Site waste-temporary timber
q Softwood timber are the flexible and lightweight so
useful for the transportation of materials and for site
hoardings and concrete formwork
q It is best to use reusable formwork like PERI instead of
timber because the embodied carbon cannot be
considered. Alper Kanyilmaz, FUNDEC Training "Mastering LCA for Building Structures", Lesson 1 125
A1-A5 comparison (example)
3200 2982,85
2800
2400
2000
1600 S275 (beams), S355 (col.)
EPD references:
Structural steel:
400 233,18 Concrete C30/37:
140,27 70,72 75,22 66,57 66,77
Fedbeton-signed.pdf
0 Reinforcing bars:
Life cycle stage B covers all carbon emissions and removals that occur over
the in-use stage
q B1 covers direct emissions and removals from construction
products, such as emission of blowing agents from insulation,
refrigerant leakage from MEP equipment.
q B2–B4 cover material-related emissions that occur from

maintenance, repair and replacement of any construction
products, components, or elements of the asset over the
reference study period.
q B5 covers any refurbishment or change in performance of the

asset (e.g. retrofit/refurbishment or extension) planned at the
outset of the project to occur at some point after construction is
completed.
High uncertainty, project specific data
End of life (C1, C2, C3, C4): Steps needed to demolish the structure, transport
the waste material to disposal, and process and dispose the waste.
Global values are not

always available and
are expected to be C1 Deconstruction C2 Waste Transport
variable from country to
country.
C3 Waste processing C4 Waste Disposal

C1 Deconstruction
q Covers all site activities needed to dismantle, deconstruct and/or demolish.
C2 Waste Transport
q Covers transportation of deconstructed and demolished

material to the final location.
q Impact values (EC) usually depend on the travel

distance (similarly to A4).
q The waste processing or disposal facilities are likely to

be local to the site.
Reuse/recycling on site (0 km) 0.0 kgCO2e/kg

Reuse/recycling elsewhere (50km) 0.005 kgCO2e/kg
Landfill/incineration (50km) 0.005 kgCO2e/kg
C3 Waste processing
q Covers the preparation of waste for their disposal.
q Different activities are done to prepare the waste.
q Before reuse, coatings, joints and fixings are removed.
q Before recycling, waste are collected as separate

scraps.
C4 Waste disposal
q Involves any processing before the disposal and from

the degradation of landfilled materials, or incineration
without energy recovery.
q Only applicable for items not being recovered for reuse,

recycling or other recovery.
q The default impact value used for waste to landfill is

1.264 kgCO2e/ton.
C3-4 Waste processing and disposal
q The two stages are usually grouped, as the two

scenarios are mutually exclusive.
q A default impact value of 0.013 kgCO2e/kg of waste is

commonly used. Gibbons et Al., “How To calculate Embodied Carbon”, 2022
A+C comparison (example)
3200 2982,85
2800
2400
2000
1600 S275 (beams), S355 (col.)
EPD references:
Structural steel:
400 233,18 Concrete C30/37:
140,27 70,72 75,22 66,57 66,77
Fedbeton-signed.pdf
0 Reinforcing bars:
A+C comparison (example)
Entire Structural Steel building (RC slabs + foundation), Steel recycled content = 86.7%
3200
2800
2400
2119,8
2000
1600 S275 (beams), S355 (col.)
Embodied Carbon Intensity Reduction, 2024 (ongoing study)
1200
EPD references:
Structural steel:
Concrete C30/37:
400 177,7 FEDBETON, “Environmental Product Declaration”, 2019,
39,1 103,0 65,3 40,8 58,0 39,3 https://www.fedbeton.be/docs/H7H7S5Q1K5/B-EPD-21-0069-002-00-01-EN-
3,2 Fedbeton-signed.pdf
0 Reinforcing bars:
HighProfileSheet_epdHub0056_fixAug2023&profileId=LlentabSteel2022
Which life-cycle steps have the highest impact in total embodied carbon?
Structural Steel frame only of the building: Steel recycled content = 13.7% post-consumer
Total Embodied Carbon = 2042.24 tCO2e
EPD references:
Embodied Carbon Intensity = 91.68 kgCO2e/m2 Structural steel:
Nordec, “Environmental Product Declaration”,
3000
2020,
2800 https://oneclicklcaapp.com/app/sec/util/getEpdFile?
2600 resourceId=rtsSteelStrucHotRolledSection&profileI
2400 d=Nordec2020
2200
2000
1800 1689,17
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400 219,93
200 21,99 36,73 19,88 31,97 18,93 2,75 0,89
0
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 C1 C2 C3 C4
Production Construction End of Life
Which life-cycle steps have the highest impact in total embodied carbon?
Structural Steel frame only of the building: Steel recycled content = 86.7% post-consumer
Total Embodied Carbon = 1030.18 tCO2e
EPD references:
Embodied Carbon Intensity = 46.25 kgCO2e/m2 Structural steel:
BE Group Sverige AB, “Environmental Product
3000
Declaration”, 2021,
2800 https://api.environdec.com/api/v1/EPDLibrary/Files/
2600 6574f4e7-2e7c-4f70-39f2-08d99c9745fc/Data
2400
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000 826,1
800
600
400
200 59,4 25,8 69,1 9,9 6,2 10,2 23,1 0,3
0
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 C1 C2 C3 C4
Production Construction End of Life
Interaction between: Embodied carbon (upfront A1-A5), End of life
(C1-C4), and operational carbon for the lifetime of a building
q Reducing the upfront (A1-A5) embodied

carbon is essential for overall carbon
impact reduction.
Beyond the life cycle (D)
q Brings a negative burden for primary materials (when

accounted) and some positive burdens for secondary
materials.
D1 Reuse, recycling, energy recovery, sequestration, other recovery
q Involves the benefits from the reuse or recycling of

materials, or from any energy recovery.
q D1 is considered for every element that a reuse, recycling,

recovery or disposal scenario has been done to.
q The difference in emissions between utilizing recovered

materials (through reuse, recycling or incineration) and
producing an equivalent product is quantified.
q D1 is usually considered separately from WLCA, since it is

outside the system boundary of the project and comprises
uncertainties about the future treatments of the
components.
q Several scenarios can be developed within one same

project regarding the future reuse, recycling and recovery
of items.
q A full reuse of an item as well as individual component

reuse or material recycling can take place.
q The most beneficial scenario is the reuse of material, as

reduces significantly future A1–A3 emissions.
q Future reuse requires design flexibility as an inventory of

available parts, that constrain and inform your design
choices, is considered.
STEEL
Recycle vs Reuse
Recycling steel:
q Steel sections destined for recycling are first cut into shorter lengths.
q These cut sections are then sent to a steel plant for processing.
q At the plant, steel is smelted down, a procedure that consumes significant energy.
q The smelting process, depending on the fuel used, can result in substantial carbon emissions.
q 75% of steel scrap from the UK is recycled abroad, leading to additional carbon emissions from
transportation.
qReusing steel sections instead of recycling them can avoid the emissions
tied to the recycling process.
A + C + D comparison (example for a steel frame)
3000
2500
2000
1689,17
1500
1000
500 219,93
21,99 36,73 19,88 31,97 18,93 2,75 0,89
0
-500
-1000
-1500
-1428,42
-2000
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 C1 C2 C3 C4 D
Production Construction End of Life Beyond
Life
(Structural steel frame, steel recycled content = 13.7%) Kanyilmaz A., Chehade M., Carr J., Harpin R., Strategies for Embodied Carbon Intensity Reduction, 2024 (ongoing study)
STEEL
Aldermanbury Square, London

Reclaimed from a steel-framed structure with composite floors, constructed in the 1990s.
q 1,500 tonnes of steel was salvaged and 710 tonnes
of this used to fabricate a new steel frame for the
recipient building, a new commercial development in
the West End of London.
q The residual salvaged steelwork was used for other
client projects and any surplus shared with the
second-hand market.
BIM models showing steelwork to be salvaged from the source building and the proposed steelframed new-build
q Carbon saving from using the salvaged steelwork for
the proposed recipient building was approx.
120kgCO2e/m2
q Carbon emissions associated with defabricating the
reclaimed steel and refabricating for reuse were
estimated to be approx. 43tCO2e, a saving of 1,192
tCO2e
STEEL
Holbein Gardens
A new floor extension on a 1980s Grosvenor Estate building increased floor space by 25%.
q 34% of the steel elements were reused from prior demolitions.

q Compliance with EN1090 up to execution class 3 and SCI
Steel Re-use Protocol P427 and P440.
q The material was all re-tested using non-destructive and
destructive laboratory techniques in accordance with P427
(also P440) of the SCI Steel Protocol.
q Use of 67T of steelwork with reused elements led to an
estimated carbon saving of 60 tCO2e.
q Aimed for net zero by using reclaimed steel and Cross
Laminated Timber (CLT).
CONCRETE
q Recycled Aggregates: Crushing concrete to reuse it as

aggregates
• Amount is limited by regulations,
• Makes only sense if it is locally sourced
• Cement and water demand may increase
CONCRETE
Reusing concrete elements:
q While recycled concrete aggregate strategy

may reduce natural gravel extraction, recycled
concrete mixes require quantities of cement at
least equivalent to conventional mixes, leading
to a comparable level of GWP.
q When maintaining the structure in place is
deemed impossible, another circular solution
is the reuse of concrete elements after
minimal transformation, such as extracting
elements by sawing from buildings planned for
demolition and then reassembling these into
new loadbearing structures.
q Mainly at research level.
MALENA BASTIEN-MASSE Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Structural Xploration Lab, Fribourg, Switzerland CÉLIA
KÜPFER Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Structural Xploration Lab, Fribourg, Switzerland CORENTIN FIVET Ecole
Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Structural Xploration Lab, Fribourg, Switzerland, A concrete answer for circular construction:
three prototypes reusing saw-cut elements, 2024
TIMBER
q Engineered timber consist of timber and adhesive difficult

to recycle. It can be recycled as nonstructural parts when
split into smaller sections.
q Timber structures must have a robust maintenance

strategy for a prolonged service life.
3 key messages of the Lesson 1
I) Accept the challenge: GWP (Global Warming Potential) presents
both a critical issue and a big opportunity for the construction community.
II) Feel the power: Construction community possesses the power a

substantial leverage to significantly decrease the overall greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions.
III) Prioritize: In the lifecycle of a structure, different stages yield varying

levels of environmental impact. The production stage (A1-A5) stands out as
the most significant contributor, showing the need for specific interventions
(by means of production and design).
GREENWASHING
https://www.europarl.europa.eu/topics/en/article/20240111
STO16722/stopping-greenwashing-how-the-eu-regulates-
green-claims
Photo: il Mattino, 23 Jan 2023
Resources
q Kanyilmaz A., Dang V., Kondratenko A., How does conceptual design impact the cost and carbon footprint of structures?, Structures, Volume 58, 2023,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.istruc.2023.105102
q Kanyilmaz, A., Birhane, M., Fishwick, R., Castillo C.. Reuse of Steel in the Construction Industry: Challenges and Opportunities. Int J Steel
Struct (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13296-023-00778-4.
q Kanyilmaz A., Chehade M., Carr J., Harpin R., Strategies for Embodied Carbon Intensity Reduction, 2024 (ongoing study)
q IEA (2018) Global Status Report. Toward a zero-emission, efficient and resilient buildings and construction sector, Global Aliance for Building and
Construction and UN environment
q S.C. Kaethner, J.A. Burridge, Embodied CO2 of structural frames, The Structural Engineer Journal, The Institution of Structural Engineers (2012) 33–40.
q Buildings & Infrastructure Priority Actions for Sustainability Embodied Carbon Steel Reference: 07762000-RP-SUS-0001, Arup, 2023
q London Energy Transformation Initiative, Embodied carbon primer, 2020.
q International Energy Agency, United Nations, Global status report 2017
q International Energy Agency, United Nations, 2019 Global status report for buildings and construction, 2019.
q State of Climate Action 2023, World Resources Institute
q Baris Ciftci, Raw materials, Maximising scrap use helps reduce CO2 emissions https://worldsteel.org/steel-topics/raw-materials/
q https://www.wri.org/
q Climate Watch GHG Emissions
q LETI Embodied Carbon Primer
q LETI Climate Emergency Design guide, 2020
q Whole Life carbon assessment for the built environment, 2nd Edition, 2023, Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS)
q The Global Risks Report 2023, World Economic Forum
q https://www.istructe.org/resources/guidance/international-drivers-of-low-carbon-structural-des/
q https://www.oneclicklca.com/construction-carbon-regulations-in-europe/
q https://www.iea.org/reports/iron-and-steel-technology-roadmap
q Gibbons et Al., “How To calculate Embodied Carbon”, 2022
q Life cycle inventory (LCI) study, worldsteel.org, 2020
q Towards embodied carbon benchmarks for buildings in Europe, Facing the data challenge Ramboll
q Jones, Green, Carbon targets for bridges: a proposed SCORS-style rating scheme, Institute of Structural Engineers, 2022
q Construction carbon regulations in Europe, Review and best practices, 2022, Once Click LCA
q Driving Action on Embodied Carbon in Buildings, RMI, USGBC, 2023
Lesson 1,
15 April 2024
Lesson 2: Calculation of Embodied Carbon for a Building Structure (2.5h)
q How to calculate the embodied carbon of a building structural system?
q What are Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs), and how are they used?
q What are the current regulations (worldwide, European and Portuguese) about low-carbon structural
design and construction?
q Strategies to reduce the embodied carbon by means of structural design.
q Q&A

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Lesson 1,

London Energy Transformation Initiative, Embodied carbon primer, 2020.

q Introduction, overview of the course and learning outcomes.

Ø End-of-life stages (C1, C2, C3, C4).

q How to calculate the embodied carbon of a building structural system?

q Strategies to reduce the embodied carbon by means of structural design.

q Balancing the cost efficiency and embodied carbon reduction in structures.

q Q & A and round-table discussion.

Total ECA-C = ∑$!"# 𝐸𝐶%! + ∑'&"# 𝐸𝐶(&

Jonathan M. Broyles, Michael W. Hopper, Assessment of the embodied carbon

Prepare a Bill of Quantity

Estimate its embodied carbon

Natural warming of the earth that results when

Carbon dioxide (CO2): Burning of fossil fuels, waste,

Carbon dioxide (CO2): Burning of fossil fuels, waste,

GWP of the major GHGs

🧊 Fluorinated Gases: GWP: 1000+

Breakdown of emissions by gas

Source: Climate Watch GHG Emissions -

q GHG emissions are often measured in (CO2) equivalent

q To convert emissions of a gas into CO2 equivalent, its

LETI Embodied Carbon Primer

Policy efforts worldwide GWP projections, different scenario

Building in Roman Empire:

Vitruvius on Archtitecture by Thomas Gordon Smith

Building in Roman Empire:

Vitruvius on Archtitecture by Thomas Gordon Smith

(Big problems of 2020+)

q Green new Deal, 2018, US

Previous Portugal Prime Minister

Reduce energy and material consumption

Reduce building carbon (CO2e) footprint

Embodied Embodied Embodied Embodied

Traditional Focus on Climate Change:

Rising Importance of Embodied Carbon:

LETI Embodied Carbon Primer

Bridges: 800 – 6000 kgCO2e/m2

• Established in 1990 by the Building Research Establishment (BRE) in the UK

LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design)

• Developed by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) in 1993.

The current situation of 11 countries

q Steel producers, designers and users have a major responsibility

• Raw materials include coal.

• Resource intensive joints (To

Gartner et.al., Eco-efficient cements: Potential

q Most common construction material in the world (14 million m3 / year)

• The majority of these emissions

q Timber producers, designers and users have a major responsibility +

LETI Climate Emergency Design guide, 2020

LETI Climate Emergency Design guide, 2020

LETI Climate Emergency Design guide, 2020

LETI Climate Emergency Design guide, 2020

LETI Climate Emergency Design guide, 2020

q A methodology to assess the

3 min of it: a short quiz

Kibert C.J., , Sustainable Construction, 2022

Embodied carbon = quantity × carbon factor

Published by the Royal Institution of