BAROID

BASIC MUD ENGINEERING

COURSE
Functions of Drilling Fluids
Functions of Drilling Fluids
1.Provide well bore stability
2.Transport cuttings & cavings to surface
3.Suspend solids
4.Control subsurface pressure
5.Cool and lubricate bit and drill string
6.Transmit hydraulic energy to down-hole tools
7.Provide a medium for data acquisition
8.Minimize formation damage
9.Protect drill string and casing from corrosion
1. Provide well bore stability
(Mud Weight/Density)

➢ Provides hydrostatic pressure to maintain

bore hole stability and control of
formation pore pressure

➢ This is a function of base fluid density and

solids
2. Transport cuttings & cavings to surface

Solids build up in the annulus leads to:

➢Excessive well-bore pressures

➢High rate of fluid loss to formation
➢Differentially Stuck pipe
3. Suspend Solids

The fluid provides gel strengths which are

sufficient to prevent solids from settling
inside the well bore when not circulating

– Prevents excessive well bore pressure

when circulation is restarted
– Prevents stuck pipe
– Assists with running formation logs
– Fragile gel strengths are required to
allow circulation to be restarted at low
pressure
4. Control subsurface pressure

➢ Water, gas, and oil found in

the ground are under great
pressure.

➢ Pressure must be
overbalanced to prevent an
uncontrollable flow.

➢ Maintaining enough density HP

to have enough hydrostatic
pressure.
FPP
5. Cool and lubricate bit and drill string

➢ The drilling fluid absorb the heat generated

as the bit scrapes or rotates.
➢ The drilling fluid also acts as a lubricant for
the bit, drill string, and casing during
drilling.
➢ Benefits include longer bit life, decreased
torque , reduced pump pressure, and
reduced frictional wear on the drill string
and casing.
6. Transmit hydraulic energy
to down-hole tools

Provides a low viscosity at high shear

rates and fluid densities to maximize the
delivery of pressure at optimum flow rates
to down-hole drilling tools.
7. Provide a medium for data acquisition

➢E-logs require that the drilling fluid

be an electrically conductive.
➢Liquid that exhibits electrical
properties different from the fluids
in the formation.
➢Proper evaluation of the formation
is difficult if the liquid phase of the
mud penetrates the formation
deeply.
8. Minimize Formation Damage

•Prevents precipitation of salts in pore spaces of

the formation
•Prevents the migration of small solids into the
formation
•Prevents the swelling of interstitial solids
•Preserves the initial formation wettability
•Builds a non-damaging removable wall cake
9. Protect drill string and casing from
Corrosion

Destruction of metal through

electrochemical & mechanical action.

➢Major contributors in drilling are:

– Oxygen, Hydrogen Sulfide, Carbon Dioxide,
Salts, Mineral Scale.
➢Minimizing corrosion:
– Avoid air entrapment and foaming, maintain
adequate pH, neutralize corrosive agents,
filming agents, scale removers.
Clay Chemistry
Clay Hydration
“Clays”
Earthly materials that develop plasticity when wet
(Hydrophilic or Hydrophobic)
“ Bentonite”
the most common clay used in drilling to obtain
viscosity and fluid loss.
“Dispersion”
In fresh water, clay layers separated from the
packs as a result of waters absorption.
Clay Hydration-Cont.
➢ Bentonite consists of 3 layers:
Silica/Alumina/Silica
➢ Layers are (-ve) charged and has (+ve) Cations
cloud.
➢ Thickness of water film absorbed controlled by
the type/ quantity of (+ve) Cations:
-Divalent Cations (++ve) decrease the
water absorption, e.g. Mg++, Ca++
-Monovalent Cations (+ve) increase the water
absorption, e.g. Na+
Clay Particle Linking Process

“Aggregation”
(Face-to-Face Linking)
“Dispersion”
(Reverse of Aggregation)
“Flocculation”
(Edge-to-Edge Linking)
“De-Flocculation”
(Reverse of Flocculation)
Factors Affecting Yield of Clays

➢Salinity
➢Metallic ions, e.g. Mg, Ca, Br,SO4
➢pH (7-10)

“Attapulgit”
Is a clay can build viscosity in saline water
(Higher $, Low FL, Low Rheology)
Shale Problems!
 Shale Problems!

➢Difficult Hole Cleaning.

➢Stuck Pipe.
➢Bridges and Fill-Up.
➢Increasing the mud volume and cost.
➢Poor Cement jobs and cost.
➢Difficult e-logging and interpretation.
➢Side wall core recovery.
Shale Types

1. Pressurized Shale.

2. Mud Making Shale.

3. Sloughing Shale.
 Pressure Shale

➢Associated with pressure

➢Massive but not homogeneous.
➢Sand lenses are porous/ permeable and not
compacted.
➢Trapped fluids inside the lenses will have a
Formation Pressure= Overburden Pressure.
➢During drilling the shale will flake-off.
Pressure Shale – Solution?

➢ Increase Mud Weight.

➢ Keep the hole full wile POOH.
➢ Minimize Swab by lowering Mud Vis. And Gel
Strength.
➢ Minimize wall cake to avoid Swab.
➢ POOH slowly.
 Mud Making Shale

➢ Effected by Mud Chemistry.

➢ Mud Chemistry should not allow the shale to
hydrate, i.e. high electrolyte content (K+).
➢ No one fluid has completely satisfy all cases.
➢ Osmosis Process Theory.
➢ Shale De-hydration Problem (Mud Activity).
Mud Making Shale- Solution?

➢ Adjust mud activity.

➢ Adjust Mud Weight
➢ Control Fluid Loss.
➢ Control pH (8.5-10)
 Stressed Shale

➢ Doesn’t Hydrate!
➢ Resulted from Diastrophic Movement for
bedding planes.
➢ Problem became worse if planes are O/W wet.
➢ Cementing material is weak.
➢ Sensitive micro-fractures to water.
 Stressed Shale- Solution?

➢ Increasing the M.Wt. is not all solution!

➢ Chemical inhibition is not all solution!
➢ Control HP-HT FL can help, but is not the all solution!
➢ Formation must be sealed against fluid invasion.
➢ Keep High Fragile Gel to suspend the shale.

“Stressed shale can never be fully controlled

There is always a tendency for it to slough”
 Shale Problems
cannot be resolved by mud alone!
Physical/Mechanical factors contribute to shale
problems:
➢Erosion, due to high Annular Velocity.
➢Pipe whipping of DP, knocking the shale off.
➢Tripping out/in hole, dislodge the shale (Surge/Swab).
➢Local internal forces within the formation.
➢Pressure inside the formation, e.g. Gas.
➢Dissolved salts within the formation.
➢Mechanical Mud Invasion to the formation.
Rheology
&
Hydraulics
 Overview
Fluid Rheology and Hydraulics are engineering terms
that describe the behavior of fluids in motion.

•Rheological monitoring and control is critical

– Extended reach, high angle
– Slim hole
– HPHT
•Accurate rheological/ hydraulic modeling is essential
– Pre-well planning
– During drilling - verify with PWD
– Post-well analysis
 Rheological Terms (1/3)
Shear Rate:
Fluid velocity /Distance through which the fluid is moving in
laminar flow.

Shear Stress:
Force to move a fluid at a given shear rate.

Shear speed-rpm:
The rotational speed on a standard oil field
viscometer on which the shear stress is measured.
 Rheological Terms (2/3)
Viscosity:
The resistance of fluid to flow= shear stress/ shear rate.

Yield point:
The force required to initiate flow.
“YP is a time-independent measurement”

Gel Strength (thixotropy):

Time-dependent measurements of a fluid's shear
stress under static conditions.
 Rheological Terms (3/3)
Flow index (n):
The numerical relation between a fluid's shear stress and
shear rate on a log/log plot.
This value describes a fluid's degree of shear-thinning
behavior (Non-Newtonian Degree).
“As the fluid becomes more shear thinning, n Decreases”

Consistency Coefficient (K):

Indicative of the pump ability of the fluid
Affected by both PV and Yp.
“As the fluid becomes more viscous, K increases”
 Flow Regimes
➢Laminar
Occurs at low-to-moderate shear rates.
Friction between the fluid and the channel walls is low.
➢Turbulent
Occurs at high shear rates where the fluid moves in a
chaotic fashion.
Particles in turbulent flow are carried by random loops.
Friction between the fluid and the channel walls is high.
➢Transitional
occurs when the flow shifts from laminar flow to
turbulent flow or vice versa.
 Fluids Types
Newtonian fluids
e.g. water, brines, glycol
– Shear stress is directly proportional to shear rate
– Viscosity is a constant

Non-Newtonian fluids
e.g. Mud, Cement (addition of solids)
– Shear stress is a non-linear function of shear rate
– Viscosity is a function of shear rate
Rheological Models
“Predict fluid behavior across
a wide range of shear rates”

1. Bingham model
2. Power law model
3. Herschel-Bulkley model
Bingham Model

Shear
Stress, t Viscosity, m

Yield t = ty + m g
Stress, t0

Shear Rate, g
 Power Low Model

Flow Index, n
Shear
Consistency Index, K
Stress, t

t = Kg n

Shear Rate, g
 Herschel-Bulkley Model

Shear
Stress, t Flow Index, n
Consistency Index, K

Yield t = t0 + K g n

Stress, t0

Shear Rate, g
 Optimized H-B Model Parameters

• n, K and t0 are all inter-related

• Difficult to change any one parameter without
affecting the others
• Typically;
–  K   n,  t0
–  t0   n,  K etc.
• The degree of shear thinning, n, is largely set
by the properties of the base fluid
Optimum Shear Thinning, n

High ‘n’ (OBM) Low ‘n’ (WBM)

 Rheology - Summary

• Accurate rheological characterization is

essential for advanced drilling operations
• The Herschel-Bulkley model best describes
most drilling fluids.
• Rheology is critical in hydraulics and cuttings
transport calculations
• Model is verified by PWD™, DFG DrillAhead™
and other field data.
 Fluid Hydraulics
Calculation Terms (1/3)
Reynolds number (N ) Re
A dimensionless, numerical term governs whether a
flowing fluid will be in laminar or turbulent flow. Often,
a Reynolds number greater than 2,100 will mark the
onset of turbulent flow, but this is not always so.

Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD)

Total pressure exerted by the drilling fluid below the bit when
circulating, expressed as an equivalent mud weight
 Fluid Hydraulics
Calculation Terms (2/3)
Pressure Drop

➢ Frictional forces develop when fluids flow through

a pipe or an annulus, as a result, fluid energy dissipates.
➢ Factors that can affect the magnitude of pressure drop
include: Length, Flow rate (flow regime type laminar or
turbulent), Fluid rheological properties, Pipe eccentricity,
Pipe/annulus geometry
Fluid Hydraulics
Calculation Terms (3/3)
Eccentricity
It refers to the position of the DP in an annulus.
DFG-Drill Ahead™
Simulator
Formation Damage
 What’s the Formation Damage?
Is the reduction of permeability
in a reservoir rock
caused by the invasion of fluid(s)
and/or
solid(s) to the section adjacent to the well bore
(In some condition sets, can extend outward some
distance from the well bore).

The common term and measurement is “Skin Factor”.

 Causes?
1. Foreign particle invasion
2. Formation clay swelling
3. Chemically incompatible fluids
4. Oil wetting of the reservoir rock
5. Emulsion blocking
6. Fluid invasion (Water Blocking)
7. Polymer Inherent
1. Foreign Particle Invasion
“Plugging of the flow paths in the formation
by invading solids”

➢This type of damage occurs near the well bore or

perforation tunnel.
➢Dirty brines can be the cause.
➢The size of the invading particle is important.
➢The most common particles creating formation
damage include: Barite, Clay, Scale, Un-dissolved lost
circulation material (LCM), Drilled solids, Rust.
2. Formation Clay Swelling

“Formation clays swell

and break apart if they
meet most drilling fluid
filtrates”

➢Especially if the
filtrates are fresh water
and/or have a high pH.

➢As the clay particles

migrate, they block the
pore spaces.
2. Formation Clay Swelling
“Formation Clay Damage Control Summary”
• Illite - Don’t expose to a dispersive environment. No
lignosulfonates, keep pH below 10. Keep rate of filtration
down to reduce fluid velocity through pores.
• Kaolinite - Much the same as illite. But put more
emphasis on reducing fluid velocity through pores, if
loosely held.
• Smectite - Do not expose to fresh water to avoid
swelling. Use potassium-based or oil-based fluid.
• Chlorite - Avoid acid if possible. If not, use oxygen
scavengers and iron chelating agents
3. Chemically Incompatible Fluids
Is due to the precipitation of salts or insoluble ions.
4. Wettability of the Reservoir Rock

➢Sandstone almost always originally water wet.

➢Solids become coated with oil reducing K relative to oil
➢Usually occurs from action of surfactants:
• whole oil-mud loss to formation
• cationic surfactants in sandstone
• in oil-base mud filtrate
• anionic surfactants in limestone at pH 0-8
➢Oil wet mobile particles are more susceptible to plugging
➢Lower fluid loss to the formation
➢Don’t use excess surfactants/oil-wetting agents
5. Emulsion Blockage

• Emulsion formed inside formation

• Primarily water-in-oil emulsions (viscous)
• Goes hand-in-hand with oil-wetting
• Loss of oil mud filtrate containing high amounts of
excess emulsifier
• Loss of brine completion fluid to formation drilled
with oil base mud
6. Water Blockage

Build-up of water (filtrate) around wellbore

• Filtrate or brine invasion

• Reduces K relative to oil
• Can self - correct
• May increase bound water
• Drill in fluids - keep filtrate low use fluid loss
additives and/or bridging solids
• Brines - viscosity to slow fluid loss
7. Polymer Inherent
Drilling Fluids Families
Drilling Fluids Families

➢ Water Base Mud (WBM)

➢ Oil Base Mud (OBM)

➢ Dill-N Non Damaging Mud (WBM/OBM):

 Water Base Mud
(Conventional & Non-Damaging)
 Polymer Chemistry Overview

Polymers Classifications

➢ Origin:
- Synthitic, e.g. PAC, XCD, HEC..etc.
- Natural, e.g. Starch, Cellulous…etc.

➢ Structure:
- Linear
- Branched
- Cross-Linked Polymer.
Polymer Chemistry Overview

Polymers Functions/ Characteristics

Viscosity High Molecular Weight

Viscosity/GelationHigh Molecular Weight/ High
Branched Structure
Viscosity in Salt High Molecular Weight/ Non-Anionic
Types
Thinners Low molecular weight, -ve charged
at Alkaline pH.
Fluid loss Form Colloidal Particles
Additives
WBM Common Components

➢ Water.
➢ Calcium Remover.
➢ pH Source.
➢ Viscosifier.
➢ FL Control Agent.
➢ Formation Stabilizer.
➢ Weighting Agent
➢ Scavengers (H2S, O2, CO2)
➢ ROP Enhancer
➢ De-Foamers
WBM Application
WBM Non Damaging Fluids (DRIL-N)

a. Maximum Bridging to Low

Pressure thieve Zones
b. No Fluid Invasion.
c. Minimum Polymer adherent to Pay
Zone.
d. Thin, Tuff Filter Cake
e. Easley Left-off for Filter Cake
Water Base Mud
Trouble Shooting
WBM Contaminants 1/2
WBM Contaminants 2/2
WBM Trouble Shooting 1/3
WBM Trouble Shooting 2/3
WBM Trouble Shooting 3/3
 Oil Base Mud
(Conventional & Non-Damaging)
OBM Invert Emulsion
Common Components

➢ Oil (Continuous Phase)

➢ Water (Discontinuous Phase)
➢ Emulsifiers
➢ Viscosifier
➢ Salinity Sours
➢ Alkalinity Source
➢ FL Control Agents
➢ Rhology Modifiers
➢ Weighting Agent
OBM All Oil (No Water Emulsion)

➢ Oil (Continuous Phase)

➢ Zero Water
➢ Passive Emulsifiers
➢ Viscosifier/ Polar Activator
➢ Alkalinity Source
➢ FL Control Agents
➢ Rhology Modifiers
➢ Non Damaging Bridging Agent
Oil Base Mud
Trouble Shooting
OBM Contaminants 1/1
OBM Trouble Shooting 1/2
OBM Trouble Shooting 2/2
Mud Properties
Field Tests
Field Test/ Drilling Fluids Systems 1/2
Field Test/ Drilling Fluids Systems 2/2
 Field Tests
Practical Session
By
Eng. Mohamed Hamed
Baroid Lab Supervisor
Loss Circulation
Guidelines
(WBM)
1- Determine the Rate of Losses
1. Determine if the Rate of Loss is:

➢ Acceptable Seepage Losses Guidelines

➢ Unacceptable. Stop Drilling

Calculate the Percentage of
Lost Circulation %.
Select Curing Method
According to Percentage of
Loss.
 Acceptable
Seepage Losses
 Un-Acceptable
Down Hole Losses
Calculate % of Lost Circulation
 Un-Acceptable
Down Hole Losses
SOLIDS CONTROL
EQUIPMENT
(SCE)
Sources and Sizes of Solids (1/2)

“Under typical drilling conditions, low-gravity solids

should be maintained below 6% by volume”

“drilled solids incorporated into drilling fluid can range

from 1 to 250 microns”

1 micron =1/25,400 of an inch or 1/1,000 of a millimeter

Sources and Sizes of Solids (2/2)
Mechanical solids-removal
Equipment
Screen Devices
• Circular/elliptical motion shaker.

This shaker uses elliptical rollers to generate a circular

rocking motion to provide better solids removal through
the screens.

• Linear motion shaker.

This shaker uses a straight forward-and-back rocking

motion to keep the fluid circulating through the screens.
Screen Effectiveness
Mesh size

Is the number of openings

Per linear inch as measured
From the center of the wire.

Screen Design

➢ Two-dimensional screens
➢ Three-dimensional screens
Centrifugical Separation Devises
Hydrocyclones
Hydrocyclones
1. De-sanders
Consist of a battery of 6-inch or larger cones.
Can process large volumes of mud.
The minimum size particles that can be removed are
in the range of 40 microns (with 6-inch cones).
2. De-Silter
Consist of a battery of 4-inch or smaller cones.
Depending on the size of the cone, a particle size
cut between 6 and 40 microns can be obtained.