Byv Cambridge 18

CAMBRIDGE IELTS 18
BOOST YOUR VOCABULARY – CAMBRIDGE IELTS 18 1
TEST 1
READING PASSAGE 1
approach = method, technique, strategy
I n Paris, urban farmers are trying a soil-free approach to

resource= things such as water, land, minerals,
fertilizers, etc to support life
agriculture that uses less space and fewer resources. Could it help
cities face the threats to our food supplies?
on top of = on the highest surface of something
striking= impressive, remarkable, eye-catching
exhibition = display, showcase, presentation
On top of a striking new exhibition hall in southern Paris, the hall =a building or large room used for events
involving a lot of people
world’s largest urban rooftop farm has started to bear fruit. bear = produce, yield, generate
intensely= strongly, deeply, greatly
Strawberries that are small, intensely flavored and resplendently flavored= tasty, flavorful, delicious
resplendent= very bright
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red sprout abundantly from large plastic tubes. Peer inside and sprout= grow, emerge, develop
abundant= plentiful, ample, copious
tube = pipe, cylinder, conduit
you see the tubes are completely hollow, the roots of dozens of peer = look, gaze, observe
hollow= empty, vacant, void
root= the part of a plant that grows down into the earth
strawberry plants dangling down inside them. From identical to get water and food and holds the plant firm in the
ground
dozens of = many, a number of
vertical tubes nearby burst row upon row of lettuces; near those dangle= hang, swing, sway
identical= being the same, indistinguishable, looking
are aromatic herbs, such as basil, sage and peppermint. alike
vertical= upright, perpendicular, straight
burst = grow, sprout, emerge
Opposite, in narrow, horizontal trays packed not with soil but with aromatic= fragrant, perfumed, scented
herbs =a type of plant whose leaves are used in cooking
to give flavor to particular dishes or in making medicine
coconut fiber, grow cherry tomatoes, shiny aubergines and opposite = across from, facing, on the other side of
horizontal= flat, level, parallel with the ground
tray = container, plate, dish
brightly coloured chards. packed = filled, stuffed, loaded
fiber= a long and thin strand/thread
aubergine= eggplant, brinjal, melongene
chard= a vegetable with large, dark green leaves and
white stems (stem = the main body of a plant)
Pascal Hardy, an engineer and sustainable development
consultant, began experimenting with vertical farming and sustainable = environmentally friendly, eco-
aeroponic growing towers — as the soil-free plastic tubes are friendly, green
consultant = advisor, specialist, expert
known — on his Paris apartment block roof five years ago. The experiment = test, trial, exploration
vertical farming = the practice of growing crops
urban rooftop space above the exhibition hall is somewhat bigger: in vertically stacked levels.
aeroponic = the process of cultivating plants in an
14,000 square meters and almost exactly the size of a couple of air or mist environment, eliminating the need for
soil
football pitches. Already, the team of young urban farmers who somewhat = moderately, to some extent, fairly
tend it have picked, in one day, 3,000 lettuces and 150 punnets pitch = field, arena, grounds
tend = care for, manage, oversee
of strawberries. When the remaining two thirds of the vast open pick = harvest, gather, pluck
punnet = tray, container, basket
area are in production, 20 staff will harvest up to 1,000 kg of vast= huge, enormous, massive
harvest = collect, reap, gather
perhaps 35 different varieties of fruit and vegetables, every day. variety = kind, type
obviously = clearly, evidently, plainly
‘We’re not ever, obviously, going to feed the whole city this way,’ caution = warn, advise, alert
practical = functional, usable, efficient
cautions Hardy. ‘In the urban environment you’re working with very constraint = limitation, restriction, obstacle
significant practical constraints, clearly, on what you can do and eventually = ultimately, in the end, over time
target = aim for, focus on, strive for
where. But if enough unused space can be developed like this, consumption = usage, utilization, intake
there’s no reason why you shouldn’t eventually target maybe
between 5% and 10% of consumption.’
significantly = importantly, substantially,
considerably
showcase = display, exhibit, demonstration
Perhaps most significantly, however, this is a real-life showcase flourishing = thriving, prospering, blooming
consultancy = a company that gives advice on a
for the work of Hardy’s flourishing urban agriculture consultancy, particular subject
Agripolis, which is currently fielding enquiries from around the field = answer, deal with, handle
enquiry = inquiry, question, request
world to design, build and equip a new breed of soil-free inner- equip = outfit, supply, furnish
breed = a particular kind of person or type of thing
city farm. ‘The method’s advantages are many,’ he says. ‘First, I inner-city = urban, metropolitan, city center
treat = handle, deal with, tackle
don’t much like the fact that most of the fruit and vegetables we eat pesticide = insecticide, chemicals used for killing
have been treated with something like 17 different pesticides, or insects and pests, pest control
intensive = concentrated on a single area or
that the intensive farming techniques that produced them are such subject or into a short time
generator = source, producer, creator
huge generators of greenhouse gasses. I don’t much like the fact, refrigerated = cooled, chilled, frozen
quality = standard
either, that they’ve traveled an average of 2,000 refrigerated variety= type, kind, breed
capacity = capability, ability, potential
kilometers to my plate, that their quality is so poor, because the withstand = endure, bear, tolerate
substantial = significant, considerable,
varieties are selected for their capacity to withstand such substantial
substantial journeys, or that 80% of the price I pay goes to wholesaler = distributor, supplier, middleman
wholesalers and transport companies, not the producers.’
produce = things that have been produced or
grown, especially by farming
Produce grown using this soil-free method, on the other hand — solely = only, exclusively, purely
quantity = amount, volume, total
which relies solely on a small quantity of water, enriched with enrich = enhance, improve, enrich
organic = natural, ecological, sustainable
organic nutrients, pumped around a closed circuit of pipes, nutrient = any substance that plants or animals
need in order to live and grow
towers and trays — is produced up here, and sold locally, just down pump = to make liquid or gas move in a particular
direction, using a pump
there. It barely travels at all,’ Hardy says. “You can select crop circuit = system, network, setup
varieties for their flavor, not their resistance to the transport and barely = hardly, scarcely, only just, almost not
resistance = resilience, immunity, defense
storage chain, and you can pick them when they’re really at their storage chain = supply chain, distribution
network, logistic system
best, and not before.’ No soil is exhausted, and the water that exhausted = to use all of something
recycle = reuse, repurpose, regenerate
gently showers the plants’ roots every 12 minutes is recycled, so classic = traditional, standard, conventional
yield = productivity, output, harvest
the method uses 90% less water than a classic intensive farm for
the same yield.
Urban farming is not, of course, a new phenomenon. Inner-city phenomenon = trend, occurrence, phenomenon
boom = grow, soar, rocket
agriculture is booming from Shanghai to Detroit and Tokyo to disused = abandoned, unused, neglected
virtuous = righteous, moral, ethical
Bangkok. Strawberries are being grown in disused shipping install = set up, establish, position
roughly = approximately, about, around
containers, mushrooms in underground car parks. Aeroponic
farming, he says, is ‘virtuous’. The equipment weighs little, can be
installed on almost any flat surface and is cheap to buy: roughly
€100 to €150 per square metre. It is cheap to run, too, consuming consume = use, utilize, devour
fraction = part, portion, segment
a tiny fraction of the electricity used by some techniques.
typically = usually, commonly, ordinarily

Produce grown this way typically sells at prices that, while -based= used to describe the basic feature or part
of something
generally higher than those of classic intensive agriculture, are take up = use, occupy, utilize
lower than soil-based organic growers. There are limits to what return = yield, output, profit
nevertheless = nonetheless, however, regardless
farmers can grow this way, of course, and much of the produce is practice = apply, carry out, perform
fast-changing = rapidly evolving, dynamic, fluid
suited to the summer months. ‘Root vegetables we cannot do, at
least not yet,’ he says. ‘Radishes are OK, but carrots, potatoes, that
kind of thing — the roots are simply too long. Fruit trees are
obviously not an option. And beans tend to take up a lot of space
for not much return.’ Nevertheless, urban farming of the kind
being practised in Paris is one part of a bigger and fast-changing
picture that is bringing food production closer to our lives.
READING PASSAGE 2
management= supervision, administration,
F orest Management In Pennsylvania, USA

How managing low-quality wood (also known as low-use wood)
control
bioenergy= a source of energy from the green
material that makes up plants, known as biomass.
sustainable= eco-friendly, environmentally
friendly, green
for bioenergy can encourage sustainable forest management.
value= worth, importance, significance
factor= element, aspect, consideration
A. A tree’s ‘value’ depends on several factors including its species= type, kind, variety
condition= the state of something with regard to its
species, size, form, condition, quality, function, and appearance, quality, or working order.
quality= standard, grade, caliber
accessibility, and depends on the management goals for a given function= purpose, role, use
accessibility= availability, approachability, ease of
forest. The same tree can be valued very differently by each access
given= provided, specified, granted
person who looks at it. A large, straight black cherry tree has high value= assess, evaluate, gauge
timber= wood prepared for use in building and
value as timber to be cut into logs or made into furniture, but for carpentry.
log= timber, trunk, wood block
a landowner more interested in wildlife habitat, the real value of furniture= furnishings, fixtures, decorations
landowner= property owner, estate holder, landlord
that stem (or trunk) may be the food it provides to animals. habitat= environment, ecosystem, surroundings
likewise= similarly, in the same way,
Likewise, if the tree suffers from black knot disease, its value for correspondingly
suffer from = experience, endure, undergo
timber decreases, but to a woodworker interested in making woodworker= carpenter, craftsman, artisan
unique= special, one-of-a-kind, distinct, exclusive
bowls, it brings an opportunity for a unique and beautiful piece of
art.
solely= only, exclusively, purely

B. In the past, Pennsylvania landowners were solely interested in high-quality= excellent, finest, first-rate, superior
the value of their trees as high-quality timber. The norm was to practice= something that is usually or regularly
remove the stems of highest quality and leave behind poorly done, often as a habit, tradition, or custom
formed trees that were not as well suited to the site where they legacy= something that remains from an earlier
time
grew. This practice, called ‘high-grading’, has left a legacy of abundant= plentiful, ample, copious
‘low-use wood’ in the forests. Some people even call these ‘junk shade out= causing an area to become darker by
trees’, and they are abundant in Pennsylvania. These trees have blocking or reducing the amount of light that
lower economic value for traditional timber markets, compete for reaches it
regeneration= renewal,
growth with higher-value trees, shade out desirable regeneration regrowth, rejuvenation
and decrease the health of a stand leaving it more vulnerable to stand= a group of trees or a forest area that is
poor weather and disease. Management that specifically targets managed as a unit.
low-use wood can help landowners manage these forest health vulnerable= be easy to be affected by,
issues, and wood energy markets help promote this. susceptible
combustion= burning, igniting, firing, kindling

C. Wood energy markets can accept less expensive wood facilities= the buildings, equipment, and services
material of lower quality than would be suitable for traditional provided for a particular purpose
timber markets. Most wood used for energy in Pennsylvania is incorporate= integrate, include, merge
gasified= become gas
used to produce heat or electricity through combustion. Many generation= creation, formation, production
schools and hospitals use wood boiler systems to heat and power liquid= like water, that is not solid or a gas and
their facilities, many homes are primarily heated with wood, and that can be poured easily
some coal plants incorporate wood into their coal streams to lorry= a large, heavy motor vehicle for
transporting goods or troops= a truck.
produce electricity. Wood can also be gasified for electrical
approach= a way of doing something
generation and can even be made into liquid fuels like ethanol
and gasoline for lorries and cars. All these products are made
primarily from low-use wood. Several tree- and plant-cutting
approaches, which could greatly improve the long-term quality of
a forest, focus strongly or solely on the use of wood for those
markets.
stems= the stick-like central part of a plant that
D. One such approach is called a Timber Stand Improvement grows above the ground and from which leaves
and flowers grow
(TSI) Cut. In a TSI Cut, really poor-quality tree and plant material invasive= an invasive plant spreads quickly in a
is cut down to allow more space, light, and other resources to the garden or other area, so that it becomes a
highest-valued stems that remain. Removing invasive plants problem
might be another primary goal of a TSI Cut. The stems that are foliage= plant leaves
crown= the branches and foliage at the top of a
left behind might then grow in size and develop more foliage and
tree,
larger crowns or tops that produce more coverage for wildlife; top = the upper part of a plant or tree, including its
they have a better chance to regenerate in a less crowded branches and leaves.
environment. TSI Cuts can be tailored to one farmer’s specific regenerate= recreate, renew, rejuvenate
management goals for his or her land. tailor= customize, adjust, modify
pests = an insect or small animal that is harmful

E. Another approach that might yield a high amount of low-use or damages plants
wood is a Salvage Cut. With the many pests and pathogens pathogens= microorganisms, germs, bacteria
visiting forests including hemlock wooly adelgid, Asian hemlock= poison, toxin, deadly plant
longhorned beetle, emerald ash borer, and gypsy moth, to longhomed= long-necked,-beaked, long-snouted
beetle= a type of insect
name just a few, it is important to remember that those working in emerald = bright green
the forests can help ease these issues through cutting ash borer= a type of insect
procedures. These types of cut reduce the number of sick trees gypsy moth = a type of pest
to name just a few= for example, for instance
and seek to manage the future spread of a pest problem. They ease= alleviate, relieve, mitigate
leave vigorous trees that have stayed healthy enough to survive procedure= method, technique, protocol
pest= a destructive insect or other animal that attacks
the outbreak. crops, food, livestock.
vigorous= strong, robust, healthy
F. A Shelterwood Cut, which only takes place in a mature forest outbreak= epidemic, outburst, surge
that has already been thinned several times, involves removing all seedling= young trees, baby plants, new growths
the mature trees when other seedlings have become established= settled, formed, founded
established. This then allows the forester to decide which tree regenerated= renewed, replenished, restored
species are regenerated. It leaves a young forest where all trees growth= development, progress, advancement
two-tier= two-level
are at a similar point in their growth. It can also be used to harvest= the time of year when crops/plants are
develop a two-tier forest so that there are two harvests and the cut and collected from the fields
money that comes in is spread out over a decade or more. spread out= dispersed, scattered, distributed
dense=: thick, compact, crowded

G. Thinnings and dense and dead wood removal for fire center on = focus on, revolve around
prevention also center on the production of low-use wood. low-use= underutilized, infrequently used, rarely
However, it is important to remember that some retention of what utilized
many would classify as low-use wood is very important. The tops retention= preservation, conservation, keeping
of trees that have been cut down should be left on the site so that classify= categorize, group, sort
cavities= holes, openings, hollows
their nutrients cycle back into the soil. In addition, trees with many insect predators= insect-eating, insect-hunting,
cavities are extremely important habitats for insect predators insect-consuming
like woodpeckers, bats and small mammals. They help control resilience= resistance, endurance, flexibility
problem insects and increase the health and resilience of the wildlife= animals, creatures, fauna
rare = endangered, scarce, uncommon
forest. It is also important to remember that not all small trees are
low-use. For example, many species like hawthorn provide food
for wildlife. Finally, rare species of trees in a forest should also
stay behind as they add to its structural diversity.
READING PASSAGE 3
shard = a piece of broken metal, glass, or rock, typically

having sharp edges = broken parts
collision = crash, impact, accident
S atellites, rocket shards and collision debris are creating

major traffic risks in orbit around the planet. Researchers are
debris= rubbish, trash, wreckage
orbit= the curved (= having round shape) path through
which objects in space move around a planet or star
threat= danger, risk, menace
working to reduce these threats

commercial= business, trade, profit-making
A. civil= relating to ordinary citizens
department= division, unit, section
amateur= non-professional, hobbyist, enthusiast
Last year, commercial companies, military and civil sharply= steeply, dramatically, significantly
departments and amateurs sent more than 400 satellites into leading= prominent, principal, primary
follow through on= continue
orbit, over four times the yearly average in the previous decade. deploy= set up, install, position
Numbers could rise even more sharply if leading space constellations= groups, clusters, arrays
companies follow through on plans to deploy hundreds to satellite= spacecraft, orbiter, space probe
thousands of large constellations of satellites to space in the
next few years. traffic= the amount of aircraft, trains, or ships moving
along a route
disaster= (an event that results in) great harm, damage,
All that traffic can lead to disaster. Ten years ago, a US or death
smash into= crash into, run into
commercial Iridium satellite smashed into an inactive Russian inactive= idle, unused, not running
communications satellite called Cosmos-2251, creating

shrapnel= shards, fragments, debris, splinters
thousands of new pieces of space shrapnel that now threaten threaten= endanger, menace, jeopardize
other satellites in low Earth orbit — the zone stretching up to altitude = height
2,000 kilometers in altitude. Altogether, there are roughly 20,000 human-made= man-made, artificial, created by
humans
human-made objects in orbit, from working satellites to small operator= controller, manager, handler
rocket pieces. And satellite operators can’t steer away from steer away= avoid, evade, divert
otherwise= alternatively, else, in another way
every potential crash, because each move consumes time and concern= worry, anxiety, distress
fuel that could otherwise be used for the spacecraft’s main job.
B.
Concern about space junk goes back to the beginning of the

junk = trash, garbage, litter
satellite era, but the number of objects in orbit is rising so objects = things
rapidly that researchers are investigating rising = increasing, growing, escalating
rapidly= quickly, swiftly, speedily
new ways of attacking the problem. Several teams are trying to
researcher= scientist, scholar, investigator
improve methods for assessing what is in orbit, so that satellite investigate= explore, examine, research
operators can work more efficiently attack= address, deal with, tackle
assess= evaluate, analyzing, examine
in ever-more-crowded space. Some researchers are now efficiently= effectively, productively, competently
starting to compile a massive data set that includes the best ever-more-crowded= increasingly congested,
progressively crowded
possible information on where everything is in orbit. Others are compile= gather, collect, assemble
developing taxonomies of space debris — working on massive= huge, enormous, gigantic
measuring properties such as the shape and size of an object, taxonomy= classification, categorization
property = quality
so that satellite operators know how much to worry about what’s come their way= will happen next
coming their way.
alternative= another option,a different choice
The alternative, many say, is unthinkable. Just a few unthinkable= unrealistic, unimaginable, impossible
uncontrolled= unmanaged, out of control, chaotic
uncontrolled space crashes could generate enough debris to crash= collision, impact, accident
set off a runaway cascade of fragments, rendering near-Earth generate= produce, create, cause
set off = start
space unusable. ‘If we go on like this, we will reach a point of no runaway cascade= means that once something bad
starts happening, it keeps getting worse and worse very
return,’ says Carolin Frueh, an astro-dynamical researcher at quickly,
Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana. fragment= piece, shard, particle
render= make, transform, change
a point of no return= a point where you cannot come
back, unrecoverable point
C.
Even as our ability to monitor space objects increases, so too

monitor = observe, watch, track
does the total number of items in orbit. That means companies, collaborate = work together, cooperate, joining
governments and other players in space are collaborating in forces
shared= joint, mutual
new ways to avoid a shared threat. International groups such as guideline = instruction, rule, recommendation
the Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee have inactivate = deactivate , disable, turn off
developed guidelines on space sustainability. Those include vent= release, let out
pressurized = compressed, pressed, squeezed
inactivating satellites at the end of their useful life by venting
pressurized materials or leftover fuel that might lead to
explosions. The intergovernmental groups also advise lowering leftover= a leftover part of something is the part
that has not been used or eaten when the other
satellites deep enough into the atmosphere that they will burn up parts have been
or disintegrate within 25 years. But so far, only about half of all explosion = burst, blast, eruption
missions have abided by this 25-year goal, says Holger Krag, disintegrate = break apart, crumble, deteriorate
abided by = followed, complied with, obeyed
head of the European Space Agency's space-debris office in steward = custodian, guardian, caretaker
Darmstadt, Germany. Operators of the planned large enterprise = project, venture, initiative
bankrupt = insolvent, penniless, indebted
constellations of satellites say they will be responsible stewards
in their enterprises in space, but Krag worries that problems
could increase, despite their best intentions. ‘What happens to
those that fail or go bankrupt?’ he asks. ‘They are probably not
going to spend money to remove their satellites from space.’
D.
In theory, given the vastness of space, satellite operators should

have plenty of room for all these missions to fly safely without
ever nearing another object. So some scientists are tackling the vastness = bigness, immensity, extent, enormity
problem of space junk by trying to find out where all the debris is tackle = address, deal with, confront
find out = discover, uncover, ascertain
to a high degree of precision. That would alleviate the need for precision = accuracy, exactness, rigor
many of the unnecessary maneuvers that are carried out to alleviate = ease, reduce, mitigate
maneuver = a skilful or careful movement that
avoid potential collisions. ‘If you knew precisely where you make
everything was, you would almost never have a problem,’ says collision = crash, impact, accident
Marlon Sorge, a space-debris specialist at the Aerospace specialist = expert
Corporation in El Segundo, California.
E.
The field is called space traffic management, because it’s similar

to managing traffic on the roads or in the air. Think about a busy
astrodynamicist= a person who studies
day at an airport, says Moriba Jah, an astrodynamicist at the
astrodynamics
University of Texas at Austin: planes line up in the sky, landing astrodynamics = the study of how rockets,
and taking off close to one another in a carefully satellites, and planets move around in the sky
line up= arrange in a straight row.
choreographed routine. Air-traffic controllers know the location land = touchdown, arrival, descent
of the planes down to one meter in accuracy. The same can’t be take off = departure, liftoff, launch
choreographed = planned, organized, arranged
said for space debris. Not all objects in orbit are known, and even accuracy = precision, exactness, reliability
those included in databases are not tracked consistently. tracked = monitored, followed, traced
consistently = continuously, reliably, persistently
F. authoritative catalog= an official and reliable list

or record that provides accurate and trustworthy
information about the orbits of all known space
An additional problem is that there is no authoritative catalog debris.
that accurately lists the orbits of all known space debris. Jah illustrate = demonstrate, show, depict
database= a collection of data stored
illustrates this with a web-based database that he has
developed. It draws on several sources, such as catalogs draw on = use something

visualize= form an image in a brain; imagine
maintained by the US and Russian governments, to visualize identifier = label, name, code
where objects are in space. When he types in an identifier for a designate = show, signify, indicate
particular space object, the database draws a purple line to cross-correlate = compare, match, align
designate its orbit. Only this doesn’t quite work for a number of
objects, such as a Russian rocket body designated in the
database as object number 32280. When Jah enters that
number, the database draws two purple lines: the US and
Russian sources contain two completely different orbits for the
same object. Jah says that it is almost impossible to tell which is
correct, unless a third source of information made it possible to
cross-correlate.
environmentalist = conservationist, green

Jah describes himself as a space environmentalist: ‘I want to advocate, nature protector
make space a place that is safe to operate, that is free and useful devolve = to change from one thing to another,
for generations to come.’ Until that happens, he argues, the often to something bad
space community will continue devolving into a tragedy in which

all spaceflight operators are polluting a common resource.
TEST 2
READING PASSAGE 1
archaeologist= a person who study and explore
F or centuries, historians and archaeologists have puzzled

ancient human history by digging up and
examining old things (artifacts), structures, and
remains left behind by people who lived long ago
puzzle over = think about, ponder, contemplate
mystery = puzzle, enigma, riddle
prehistoric = ancient, primitive, primeval
over the many mysteries of Stonehenge, a prehistoric monument = landmark, structure, edifice
estimated = approximated, calculated, gauged
monument that took an estimated 1,500 years to erect. erect = construct, build, raise
comprise of = include, make up of, compose of
Located on Salisbury Plain in southern England, it is comprised roughly = approximately, about, around
of roughly 100 massive upright stones placed in a circular massive= big, enormous, grand
upright = standing or sitting in a straight/vertical
layout. position
circular = round, rounded, circular-shaped
layout = arrangement, design, configuration
Archaeologists believe England’s most iconic prehistoric ruin
ruin= a historic site or structure that was once in
was built in several stages, with the earliest constructed 5,000 or use but is now decaying
more years ago. First, Neolithic* Britons used primitive tools, britons= people from Britain
primitive = ancient, early, basic
which may have been fashioned out of deer antlers, to dig a fashion out of= to make something by using specific
materials or resources
massive circular ditch and bank, or henge. Deep pits dating dig= break up the soil using a tool, machine, or hands =
excavate
ditch = a long, narrow open hole that is dug into the
back to that era and located within the circle may have once ground, usually at the side of a road or field, used
especially for supplying or removing water
held a ring of timber posts, according to some scholars. bank = sloping (inclining) raised land, especially along
the sides of a river henge = a type of prehistoric
monument characterized by a circular or oval-shaped
area enclosed by a bank and an external ditch.
Several hundred years later, it is thought, Stonehenge’s builders pit = hole, opening, depression
dating back to = originating from, going back to, from
hoisted an estimated 80 bluestones, 43 of which remain today, the time of
ring = circle , circular arrangement, round
into standing positions and placed them in either a horseshoe post = a standing pole
or circular formation. These stones have been traced all the hoist = lift, raise, elevate
bluestones= one of the slightly smaller stones
way to the Preseli Hills in Wales, some 300 kilometres from that form the inner, oldest part of the ancient
Stonehenge. How, then, did prehistoric builders without monument of stonehenge in southern england
horseshoe= u-shaped
sophisticated tools or engineering haul these boulders, which trace = follow, track, identify
sophisticated = advanced, complex, high-tech
weigh up to four tons, over such a great distance? haul = transport, carry, move
boulder = rock, stone, large rock
According to one long-standing theory among archaeologists, long-standing = fixed, enduring, well-established
sledge= a vehicle for transporting loads
Stonehenge’s builders fashioned sledges and rollers out of tree roller= a tube-shaped object in a machine that
trunks to lug the bluestones from the Preseli Hills. They then turns over and over in order to carry things along
or press them down or together
transferred the boulders onto rafts and floated them first lug= move, transport, haul
transfer = move, convey, transport
along the Welsh coast and then up the River Avon toward boulder = very big rock
raft = a flat floating structure, usually made of
Salisbury Plain; alternatively, they may have towed each stone pieces of wood tied together, used as a boat
float = drift, glide, sail
with a fleet of vessels. More recent archaeological hypotheses tow = pull, drag, haul
hypothesis = theory, supposition, speculation
have them transporting the bluestones with supersized wicker supersized= big, enormous, giant
baskets on a combination of ball bearings and long grooved ball bearing= a small, round, and smooth metal
ball
planks, hauled by oxen. groooved planks= wooden planks with long,
narrow lines or grooves cut into their surfaces
As early as the 1970s, geologists have been adding their voices

to the debate over how Stonehenge came into being.
industrious = hardworking, diligent,
Challenging the classic image of industrious builders pushing, glacier = ice sheet, ice mass, ice cap
carting, rolling or hauling giant stones from faraway Wales,
some scientists have suggested that it was glaciers, not
humans, that carried the bluestones to Salisbury Plain. Most
archaeologists have remained sceptical about this theory, sceptical = doubtful, unsure, uncertain
deliver = transport, convey, bring
however, wondering how the forces of nature could possibly
have delivered the exact number of stones needed to complete
the circle.
The third phase of construction took place around 2000 BCE. take place = occur, happen
At this point, sandstone slabs — known as ‘sarsens’ — were crescent= a curved shape that has two narrow
arranged into an outer crescent or ring; some were assembled pointed ends, like the moon when it is less than
into the iconic three-pieced structures called trilithons that stand half of a circle
assemble = gather, collect, bring together
tall in the centre of Stonehenge. Some 50 of these stones are iconic = famous, renowned, well-known
now visible on the site, which may once have contained many visible = apparent, noticeable, observable
more. Radiocarbon dating has revealed that work continued at multiple = many, numerous, several
Stonehenge until roughly 1600 BCE, with the bluestones in
particular being repositioned multiple times.
But who were the builders of Stonehenge? In the 17th century, druid = ancient priest, celtic priest, religious leader
archaeologist John Aubrey made the claim that Stonehenge was religious= having a belief in gods
the work of druids, who had important religious, judicial and judicial = relating to the law, judges, or their
decisions
political roles in Celtic” society. This theory was widely popularize = make popular, promote, disseminate
popularized by the antiquarian William Stukeley, who had unearth = discover, dig up, excavate
unearthed primitive graves at the site.
identify = consider oneself as belonging to or
associating with a particular group or belief
Even today, people who identify as modern druids continue to solstice = the time when the sun is furthest north
gather at Stonehenge for the summer solstice. However, in the or south of the equator
mid-20th century, radiocarbon dating demonstrated that radiocarbon dating= a method used by scientists
Stonehenge stood more than 1,000 years before the Celts to figure out the age of old objects, like ancient
inhabited the region. artifacts or remains of plants and animals.
inhabit= live, reside, occupy
Many modern historians and archaeologists now agree that distinct = different, separate, unique
several distinct tribes of people contributed to Stonehenge, undertake= be responsible for, take on, perform
construction= building, creation, formation
each undertaking a different phase of its construction. Bones, artefact = an object such as a tool, weapon etc
tools and other artefacts found on the site seem to support this that was made in the past and is historically
important
hypothesis. The first stage was achieved by Neolithic agrarians agrarian = farmer, agriculturist, rural people
who were likely to have been indigenous to the British Isles. indigenous = native, aboriginal, original
Later, it is believed, groups with advanced tools and a more advanced = sophisticated, developed, progressive
communal = shared, collective, community-based
communal way of life left their mark on the site. Some believe immigrant = people who move from one country
that they were immigrants from the European continent, while to another country to live there permanently or for
an extended period.
others maintain that they were probably native Britons, descended = originated, came from, stemmed
descended from the original builders. from
shadowy = unclear, mysterious, ambiguous

If the facts surrounding the architects and construction of striking = remarkable, impressive, notable
Stonehenge remain shadowy at best, the purpose of the consensus = agreement, accord, harmony
striking monument is even more of a mystery. While there is scholar= a person who study and learn a lot about
specific subjects, like history, science, literature, or
consensus among the majority of modern scholars that any other field of knowledge
Stonehenge once served the function of burial ground, they serve the function of = be used as
burial ground= a place where deceased people
have yet to determine what other purposes it had. are buried or laid to rest
determine = ascertain, find out, decide
In the 1960s, the astronomer Gerald Hawkins suggested that
astronomer= a person who looks up at the night sky
the cluster of megalithic stones operated as a form of calendar, and studies stars, planets, and everything else in
with different points corresponding to astrological phenomena space
such as solstices, equinoxes and eclipses occurring at different cluster = group, collection, gathering
times of the year. While his theory has received a considerable corresponding to = related to, connected to,
associated with
amount of attention over the decades, critics maintain that phenomenon = event, occurrence, happening
Stonehenge’s builders probably lacked the knowledge considerable = significant, substantial, noteworthy
necessary to predict such events or that England’s dense cloud critic = skeptic, doubter, naysayer
dense = thick, compact, crowded
cover would have obscured their view of the skies. obscure = hide, conceal, cover
More recently, signs of illness and injury in the human remains illness = sickness, disease, ailment
unearthed at Stonehenge ~ led a group of British injury = damage, harm, trauma
unearthed = discovered, found, excavated
archaeologists to speculate that it was considered a place of speculate = hypothesize, guess, conjecture
healing, perhaps because bluestones were thought to have healing = curative, therapeutic, medicinal
curative powers. curative = healing, therapeutic, remedial
* Neolithic — The era, also known as the New Stone Age, which
began around 12,000 years ago and ended around 3500 BCE
** Celtic — The Celts were people who lived in Britain and

northwest Europe during the Iron Age from 600 BCE to 43 CE
READING PASSAGE 2
powerful = strong, potent, mighty
P
artificial = synthetic, man-made, created
reliably = dependably, consistently, trustworthily
owerful artificial intelligence (Al) needs to be reliably aligned = in harmony, in agreement, be consistent
with
aligned with human values, but does this mean Al will value = belief, principle, ethic
eventually = ultimately, in the end, finally
eventually have to police those values? police = regulate, monitor, oversee
This has been the decade of Al, with one astonishing feat after astonishing = amazing, incredible, astounding
feat= achievement, accomplishment, success
another. A chess- playing Al that can defeat not only all human one after another= a phrase that means things or
chess players, but also all previous human-programmed chess events are happening in a sequence, with one thing
following immediately after the previous one
machines, after learning the game in just four hours? That’s previous = former, prior, earlier
yesterday's news, what’s next? True, these prodigious prodigious = remarkable, impressive, extraordinary
accomplishments are all in so- called narrow Al, where accomplishment = achievement, success, feat
so-called = alleged, supposed, self-proclaimed
machines perform highly specialised tasks. But many experts specialised = specific, particular, focused
believe this restriction is very temporary. By mid-century, we expert= a person who has a high level of knowledge,
may have artificial general intelligence (AGI) — machines that skill, and experience in a particular field or subject.
restriction = limitation, constraint, boundary
can achieve human-level performance on the full range of tasks temporary = short-term, brief, temporary
that we ourselves can tackle. achieve = attain, accomplish, reach
range = variety, scope, extent
tackle = handle, address, deal with
If so, there’s little reason to think it will stop there. Machines will
be free of many of the physical constraints on human constraint = limitation, restriction, boundary
intelligence. Our brains run at slow biochemical processing biochemical= related to the chemistry of a living thing
process= deal with, handle
speeds on the power of a light bulb, and their size is restricted dimension = size, proportion, measurement
birth canal = the part of the female body, starting from
by the dimensions of the human birth canal. It is remarkable the uterus, that a baby travels through in order to be
what they accomplish, given these handicaps. But they may born naturally
remarkable = extraordinary, notable, remarkable
be as far from the physical limits of thought as our eyes are accomplish = achieve, complete, fulfill
from the incredibly powerful Webb Space Telescope. handicap = limitation, disadvantage, restriction
limit = boundary, restriction, constraint
Once machines are better than us at designing even smarter accelerate = speed up, hasten, quicken
machines, progress towards these limits could accelerate. What ensure = make sure, guarantee, assure, secure
would this mean for us? Could we ensure a safe and worthwhile = valuable, meaningful, rewarding
coexistence = living together, harmony,
worthwhile coexistence with such machines? On the plus cohabitation
side, Al is already useful and profitable for many things, and plus side = positive aspect, advantage, benefit
super Al might be expected to be super useful, and super profitable = lucrative, financially rewarding,
profitable. But the more powerful Al becomes, the more gainful
specify = name, identify, state
important it will be to specify its goals with great care. Folklore folklore = traditional stories, myths, legends
is full of tales of people who ask for the wrong thing, with disastrous = catastrophic, devastating,
disastrous consequences — King Midas, for example, might calamitous
have wished that everything he touched turned to gold, but didn’t apply = implement, use, employ
really intend this to apply to his breakfast.
terrible = awful, dreadful, horrendous
So we need to create powerful Al machines that are ‘human- creatures= living beings or organisms.
friendly’ — that have goals reliably aligned with our own values. superintelligent = highly intelligent, extremely
One thing that makes this task difficult is that we are far from smart, genius-level
deep = profound, intense, significant
reliably human-friendly ourselves. We do many terrible things to amplify= raise, enhance, increase
each other and to many other creatures with whom we share fallible = imperfect, prone to error, not infallible
the planet. If superintelligent machines don’t do a lot better
than us, we’ll be in deep trouble. We'll have powerful new
intelligence amplifying the dark sides of our own fallible
for something’s sake = for the purpose of
natures. ethically = morally
cognitively = related to thinking
For safety’s sake, then, we want the machines to be ethically aim for the moral high ground= try to do what
as well as cognitively superhuman. We want them to aim for is right, fair, and honest in actions and decisions.
troughs = in this context, "troughs" refers to the
the moral high ground, not for the troughs in which many of us lower or undesirable aspects of human behavior
spend some of our time. Luckily they'll be smart enough for the or actions
job. If there are routes to the moral high ground, they'll be better steer = guide, direct, lead
than us at finding them, and steering us in the right direction.
utopian = idealistic, visionary, perfect
vision= idea, image, concept
However, there are two big problems with this utopian vision. sufficient = enough, adequate, ample
One is how we get the machines started on the journey, the clarity = clearness, transparency, understanding
other is what it would mean to reach this destination. The confident = sure, certain, self-assured
‘getting started’ problem is that we need to tell the machines turn out = end up, become, result
tribal = group, communal
what they're looking for with sufficient clarity that we can be conflicted= uncertain, divided, torn
confident they will find it — whatever ‘it’ actually turns out to ideal = principle, value, belief
be. This won't be easy, given that we are tribal creatures and suffering = pain, distress, hardship
conflicted about the ideals ourselves. We often ignore the stranger = unknown person, unfamiliar
suffering of strangers, and even contribute to it, at least individual, outsider
indirectly = not directly, secondhand, by
indirectly. How then, do we point machines in the direction of implication
something better? point = direct, guide, lead
gatekeeper = guardian, overseer, monitor

As for the ‘destination’ problem, we might, by putting ourselves sacrifice = give up, forfeit, relinquish
in the hands of these moral guides and gatekeepers, be autonomy = independence, freedom, self-governance
stick to = adhere to, follow, abide by
sacrificing our own autonomy — an important part of what discourage = dissuade, deter, inhibit
makes us human. Machines who are better than us at sticking lapse = mistake, error, slip-up
take sth for granted= do not realize or show that you
to the moral high ground may be expected to discourage some are grateful for how much you get from sth
freedom = liberty, independence, free will
of the lapses we presently take for granted. We might lose our discriminate = differentiate, distinguish, treat
freedom to discriminate in favour of our own communities, for differently
in favour of = in support of, in preference to, for the
example. benefit of
Loss of freedom to behave badly isn’t always a bad thing, of deny = prohibit, forbid, disallow
course: denying ourselves the freedom to put children to work in ethical= relating to beliefs about what is right and
wrong
factories, or to smoke in restaurants are signs of progress. But sign = indication, signal, evidence
are we ready for ethical silicon police limiting our options? silicon police= is about the idea of using advanced
computer-based systems, often powered by artificial
They might be so good at doing it that we won’t notice them; but intelligence (AI), to enforce good behavior and limit
certain actions or choices.
few of us are likely to welcome such a future. option= choice, selection, variety
These issues might seem far-fetched, but they are to some far-fetched = unlikely, implausible, improbable
extent already here. Al already has some input into how to some extent = partly, to a degree, somewhat
input = information, data
resources are used in our National Health Service (NHS) here in efficiently = effectively, proficiently, competently
the UK, for example. If it was given a greater role, it might do so deprive something of something= take
much more efficiently than humans can manage, and act in the something away from something
interests of taxpayers and those who use the health system. senior = higher-ranking, more experienced,
leading
However, we’d be depriving some humans (e.g. senior treated = regarded, considered, perceived
doctors) of the control they presently enjoy. Since we’d want to equally = fairly, uniformly, evenly
ensure that people are treated equally and that policies are fair, fair = just, impartial, equitable
the goals of Al would need to be specified correctly.
deal with = handle, address, tackle
literally = actually, precisely, exactly
We have a new powerful technology to deal with —itself, cooperative = collaborative, supportive, team-
literally, a new way of thinking. For our own safety, we need to oriented
point these new thinkers in the right direction, and get them to spirit = attitude, mindset, outlook
act well for us. It is not yet clear whether this is possible, but if it willingness = readiness, eagerness, inclination
set aside = put aside, ignore, disregard
is, it will require a cooperative spirit, and a willingness to set self-interest= the idea of acting or making
aside self-interest. decisions based on what benefits or advantages
you personally gain
Both general intelligence and moral reasoning are often
thought to be uniquely human capacities. But safety seems to moral = relating to the standards of good or bad
behavior, fairness, honesty, etc. that each
require that we think of them as a package: if we are to give person believes in
general intelligence to machines, we'll need to give them moral reasoning = thinking, logic, thought process
authority, too. And where exactly would that leave human capacity = ability, capability, skill
beings? All the more reason to think about the destination now, package = combination, set, collection
authority = power, control, jurisdiction
and to be careful about what we wish for.
READING PASSAGE 3
L eonardo da Vinci's ideal city was centuries ahead of its time

ideal= perfect, flawless, faultless
associated with= linked to, connected to,
related to
embody= reflect, exemplify, represent, personify
scientific spirit= scientific mindset, scientific
The word ‘genius’ is universally associated with the name of approach, scientific attitude
artistic= having natural creative skill
Leonardo da Vinci. A true Renaissance man, he embodied humanist= humanitarian, human-centered,
philanthropic
scientific spirit, artistic talent and humanist sensibilities. sensibility= feeling, emotion, sensitivity
Five hundred years have passed since Leonardo died in his fade into insignificance= become unimportant ,
diminish in significance, lose importance
home at Chateau du Clos Lucé, outside Tours, France. Yet far carry down= pass down, transmit, hand down
from fading into insignificance, his thinking has carried down

mark= highlight, celebrate, commemorate
the centuries and still surprises today. transition= shift, change, transformation
modernity= modern times, contemporary era, present
age
take place= occur, happen, transpire
The Renaissance marked the transition from the 15th century plague= a very serious and contagious disease that
spreads from person to person, usually through
infected fleas that live on rodents like rats
to modernity and took place after the spread of the plague in global= worldwide, international, universal
crisis= emergency, disaster, calamity
the 14th century, which caused a global crisis resulting in resulting in= leading to, causing, culminating in
some 200 million deaths across Europe and Asia. Today, the on the cusp of= on the brink of, at the threshold of,
on the verge of
world is on the cusp of a climate crisis, which is predicted to widespread= prevalent, extensive, every where
displacement= leaving, dislocation, eviction,
cause widespread displacement, extinctions and death, if left migration
extinction= a situation in which something no
unaddressed. Then, as now, radical solutions were called for longer exists
unaddress= unresolve, untreat, unattend
to revolutionise the way people lived and safeguard humanity radical= revolutionary, drastic, extreme
call for= demand, require, necessitate
against catastrophe. revolutionize= transform, overhaul, innovate
safeguard= protect, preserve, ensure the safety of
Around 1486 —after a pestilence that killed half the population humanity= mankind, human race, people
catastrophe= disaster, tragedy, calamity
in Milan, Italy - Leonardo turned his thoughts to urban planning pestilence= plague, epidemic, disease
urban= metropolitan, city-related, civic
problems. Following a typical Renaissance trend, he began to planning= design, development, organization
work on= engage in, focus on, tackle
work on an ‘ideal city’ project, which — due to its excessive excessive= too much, extravagant, immoderate,
extravagant
costs — would remain unfulfilled. Yet given that unfulfilled= unrealized, incomplete, unfinished
given that= considering that, because, in light of
unsustainable urban models are a key cause of global climate the fact that
unsustainable= not eco-friendly, not
change today, it’s only natural to wonder how Leonardo might environmentally friendly, non-renewable
a key cause= a main factor, a major reason, a
have changed the shape of modern cities. significant contributor
be renowned as= be celebrated as, be famous for,

Although the Renaissance is renowned as an era of incredible be well-known as
era= period, age, epoch
progress in art and architecture, it is rarely noted that the 15th incredible= remarkable, astonishing, extraordinary
progress= advancement, development,
century also marked the birth of urbanism as a true academic improvement
urbanism= city planning, urban planning, urban
discipline. The rigour and method behind the conscious development
discipline= field, subject, area of study
conception of a city had been largely missing in Western rigor= precision, meticulousness, thoroughness
conscious conception= deliberate design,
thought until the moment when prominent Renaissance men intentional creation, thoughtful formation
prominent= notable, distinguished, eminent
pushed forward large-scale urban projects in Italy, such as the push forward= advance, propell, promote
reconfiguration= redesign, restructuring,
reconfiguration of the town of Pienza and the expansion of the reorganization
expansion= growth, enlargement, extension
city of Ferrara. These works surely inspired Leonardo’s decision medieval= related to the middle ages (= the period
in european history from about ad 600 to ad 1500)
to rethink the design of medieval cities; with their winding and winding street= A winding path, road, river, etc.
repeatedly turns in different directions
overcrowded streets and with houses piled against one pile = put on top of
another.
identify= discern, recognize, ascertain

It is not easy to identify a coordinated vision of Leonardo’s coordinated= organized, harmonized,
ideal city because of his disordered way of working with notes integrated
disordered= chaotic, jumbled, disorganized
and sketches. But from the largest collection of Leonardo’s sketch= drawing, illustration, draft
paper= document, writing, manuscript
papers ever assembled, a series of innovative thoughts can be assemble= gather, collect, compile
reconstructed regarding the foundation of a new city along reconstruct= reassemble, piece together again,
build again
the Ticino River, which runs from Switzerland into Italy and is regarding= concerning, with respect to, in
relation to
248 kilometres long. He designed the city for the easy transport foundation= a basic situation that something
develops from
of goods and clean urban spaces, and he wanted a comfortable spacious= roomy, expansive, commodious
well-ordered= well-arranged, well-organized,
and spacious city, with well-ordered streets and architecture. orderly
He recommended ‘high, strong walls’, with ‘towers and battlement= a wall around the top of a castle,
with regular spaces in it through which the
battlements of all necessary and pleasant beauty’. people inside the castle can shoot
His plans for a modern and ‘rational’ city were consistent with consistent with= in line with, in accordance
with, in keeping with
Renaissance ideals. But, in keeping with his personality, ideal= principle, belief, value
personality= character, temperament, nature
Leonardo included several innovations in his urban design. innovation= novel idea, advancement,
breakthrough
Leonardo wanted the city to be built on several levels, linked vertical= upright, perpendicular, straight
staircase= stairs, steps, flights of stairs
with vertical outdoor staircases. This design can be seen in unconventional= nontraditional, unorthodox,
some of today’s high-rise buildings but was unconventional at unusual
take advantage of= make use of, utilize, exploit
the time. Indeed, this idea of taking full advantage of the interior= inside, inner, internal
movement= trend
interior spaces wasn’t implemented until the 1920s and 1930s,
with the birth of the Modernist movement.
upper layer= upper strata, higher levels, elevated
While in the upper layers of the city, people could walk sections
undisturbed= uninterrupted, unbothered,
undisturbed between elegant palaces and streets, the lower unaffected
elegant= stylish, neat, well-dressed
layer was the place for services, trade, transport and industry. lower layer= lower stratum, lower level, beneath
originality= creativity, novelty, inventiveness
But the true originality of Leonardo’s vision was its fusion of fusion= mixture, blending, integration
extensive= vast, extensive, widespread
architecture and engineering. Leonardo designed extensive hydraulic plant= a special machine or structure
that humans build to make sure water flows where
hydraulic plants to create artificial canals throughout the city. we want it to go and to use it for different purposes.
artificial= man-made, synthetic, constructed
The canals, regulated by clocks and basins, were supposed to regulated by= controlled by, managed by,
governed by
make it easier for boats to navigate inland. Leonardo also be supposed to= be intended to, be meant to, be
designed to
thought that the width of the streets ought to match the average navigate= travel, sail, traverse
inland= situated in the inside of a country rather
height of the adjacent houses: a rule still followed in many than on the coast.
adjacent= neighboring, adjoining, nearby
contemporary cities across Italy, to allow access to sun and contemporary= modern, current, present-day
access= entry, entrance, approach
reduce the risk of damage from earthquakes.
feature= characteristic, attribute, trait

Although some of these features existed in Roman cities, before drawing= sketch, illustration, plan
Leonardo’s drawings there had never been a multi-level,
compact modern city which was thoroughly technically compact= condensed, dense, compressed
technically= technically speaking, in terms of
conceived. Indeed, it wasn’t until the 19th century that some of technique, from a technical standpoint
conceive= imagine, envision,, design
his ideas were applied. For example, the subdivision of the city apply= utilize, implement, put into practice
subdivision= dividing/organizing something into
by function — with services and infrastructures located in the different parts
well-ventilated= airy, ventilated, well-aerated
lower levels and wide and well-ventilated boulevards and boulevard= a wide road in a city, usually with
walkways above for residents — is an idea that can be found in trees on each side or along the centre
walkway= pathway, footpath, sidewalk
Georges-Eugéne Haussmann’s renovation of Paris under resident= inhabitant, citizen, occupant
renovation= restoration, refurbishment,
Emperor Napoleon III between 1853 and 1870. revitalization
Today, Leonardo’s ideas are not simply valid, they actually valid= reasonable, egitimate, sound, credible
compact= small, neat, efficient
suggest a way forward for urban planning. Many scholars think integrated with= combined with, incorporated
with, merged with
that the compact city, built upwards instead of outwards, infrastructure= facilities, amenities, systems
sustainable= eco-friendly, environmentally
integrated with nature (especially water systems), with efficient friendly, renewable
transport infrastructure, could help modern cities become more
efficient and sustainable. This is yet another reason why
Leonardo was aligned so closely with modern urban planning
and centuries ahead of his time.
TEST 3
READING PASSAGE 1
C oncrete is everywhere, but it’s bad for the planet,

generating large amounts of carbon dioxide — alternatives are
concrete = a very hard building material made
by mixing together
alternative = substitute, option, choice
being developed
A.
substance = material, matter, element
Concrete is the second most used substance in the global emission = discharge, release, output
economy, after water — and one of the world’s biggest single chemical = compound, substance, element
sources of greenhouse gas emissions. The chemical process ingredient = component, element, constituent
by which cement, the key ingredient of concrete, is created estimate = evaluate, predict, forecast
results in large quantities of carbon dioxide. The UN estimates soar = rise, skyrocket, surge
aggravating = making something worse
that there will be 9.8 billion people living on the planet by mid-
century. They will need somewhere to live. If concrete is the only
answer to the construction of new cities, then carbon emissions
will soar, aggravating global warming. And so scientists have
started innovating with other materials, in a scramble for innovate = invent, create, pioneer
alternatives to a universal commodity that has underpinned scramble = rush, hurry, hustle
universal = widespread, global, common
our modern life for many years. commodity = product, goods, merchandise
underpin = support, reinforce, uphold
B.
The problem with replacing concrete is that it is so very good at extent = scope, magnitude, size, degree
scale = size, magnitude, proportion
what it does. Chris Cheeseman, an engineering professor at sheer = absolute, complete, total
Imperial College London, says the key thing to consider is the manufacture = production, making, creation
extent to which concrete is used around the world, and is likely
to continue to be used. ‘Concrete is not a high-carbon product.
Cement is high carbon, but concrete is not. But it is the scale on
which it is used that makes it high carbon. The sheer scale of
manufacture is so huge, that is the issue.’
relatively = comparatively, fairly, somewhat
C. in abundance = plenty, ample, wealth
marvellous = wonderful, fantastic, amazing
Not only are the ingredients of concrete relatively cheap and property = characteristic, attribute, quality
found in abundance in most places around the globe, the stuff portland = type of cement
itself has marvellous properties: Portland cement, the vital vital = essential, crucial, important
component of concrete, is mouldable and pourable, but component = element, part, ingredient
quickly sets hard. Cheeseman also notes another advantage: mouldable = flexible, pliable, adaptable
pourable = liquid, fluid, flowable
concrete and steel have similar thermal expansion properties, set = harden, solidify, become hard
so steel can be used to reinforce concrete, making it far steel = metal alloy made of iron and carbon
stronger and more flexible as a building material than it could be thermal = heat-related, temperature-related,
on its own. According to Cheeseman, all these factors together thermic
expansion = growth, enlargement, increase
make concrete hard to beat. ‘Concrete is amazing stuff. Making reinforce = strengthen, fortify, enhance
anything with similar properties is going to be very difficult.’ flexible = adaptable, versatile, pliable
beat = defeat, overcome, conquer
D.
A possible alternative to concrete is wood. Making buildings from rather = somewhat, slightly, pretty
medieval = ancient, historical, old-fashioned
wood may seem like a rather medieval idea, but climate change turn to= start to do something, start to use
is driving architects to turn to treated timber as a possible something
resource. Recent years have seen the emergence of tall treated = handled, managed, processed
buildings constructed almost entirely from timber. Vancouver, emergence = appearance, rise, advent
entirely =completely, wholly, totally
Vienna and Brumunddal in Norway are all home to constructed
tall, wooden buildings. straightforward = simple, easy, uncomplicated
expand = grow, increase, enlarge
E. absorb = soak up, take in, assimilate
Using wood to construct buildings, however, is not moisture = dampness, humidity, wetness
susceptible = vulnerable, prone, liable
straightforward. Wood expands as it absorbs moisture from pest = insect, vermin, nuisance
the air and is susceptible to pests, not to mention fire. But not to mention = besides, in addition to, apart
treating wood and combining it with other materials can improve from
its properties. Cross-laminated timber is engineered wood. An laminated = laminated material is made by
joining several thin layers on top of each other
adhesive is used to stick layers of solid sawn timber together, adhesive = glue, bonding agent
crosswise, to form building blocks. This material is light but has saw = cut, slice, trim
the strength of concrete and steel. Construction experts say that crosswise = two things that are placed
wooden buildings can be constructed at a greater speed than crosswise are arranged to form the shape of an
ones of concrete and steel and the process, it seems, is quieter. ‘x’
F. vice-president = deputy, second-in-command,

Stora Enso is Europe’s biggest supplier of cross-laminated assistant president
concern = worry, anxiety, issue
timber, and its vice-president Markus Mannstrém reports that driver = motive, catalyst, factor
the company is seeing increasing demand globally for building in based = situated, located, founded
wood, with climate change concerns the key driver. Finland, lead the way = pioneer, set an example, take
with its large forests, where Stora Enso is based, has been the lead
lock away = secure, safeguard, store
leading the way, but the company is seeing a rise in demand treated = processed, modified, conditioned
for its timber products across the world, including in Asia. Of limitation = restriction, constraint, drawback
course, using timber in a building also locks away the carbon
that it absorbed as it grew. But even treated wood has its
limitations and only when a wider range of construction projects
has been proven in practice will it be possible to see wood as a
real alternative to concrete in constructing tall buildings.
G.
ash = residue, remains, dust
Fly ash and slag from iron ore are possible alternatives to slag = residue, waste, byproduct
cement in a concrete mix. Fly ash, a byproduct of coal-burning ore = mineral, raw material, rock containing
power plants, can be incorporated into concrete mixes to valuable elements
make up as much as 15 to 30% of the cement, without harming byproduct = secondary product, spinoff,
the strength or durability of the resulting mix. Iron-ore slag, a derivative
power plant = generating station, energy facility,
byproduct of the iron-ore smelting process, can be used in a electricity-generating unit
similar way. Their incorporation into concrete mixes has the incorporate = include, integrate, combine
potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. make up = constitute, form, compose
But Anna Surgenor, of the UK’s Green Building Council, notes durability = strength, sturdiness, resilience
resulting = final, eventual
that although these waste products can save carbon in the smelt = melt, refine, extract
concrete mix, their use is not always straightforward. ‘It’s incorporation = integration, inclusion,
possible to replace the cement content in concrete with waste combination
products to lower the overall carbon impact. But there are content = substance, material
several calculations that need to be considered across the calculation = computation, estimation,
reckoning
entire life cycle of the building — these include factoring in life cycle = lifespan, duration, cycle of existence
where these materials are being shipped from. If they are fossil fuel = non-renewable energy, carbon-
transported over long distances, using fossil fuels, the use of based fuel, hydrocarbon fuel
alternative materials might not make sense from an overall make sense = be logical, be reasonable, be
understandable
carbon reduction perspective.’ perspective = viewpoint, standpoint, outlook
H. promising = hopeful, potential, encouraging

While these technologies are all promising ideas, they are unproven = untested, speculative, uncertain
either unproven or based on materials that are not abundant. abundant = plentiful, ample, copious
innovation = invention, advancement,
In their overview of innovation in the concrete industry, Felix breakthrough
Preston and Johanna Lehne of the UK’s Royal Institute of break through = overcome, surpass, achieve
International Affairs reached the conclusion that, ‘Some novel success
cements have been discussed for more than a decade within the rarely = seldom, infrequently, hardly ever
cost-effective = economical, efficient, budget-
research community, without breaking through. At present, friendly
these alternatives are rarely as cost-effective as conventional conventional = traditional, standard, customary
cement, and they face raw-material shortages and resistance shortage = scarcity, lack, insufficiency
from customers.’ resistance = opposition, defiance, refusal to
accept
READING PASSAGE 2
T he successes and failures of the Doble brothers and their

steam cars
primitive = basic, simple, rudimentary
automobile = car, vehicle, motorcar
engine = the part of a vehicle that produces
A. power to make it move
When primitive automobiles first began to appear in the 1800s, railway = train, railroad system, train network
evolve = develop, progress, advance
their engines were based on steam power. Steam had already miniaturize = shrink, reduce, scale down
enjoyed a long and successful career in the railways, so it was separate = detached, unconnected, unattached
only natural that the technology evolved into a miniaturized inherit = receive, obtain, acquire
version which was separate from the trains. But these early cars light= start burning something, set fire to, ignite
inherited steam’s weaknesses along with its strengths. The light - lit - lit
reservoir = storage, container, tank
boilers had to be lit by hand, and they required about twenty replenishment = refilling, renewal, restocking
minutes to build up pressure before they could be driven. shortcoming = flaw, deficiency, limitation
Furthermore, their water reservoirs only lasted for about thirty self-propelled = autonomous, independent, self-
miles before needing replenishment. Despite such moving
carriage = coach, car, wagon
shortcomings, these newly designed self-propelled carriages shuttling = moving back and forth, commuting,
offered quick transportation, and by the early 1900s it was not traveling
uncommon to see such machines shuttling wealthy citizens wealthy = affluent, rich, prosperous
around town.
B. glory = fame, honor, prestige

But the glory days of steam cars were few. A new technology combustion = burning, ignition, firing
called the Internal Combustion Engine soon appeared, which operate = run, function, work
offered the ability to drive down the road just moments after hand-crank = manual, hand-operated, hand-
driven
starting up. At first, these noisy gasoline cars were unpopular starter = an automatic device for starting a
because they were more complicated to operate and they had machine, especially the engine of a vehicle.
difficult hand-crank starters, which were known to break arms backfire = misfire, fail, go wrong
when the engines backfired. But in 1912 General Motors phase out = discontinue, eliminate, end
introduced the electric starter, and over the following few years
steam power was gradually phased out. rekindle = renew, regenerate, refresh
basement = lower level, cellar, underground floor
C. comprise = include, consist of, incorporate
wrecked = destroyed, devastated, demolished
Even as the market was declining, four brothers made one last reconfigure = rearrange, reorganize, reshape
effort to rekindle the technology. Between 1906 and 1909, while prototype = model, sample, specimen
internal = inner, interior, inside
still attending high school, Abner Doble and his three brothers draw the attention= to make someone notice
built their first steam car in their parents’ basement. It something
comprised parts taken from a wrecked early steam car but automobile = car, vehicle, motorcar
numerous = many, countless, multiple
reconfigured to drive an engine of their own design. Though it improvement = enhancement, advancement,
did not run well, the Doble brothers went on to build a second progress
and third prototype in the following years. Though the Doble superior = better, higher-quality, more advanced
gasoline = petrol, fuel, gas
boys’ third prototype, nicknamed the Model B, still lacked the high-pressure = high-force, intense, pressurized
convenience of an internal combustion engine, it drew the piston = a moving thing/plug inside a tube, normally
found in a car engine
attention of automobile trade magazines due to its numerous virtual silence = almost silent, quiet, noiseless
improvements over previous steam cars. . The Model B proved clattering = rattling, clanking, banging
to be superior to gasoline automobiles in many ways. Its high- emit = release, discharge, produce
aroma = fragrance, scent, smell
pressure steam drove the engine pistons in virtual silence, in impressively = remarkably, notably, strikingly
contrast to clattering gas engines which emitted the aroma of swift = fast, quick, rapid
burned hydrocarbons. Perhaps most impressively, the Model B accelerate = speed up, increase, quicken
feat = achievement, accomplishment, triumph
was amazingly swift. It could accelerate from zero to sixty miles remarkable = extraordinary, outstanding, impressive
per hour in just fifteen seconds, a feat described as ‘remarkable acceleration = increase in speed, rate of increase,
quickening
acceleration’ by Automobile magazine in 1914.
D.
The following year Abner Doble drove the Model B from seek = search for, look for, pursue
immediately = right away, instantly, promptly
Massachusetts to Detroit in order to seek investment in his intend = plan, aim, purpose
automobile design, which he used to open the General feature = characteristic, attribute, quality
Engineering Company. He and his brothers immediately began key-based = key-operated, key-controlled, key-
activated
working on the Model C, which was intended to expand upon ignition = starting, firing, activation
the innovations of the Model B. The brothers added features eliminate = remove, get rid of, eradicate
manually = by hand, by manual operation, using
such as a key-based ignition in the cabin, eliminating the physical effort
need for the operator to manually ignite = light, kindle, spark
ignite the boiler. With these enhancements, the Dobles’ new boiler = heater, furnace, heating system
enhancement = improvement, upgrade,
car company promised a steam vehicle which would provide all advancement
of the convenience of a gasoline car, but with much greater virtually = practically, almost, nearly
silent = quiet, noiseless, soundless
speed, much simpler driving controls, and a virtually silent
powerplant. By the following April, the General Engineering powerplant = power station, generating station,
power facility
Company had received 5,390 deposits for Doble Detroits, which deposit = bond, security, guarantee
were scheduled for delivery in early 1918. schedule = timetable, arrange, plan
delivery = transportation, distribution, shipment
E. deliver = provide, furnish, supply
Later that year Abner Doble delivered unhappy news to those eagerly = enthusiastically, eagerly, keenly
eagerly awaiting the delivery of their modern new cars. Those handful = small number, few, limited quantity
buyers who received the handful of completed cars complained complete = finish, accomplish, conclude
sluggish = slow, lethargic, inactive
that the vehicles were sluggish and erratic, sometimes going in erratic = unpredictable, irregular, inconsistent
reverse when they should go forward. The new engine design, reverse = opposite, contrary, inverse
though innovative, was still plagued with serious glitches. innovative = creative, inventive, original
plagued = troubled, haunted, afflicted
F. glitch = problem, fault, malfunction
The brothers made one final attempt to produce a viable steam viable = feasible, practical, workable
automobile. In early 1924, the Doble brothers shipped a Model E road-tested = tried and tested, proven, field-
to New York City to be road-tested by the Automobile Club of tested
America. After sitting overnight in freezing temperatures, the car freezing = extremely cold, icy, frosty
frosty = chilly, cold, icy
was pushed out into the road and left to sit for over an hour in evenly = uniformly, consistently, equally
the frosty morning air. At the turn of the key, the boiler lit and distribute = share out, give out, spread
reached its operating pressure inside of forty seconds. As they lend = loan, provide, give temporarily
drove the test vehicle further, they found that its evenly lend -lent - lent
distributed weight lent it surprisingly good handling, even handling = managing, dealing with, taking care
of
though it was so heavy. As the new Doble steamer was further gallon = unit of measurement for liquid, volume,
developed and tested, its maximum speed was pushed to over a container
hundred miles per hour, and it achieved about fifteen miles per kerosene = paraffin, lamp oil, heating fuel
gallon of kerosene with negligible emissions. negligible = minimal, insignificant,
G.
Sadly, the Dobles’ brilliant steam car never was a financial brilliant = excellent, wonderful, great
success. Priced at around $18,000 in 1924, it was popular only tinker = adjust, modify, fix
among the very wealthy. Plus, it is said that no two Model Es endlessly = continuously, nonstop, constantly
fold = go out of business, go bankrupt, close
were quite the same, because Abner Doble tinkered endlessly adamant = firm, resolute, determined
with the design. By the time the company folded in 1931, fewer steam-powered = steam-driven, steam-
than fifty of the amazing Model E steam cars had been operated, steam-propelled
produced. For his whole career, until his death in 1961, Abner superior = better, higher quality, more advanced
maintenance = upkeep, care, servicing
Doble remained adamant that steam-powered automobiles astonishingly = surprisingly, remarkably,
were at least equal to gasoline cars, if not superior. Given the incredibly
evidence, he may have been right. Many of the Model E Dobles unmodified = unchanged, unaltered, unadjusted
which have survived are still in good working condition, some emission = discharge, release, output
having been driven over half a million miles with only normal pose = present, cause, create
efficient= effective, productive, time-saving
maintenance. Astonishingly, an unmodified Doble Model E automotive = related to cars
runs clean enough to pass the emissions laws in California unthinkable = unimaginable, inconceivable,
today, and they are pretty strict. It is true that the technology impossible
poses some difficult problems, but you cannot help but wonder
how efficient a steam car might be with the benefit of modern
materials and computers. Under the current pressure to improve
automotive performance and reduce emissions, it is not
unthinkable that the steam car may rise again.
READING PASSAGE 3
P icture this scene. It’s an English literature lesson in a UK

school, and the teacher has just read an extract from
picture = imagine, visualize, consider
literature = written works, books, writings
extract = excerpt, passage, selection
Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet with a class of 15-year-olds. translation = interpretation, rendition,
He’s given some of the students copies of No Fear conversion
literacy = reading and writing skills, education,
Shakespeare, a kid-friendly translation of the original. For three knowledge
students, even these literacy demands are beyond them. identify = recognize, detect, ascertain
Another girl simply can’t focus and he gives her pens and paper tentative = uncertain, hesitant, cautious
to draw with. The teacher can ask the No Fear group to identify plot = storyline, a sequence of events in a story
the key characters and maybe provide a tentative plot textual = written, written form, written language
advocate = support, encourage, promote
summary. He can ask most of the class about character moderation = restraint, balance, temperance
development, and five of them might be able to support their passionate = enthusiastic, fervent, zealous
statements with textual evidence. Now two curious students are engagement = involvement, participation,
wondering whether Shakespeare advocates living a life of commitment
moderation or one of passionate engagement.
As a teacher myself, I’d think my lesson would be going rather
well if the discussion went as described above. But wouldn’t this gap = difference, disparity, distance
virtue = moral excellence, goodness,
kind of class work better if there weren’t such a huge gap righteousness
moderation = self-control, temperance, restraint
between the top and the bottom? If we put all the kids who
needed literacy support into one class, and all the students who
want to discuss the virtue of moderation into another?
separateg = divide, part, segregate
diagnose = identify, determine, detect
The practice of ‘streaming’, or ‘tracking’, involves separating attainment = achievement, accomplishment,
attainment
students into classes depending on their diagnosed levels of macro = large-scale, extensive, broad
establishment = institution, organization, foundation
attainment. At a macro level, it requires the establishment of academically = in an academic manner, educationally,
scholastically
academically selective schools for the brightest students, and brightest = smartest, most intelligent, most gifted
comprehensive = thorough, complete, all-inclusive
comprehensive schools for the rest. Within schools, it means subject-specific = specialized, focused, specific to a
subject
selecting students into a ‘stream’ of general ability, or ‘sets’ of intuitively = instinctively, naturally, spontaneously
appealing = attractive, appealing, captivating
subject- specific ability. The practice is intuitively appealing to stakeholder = interested party, participant, involved
individual
almost every stakeholder.
I have heard the mixed-ability model attacked by way of mixed-ability = diverse, varied, heterogeneous
analogy = comparison, parallel, similarity
analogy: a group hike. The fittest in the group take the lead and brisk = quick, speedy, rapid
frustrating = disappointing, vexing, annoying
set a brisk pace, only to have to stop and wait every 20 minutes. enthusiasm = eagerness, excitement, passion
This is frustrating, and their enthusiasm wanes. Meanwhile, wane = diminish, decline, decrease
embarrassed = ashamed, humiliated, self-
the slowest ones are not only embarrassed but physically conscious
physically = bodily, corporally, bodily
struggling to keep up. What’s worse, they never get a long struggling = having difficulties, facing
challenges, grappling
enough break. They honestly just want to quit. Hiking, they feel,
is not for them.
bore = tire, not interest
frustrate = annoy, irritate, bother
Mixed-ability classes bore students, frustrate parents and burn burn out = exhaust, make somebody very feel
tired and stressed
out teachers. The brightest ones will never summit Mount summit = peak, top, pinnacle
straggler = a person that is behind the others in
Qomolangma, and the stragglers won’t enjoy the lovely stroll in a group
stroll = walk, wander, saunter
the park they are perhaps more suited to. Individuals suffer at collective = joint, shared, communal
mediocrity = average, ordinariness,
the demands of the collective, mediocrity prevails. So: is averageness
prevail = dominate, triumph, reign
learning like hiking?
pedagogical = educational, instructional,
teaching
The current pedagogical paradigm is arguably that of paradigm = model, framework, pattern
arguably = possibly, potentially, debatably
constructivism, which emerged out of the work of constructivism = a theory that learning is an active
process and that people gain knowledge and
psychologist Lev Vygotsky. In the 1930s, Vygotsky understanding through the combination of experiences
and ideas
emphasized the importance of targeting a student’s specific emerge = appear, surface, come forth
psychologist = therapist, counselor, mental health
professional
‘zone of proximal development’ (ZPD). This is the gap between emphasize = highlight, stress, underscore
proximal = near to the centre of the body
what they can achieve only with support — teachers, textbooks, independently = autonomously, self-sufficiently, on
one's own
worked examples, parents and so on — and what they can scaffolding = support, assistance, guidance
autonomous = independent, self-governing, self-
achieve independently. The purpose of teaching is to provide regulating
regardless = despite, in spite of, irrespective of
and then gradually remove this ‘scaffolding’ until they are aptitude = talent, ability, capability
autonomous. If we accept this model, it follows that streaming

students with similar ZPDs would be an efficient and effective
solution. And that forcing everyone on the same hike —
regardless of aptitude — would be madness.
empirical = based on observation, based on
Despite all this, there is limited empirical evidence to suggest evidence, based on experience
that streaming results in better outcomes for students. outcome = result, consequence, effect
institute = organization, establishment, center
Professor John Hattie, director of the Melbourne Education minimal = very little, insignificant, negligible
Research Institute, notes that ‘tracking has minimal effects on significantly = notably, substantially,
learning outcomes’. What is more, streaming appears to considerably
significantly ' — and negatively — affect those students negatively = adversely, harmfully, detrimentally
assign = allocate, designate, appoint
assigned to the lowest sets. These students tend to have much socioeconomic = socio-economic, social and
higher representation of low socioeconomic class. Less economic, relating to society and economy
significant is the small benefit for those lucky clever students in entrench = solidify, establish, fortify
the higher sets. The overall result is that the smart stay smart divide = division, separation, split
and the dumb get dumber, further entrenching the social
divide.
In the latest update of Hattie’s influential meta-analysis of influential = powerful, impactful, influential
factors influencing student achievement, one of the most meta-analysis = a statistical analysis that
combines the results of multiple scientific studies
significant factors is the teachers’ estimate of achievement. diagnose = identify, determine, detect
Streaming students by diagnosed achievement automatically estimate = judgment, assessment, evaluation,
limits what the teacher feels the student is capable of. gauge
Meanwhile, in a mixed environment, teachers’ estimates need diverse = varied, different, diverse
to be more diverse and flexible.
While streaming might seem to help teachers effectively target a underestimate = undervalue, take too lightly,
student’s ZPD, it can underestimate the importance of peer-to- underrate
peer learning. A crucial aspect of constructivist theory is the peer-to-peer = a decentralized network where
participants interact directly with each other
role of the MKO — ‘more- knowledgeable other’ — in crucial = critical, vital, essential
knowledge construction. While teachers are traditionally the knowledgeable = well-informed, experienced
MKOs in classrooms, the value of knowledgeable student peers unrecognized = not recognized,
must not go unrecognized either. unacknowledged
I find it amazing to watch students get over an idea to their peers possess = have, own, hold
in ways that I would never think of. They operate with different cognitive= related to getting knowledge and
understanding through thinking, experience, and
language tools and different social tools from teachers and, the senses.
having just learnt it themselves, they possess similar cognitive master = good at, excel at, become proficient in,
structures to their struggling classmates. There is also dominate
something exciting about passing on skills and knowledge that zeal = enthusiasm, passion, fervor
you yourself have just mastered — a certain pride and zeal, a freshness = novelty, newness, vigor
interaction = engagement, communication,
certain freshness to the interaction between ‘teacher’ and interaction
‘learner’ that is often lost by the expert for whom the steps are obvious = clear, evident, apparent
obvious and the joy of discovery forgotten.
Having a variety of different abilities in a collaborative learning

environment provides valuable resources for helping students need = requirement, necessity, demand
meet their learning needs, not to mention improving their not to mention = in addition to, on top of
communication and social skills. And today, more than ever, we at the expense of = If you do one thing at the
need the many to flourish — not suffer at the expense of a few expense of another, doing the first thing harms
the second thing
bright stars. Once a year, I go on a hike with my class, a mixed flourish = thrive, prosper, grow
bunch of students. It is challenging. The fittest students realise bunch = group, collection, team
they need to encourage the reluctant. There are lookouts who reluctant = hesitant, unwilling, unwillingly
report back, and extra items to carry for others. We make it — lookout = observer, watcher, guard
together.
TEST 4
READING PASSAGE 1
A.
Rooftops covered with grass, vegetable gardens and lush
rooftop = top, upper level
lush = green, verdant, flourishing
foliage = leaves, greenery, vegetation
foliage are now a common sight in many cities around the
authority = official, administrator, governing
world. More and more private companies and city authorities body
drawn to = attracted to, fascinated by, interested
are investing in green roofs, drawn to their wide-ranging in
wide-ranging = extensive, comprehensive,
benefits. Among the benefits are saving on energy costs, broad
mitigate = alleviate, reduce, minimize
mitigating the risk of floods, making habitats for urban wildlife, habitat = environment, home, dwelling place
tackle = address, deal with, confront
tackling air pollution and even growing food. These increasingly radical = extreme, drastic, revolutionary
adapt = adjust, modify, change
radical urban designs can help cities adapt to the monumental monumental = significant, monumental,
problems they face, such as access to resources and a lack of substantial
green space due to development. But the involvement of city involvement = participation, engagement,
participation
authorities, businesses and other institutions is crucial to institution = organization, establishment, body
crucial = vital, essential, critical
ensuring their success — as is research investigating different investigate = examine, explore, research
relatively = comparatively, somewhat, quite
options to suit the variety of rooftop spaces found in cities. The practice = something that is usually or regularly
done, often as a habit, tradition, or custom
UK is relatively new to developing green roofs, and local forward-thinking = innovative, progressive,
governments and institutions are playing a major role in visionary
pave the way to/for = prepare the ground for,
spreading the practice. London is home to much of the UK’s lay the foundation for, open the door for
green roof market, mainly due to forward-thinking policies such make other things possible
as the London Plan, which has paved the way to more than
doubling the area of green roofs in the capital.
B.
Ongoing research is showcasing how green roofs in cities can ongoing = continuous, continuing, persistent
showcase = present, exhibit, display
integrate with ‘living walls’: environmentally friendly walls integrate = incorporate, combine, merge
environmentally friendly = eco-friendly, green,
which are partially or completely covered with greenery, sustainable
partially = partly, to some extent, incompletely
including a growing medium, such as soil or water. Research greenery = vegetation, plants, foliage
medium = a substance or material in which
also indicates that green roofs can be integrated with drainage things grow or exist
systems on the ground, such as street trees, so that the water is indicate = show, demonstrate, reveal
integrate = incorporate, combine, merge
managed better and the built environment is made more drainage = the system by which water or waste
liquid flows away
sustainable. There is also evidence to demonstrate the social sustainable = environmentally sustainable, eco-
friendly, renewable
value of green roofs. Doctors are increasingly prescribing time evidence = proof, data, facts
demonstrate = show, prove, indicate
spent gardening outdoors for patients dealing with anxiety and prescribe = recommend, prescribe, advise
anxiety = worry, concern, stress
depression. And research has found that access to even the depression = sadness, despair, melancholy
most basic green spaces can provide a better quality of life for dementia = cognitive decline, memory loss,
cognitive impairment
dementia sufferers and help people avoid obesity. obesity = overweight, fatness, corpulence
dementia: chung mat tri nho
C.
mainstream = normal, standard, typical
In North America, green roofs have become mainstream, with a array = range, assortment, collection
wide array of expansive, accessible and food-producing roofs expansive = vast, extensive, wide
installed in buildings. Again, city leaders and authorities have accessible = reachable, available, approachable
helped push the movement forward — only recently, San date from = originate from, come from, date
back to
Francisco, USA, created a policy requiring new buildings to have
green roofs. Toronto, Canada, has policies dating from the wide range of=wide array of
1990s, encouraging the development of urban farms on
rooftops. These countries also benefit from having newer
buildings than in many parts of the world, which makes it easier

to install green roofs. Being able to keep enough water at roof
distribute = disperse, spread, circulate
height and distribute it right across the rooftop is crucial to edible = eatable, consumable, food
maintaining the plants on any green roof — especially on ‘edible retro-fit = to improve a building by putting new
roofs’ where fruit and vegetables are farmed. And it’s much and better parts in it after it has been used for
easier to do this in newer buildings, which can typically hold some time
greater weight, than to retro-fit old ones. Having a stronger roof
also makes it easier to grow a greater variety of plants, since the
soil can be deeper.
D.
norm = standard, usual, average
For green roofs to become the norm for new developments, landscape = garden, design, decorating
there needs to be support from public authorities and private volunteer = helper, worker, assistant
investors. Those responsible for maintaining buildings may have disruption = disturbance, interruption, upheaval
to acquire new skills, such as landscaping, and in some cases, installation = setup, implementation, fitting
convince = persuade, influence, sway
volunteers may be needed to help out. Other considerations worthwhile = rewarding, beneficial, valuable
include installing drainage paths, meeting health and safety argument = reason, justification, rationale
requirements and perhaps allowing access for the public, as well
as planning restrictions and disruption from regular activities in
and around the buildings during installation. To convince
investors and developers that installing green roofs is
worthwhile, economic arguments are still the most important.
The term ‘natural capital’ has been developed to explain the
economic value of nature; for example, measuring the money
saved by installing natural solutions to protect against flood
damage, adapt to climate change or help people lead healthier
and happier lives.
E. expertise = knowledge, skill, proficiency

properly = correctly, appropriately, accurately
As the expertise about green roofs grows, official standards underpin = support, strengthen, underly
have been developed to ensure that they are designed, variation = difference, discrepancy, divergence
constructed and maintained properly, and function well. drain = remove, empty, withdraw
Improvements in the science and technology underpinning combination = mixture, blend, amalgamation
biodiversity = variety of life, variety of species,
green roof development have also led to new variations in the ecological diversity
concept. For example, ‘blue roofs’ enable buildings to hold water vibrant = lively, energetic, dynamic
over longer periods of time, rather than draining it away quickly sustainable = eco-friendly, environmentally
— crucial in times of heavier rainfall. There are also friendly, renewable
combinations of green roofs with solar panels, and ‘brown alongside = beside, next to, together with
barrier = obstacle, hindrance, hurdle
roofs’ which are wilder in nature and maximise biodiversity. If overcome = conquer, defeat, surmount
the trend continues, it could create new jobs and a more vibrant potential = possibility, likeliness, promise
and sustainable local food economy — alongside many other transform = change, convert, alter
benefits. There are still barriers to overcome, but the evidence function = operate, work, perform
sustainably = in a sustainable manner,
so far indicates that green roofs have the potential to transform environmentally responsibly, in an eco-friendly
cities and help them function sustainably long into the future. way
The success stories need to be studied and replicated replicate = duplicate, reproduce, copy
elsewhere, to make green, blue, brown and food-producing elsewhere = in other places, somewhere else,
roofs the norm in cities around the world. away
READING PASSAGE 2
O ver the past century, a powerful idea has taken root in the
educational landscape. The concept of intelligence as
take root = establish, root, settle
landscape = setting, background, situation
intelligence = intellect, smarts, mental capacity
innate = inherent, natural, inborn
supplant = replace, displace, substitute
something innate has been supplanted by the idea that cognitive = mental, intellectual, cognitive
intelligence is not fixed, and that, with the right training, we can capability = ability, capacity, competence
be the authors of our own cognitive capabilities. Psychologist sought = desired, pursued, sought-after
(seek - sought - sought)
Alfred Binet, the developer of the first intelligence tests, was one quantify = measure, assess, evaluate
of many 19th-century scientists who held that earlier view and progressive = forward-thinking, innovative,
sought to quantify cognitive ability. Then, in the early 20th advanced
century, progressive thinkers revolted against the notion that revolt = refuse to be controlled or ruled
inherent ability is destiny. Instead, educators such as John notion = idea, concept, belief
inherent = intrinsic, innate, inherent
Dewey argued that every child’s intelligence could be developed, destiny = fate, fortune, future
given the right environment.
‘Growth mindset theory’ is a relatively new — and extremely mindset = mentality, outlook, attitude
theory = hypothesis, principle, concept
popular — version of this idea. In many schools today you will extremely = highly, very, exceedingly
see hallways covered in motivational posters and hear hallway = corridor, passage, aisle
speeches on the mindset of great sporting heroes who simply motivational = inspiring, uplifting, motivating
believed their way to the top. A major focus of the growth coax = persuade, convince
mindset in schools is coaxing students away from seeing
failure as an indication of their ability, and towards seeing it as failure = defeat, loss, setback
a chance to improve that ability. As educationalist Jeff Howard indication = sign, signal, hint
educationalist = educator, teacher, pedagogue
noted several decades ago: ‘Smart is not something that you just
are, smart is something that you can get.
The idea of the growth mindset is based on the work of

key = essential, crucial, important
psychologist Carol Dweck in California in the 1990s. In one key experiment = test, trial, investigation
experiment, Dweck divided a group of 10- to 12 year-olds into praise = commend, applaud, compliment
two groups. All were told that they had achieved a high score on instill = implant, imbue, infuse
a test but the first group were praised for their intelligence in subsequently = afterward, later, consequently
achieving this, while the others were praised for their effort. The put effort into = invest in, dedicate to, exert
oneself in
second group — those who had been instilled with a ‘growth the former = the previous, the earlier, the first-
mindset’ — were subsequently far more likely to put effort into mentioned
future tasks. Meanwhile, the former took on only those tasks sense of worth = self-esteem, self-value, self-
that would not risk their sense of worth. This group had regard
infer = deduce, conclude, understand
inferred that success or failure is due to innate ability, and this innate = inherent, natural, inborn
‘fixed mindset’ had led them to fear of failure and lack of effort. emphasise = highlight, stress, underline
Praising ability actually made the students perform worse, while cognitive dissonance: a state in which there
praising effort emphasised that change was possible. is a difference between your experiences or
behaviour and your beliefs about what is true:
One of the greatest impediments to successfully implementing impediment = obstacle, hindrance, barrier
a growth mindset, however, is the education system itself: in implementing = executing, applying, carrying out
many parts of the world, the school climate is obsessed with obsess = fixate, preoccupy, consume
performance in the form of constant testing, analysing and constant = continual, continuous, persistent
characteristic = trait, feature, attribute
ranking of students — a key characteristic of the fixed mindset. dissonance = discord, inconsistency,
Nor is it unusual for schools to create a certain cognitive disagreement
dissonance, when they applaud the benefits of a growth applaud = cheer, acclaim, celebrate
mindset but then hand out fixed target grades in lessons based
on performance.
implementation = execution, application,

Aside from the implementation problem, the original growth implementation
mindset research has also received harsh criticism. The harsh = severe, strict, rigorous
criticism = censure, disapproval, reproach
statistician Andrew Gelman claims that ‘their research designs statistician = data analyst, number expert,
have enough degrees of freedom that they could take their data quantifier
to support just about any theory at all’. Professor of Psychology replicate = duplicate, copy, reproduce
Timothy Bates, who has been trying to replicate Dweck’s work, repeatedly = frequently, often, repeatedly
is finding that the results are repeatedly null. He notes that: intervention = the action of becoming involved in
a difficult situation, in order to improve it or prevent
‘People with a growth mindset don’t cope any better with failure it from getting worse
... Kids with the growth mindset aren’t getting better grades,
either before or after our intervention study.’
criticism = disapproval, censure, critique
deserve = merit, is worthy of, earn
Much of this criticism is not lost on Dweck, and she deserves credit = recognition, acknowledgment, praise
great credit for responding to it and adapting her work respond = react, answer, reply
accordingly. In fact, she argues that her work has been accordingly = consequently, therefore, hence
misunderstood and misapplied in a range of ways. She has misapply = wrongly apply, misuse, misemploy
also expressed concerns that her theories are being express = articulate, communicate, convey
misappropriate = misuse, mismanage, mishandle
misappropriated in schools by being conflated with the self- conflate = merge, blend, combine
esteem movement: ‘For me the growth mindset is a tool for self-esteem = self-worth, self-respect, self-regard
learning and improvement. It’s not just a vehicle for making vehicle = means, medium, method
children feel good.’
translate = convert, interpret, render
But there is another factor at work here. The failure to translate reflect = reveal, expose, indicate
the growth mindset into the classroom might reflect a intervention = action, measure, step
misunderstanding of the nature of teaching and learning itself. subtle = unclear, delicate, faint
adolescent = teenager, youth, young people
Growth mindset supporters David Yeager and Gregory Walton perceive = see, observe, sense
claim that interventions should be-delivered in a subtle way to conveying = expressing, communicating,
maximise their effectiveness. They say that if adolescents transmitting
perceive a teacher’s intervention as conveying that they are in intended = planned, designed, meant
need of help, this could undo its intended effects.
drive = motivate, propel, impel
A lot of what drives students is their innate beliefs and how they innate = inherent, inborn, natural
perceive themselves. There is a strong correlation between correlation = connection, relationship, association
self-perception and achievement, but there is evidence to self-perception = self-image, self-concept, self-
view
suggest that the actual effect of achievement on self-perception genuine = authentic, real, sincere
is stronger than the other way round. To stand up in a classroom vague = unclear, ambiguous, uncertain
and successfully deliver a good speech is a genuine motivation = drive, incentive, ambition
achievement, and that is likely to be more powerfully motivating
than vague notions of ‘motivation’ itself.
elixir = cure, solution
proponent = advocate, supporter
Recent evidence would suggest that growth mindset appear = seem, seem to be, give the impression
interventions are not the elixir of student learning that its viable = feasible, workable, practical
proponents claim it to be. The growth mindset appears to be a construct = concept, theory, idea
administer = apply, give, deliver
viable construct in the lab, which, when administered in the dispute = argue, debate, challenge
classroom via targeted interventions, doesn’t seem to work. It is paradoxically = unexpectedly, contrary to
hard to dispute that having faith in the capacity to change is a expectations, strangely
good attribute for students. Paradoxically, however, that aspiration = ambition, goal, aim
aspiration is not well served by direct interventions that try to instill= gradually but firmly establish (an idea or
attitude, especially a desirable one) in a person's
instill it. mind.
Motivational posters and talks are often a waste of time, and motivational = inspiring, encouraging, uplifting
might well give students a deluded notion of what success deluded = deceived, misled, mistaken
praise= compliment, applaud, acclaim
actually means. Teaching concrete skills such as how to write an unique = rare, exceptional, distinctive
effective introduction to an essay then praising students’ effort capable = talented, skilled, gifted
in getting there is probably a far better way of improving philosophy = belief system, ideology, doctrine
confidence than telling them how unique they are, or indeed
how capable they are of changing their own brains. Perhaps
growth mindset works best as a philosophy and not an
intervention.
READING PASSAGE 3
I ntroduction
reputation = standing, image, fame
rest with= depend on
This is a book about the life and scientific work of Alfred theory = hypothesis, concept, idea
Wegener, whose reputation today rests with his theory of continental = relating to a large mass of land
continental displacements, better known as ‘continental drift’. displacement = moving to another place,
movement, relocation, shifting
Wegener proposed this theory in 1912 and developed it drift= a continuous slow movement from one
extensively for nearly 20 years. His book on the subject, The place to another.
Origin of Continents and Oceans, went through four editions and propose = suggest, recommend, put forward
was the focus of an international controversy in his lifetime and extensively = widely, extensively, broadly
for some years after his death. controversy = dispute, disagreement,
contention
Wegener’s basic idea was that many mysteries about the mystery = enigma, puzzle, riddle
suppose = assume, presume, allege
Earth’s history could be solved if one supposed that the continent = landmass, landform, mainland
laterally = sideways, horizontally, side-to-side
continents moved laterally, rather than supposing that they
remained fixed in place. Wegener showed in great detail how
such continental movements were plausible and how they
plausible = believable, credible, reasonable
geology = earth science, geosciences, earth study
worked, using evidence from a large number of sciences geophysics = physics of the earth, earth physics,
geophysical science
including geology, geophysics, paleontology, and paleontology = study of fossils, fossil science,
fossil study
climatology. Wegener's idea — that the continents move —is at climatology = study of climate, climate science,
climatic study
the heart of the theory that guides Earth sciences today: namely plate tectonics = the study of how the surface of
the earth is formed, how the separate pieces of it
plate tectonics. Plate tectonics is in many respects quite move, and the effects of this movement
respect = aspect, facet, viewpoint
different from Wegener’s proposal, in the same way that proposal = suggestion, recommendation,
proposition
modern evolutionary theory is very different from the ideas evolutionary = relating to the way in which living
things develop over millions of years
Charles Darwin proposed in the 1850s about biological biological = relating to biology and living
organisms
evolution. Yet plate tectonics is a descendant of Alfred evolution = development, growth, progression
descendant = offspring, successor, heir
Wegener’s theory of continental drift, in quite the same way that theory = guess, assumption, hypothesis
natural selection= the process that results in the
modern evolutionary theory is a descendant of Darwin’s theory continued existence of only the types of animals
and plants that are best able to produce young or
of natural selection. new plants in the conditions in which they live
When I started writing about Wegener’s life and work, one of the intriguing = fascinating, captivating, interesting
come up with = create, invent, devise
most intriguing things about him for me was that, although he geologist = earth scientist, earth expert, rock
specialist
came up with a theory on continental drift, he was not a astronomer = space scientist, celestial expert,
stargazer
geologist. He trained as an astronomer and pursued a career pursue = chase, follow, seek
propose = suggest, recommend, put forward
in atmospheric physics. When he proposed the theory of continental = relating to a large mass of land
displacement = movement, relocation, shifting
continental displacements in 1912, he was a lecturer in
aloft = in the air, in flight, airborne
physics and astronomy at the University of Marburg, in southern publicize = promote, advertise, broadcast
expedition = journey, exploration, quest
Germany. However, he was not an ‘unknown’. In 1906 he had coast = the part of the land near the sea
name = reputation, renown, fame
set a world record (with his brother Kurt) for time aloft in a hot- meteorologist = weather expert, weather
scientist, climate specialist
air balloon: 52 hours. Between 1906 and 1908 he had taken part atmospheric = relating to the atmosphere,
atmospheric, climatic
in a highly publicized and extremely dangerous expedition to
the coast of northeast Greenland. He had also made a name for
himself amongst a small circle of meteorologists and
atmospheric physicists in Germany as the author of a textbook,
Thermodynamics of the Atmosphere (1911), and of a number of
interesting scientific papers.
As important as Wegener’s work on continental drift has turned turn out to be = become
out to be, it was largely a sideline to his interest in atmospheric
sideline = secondary activity, secondary job,
second job
physics, geophysics, and paleoclimatology, and thus I have paleoclimatology = study of past climates,
ancient climate study, paleoclimate research
been at great pains to put Wegener’s work on continental drift in pains = effort, diligence, care
atmospheric = relating to the atmosphere,
the larger context of his other scientific work, and in the even atmospheric, climatic
treatment = analysis, examination, exploration
larger context of atmospheric sciences in his lifetime. This is a devote = dedicate, commit, allocate
reception = response, reaction, feedback
‘continental drift book’ only to the extent that Wegener was controversial = debatable, disputed,
interested in that topic and later became famous for it. My contentious
treatment of his other scientific work is no less detailed, though I

certainly have devoted more attention to the reception of his
ideas on continental displacement, as they were much more
controversial than his other work.
Readers interested in the specific detail of Wegener’s career will pursue= to try to discover information about a
subject
see that he often stopped pursuing a given line of line= type, kind, area
investigation = inquiry, examination, research
investigation (sometimes for years on end), only to pick it up guidepost = marker, signpost, milestone
shifting = changing, moving, transitioning
later. I have tried to provide guideposts to his rapidly shifting characterize = describe, portray, define
reflect= show, demonstrate, describe
interests by characterizing different phases of his life as sufficient = enough, adequate, ample
urge = encourage, prompt, persuade
careers in different sciences, which is reflected in the titles of interruption = disruption, break, pause
the chapters. Thus, the index should be a sufficient guide for renew = restore, revive, rejuvenate
entail = involve, require, necessitate
those interested in a particular aspect of Wegener’s life but
perhaps not all of it. My own feeling, however, is that the parts
do not make as much sense on their own as do all of his
activities taken together. In this respect I urge readers to try to
experience Wegener's life as he lived it, with all the
interruptions, changes of mind, and renewed efforts this
entailed.
Wegener left behind a few published works but, as was standard

practice = application, implementation,
practice, these reported the results of his work — not the execution
journey he took to reach that point. Only a few hundred of the exception = exclusion, exemption, special case
many thousands of letters he wrote and received in his lifetime influence = impact, effect, sway
have survived and he didn’t keep notebooks or diaries that advance = progress, development,
recorded his life and activities. He was not active (with a few advancement
exceptions) in scientific societies, and did not seek to find
influence or advance his ideas through professional contacts
and politics, spending most of his time at home in his study
reading and writing, or in the field collecting observations. observation = monitoring, scrutiny, watching
extensive = widespread, comprehensive, vast

Some famous scientists, such as Newton, Darwin, and Einstein, mountains of = a great number of, many
speculation = conjecture, guess, assumption
left mountains of written material behind, hundreds of parallel = similar, analogous, corresponding
notebooks and letters numbering in the tens of thousands. biographer = author, writer, chronicler
Others, like Michael Faraday, left extensive journals of their accurate = precise, correct, exact
thoughts and speculations, parallel to their scientific take shape = form, develop, evolve
evolve = develop, grow, change
notebooks. The more such material a scientist leaves behind,
the better chance a biographer has of forming an accurate
picture of how a scientist's ideas took shape and evolved.
firmly = strongly, resolutely, decisively
I am firmly of the opinion that most of us, Wegener included, are apparent = clear, evident, obvious
retrospectively = in hindsight, looking back, in
not in any real sense the authors of our own lives. We plan, retrospect
think, and act, often with apparent freedom, but most of the time happenstance = coincidence, chance, fortuity
our lives ‘happen to us’, and we only retrospectively turn this coherent = logical, consistent, cohesive
happenstance into a coherent narrative of fulfilled intentions. narrative = story, account, tale
fulfilled = satisfied, accomplished, achieved
This book, therefore, is a story both of the life and scientific work intention = purpose, aim, objective
that Alfred Wegener planned and intended and of the life and intend = plan, design, mean
scientific work that actually ‘happened to him’. These are, as I
think you will soon see, not always the same thing.
* Paleoclimatology — The study of past climates

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CAMBRIDGE IELTS 18

BOOST YOUR VOCABULARY – CAMBRIDGE IELTS 18 1

approach = method, technique, strategy

I n Paris, urban farmers are trying a soil-free approach to

typically = usually, commonly, ordinarily

management= supervision, administration,

F orest Management In Pennsylvania, USA

solely= only, exclusively, purely

combustion= burning, igniting, firing, kindling

pests = an insect or small animal that is harmful

dense=: thick, compact, crowded

shard = a piece of broken metal, glass, or rock, typically

S atellites, rocket shards and collision debris are creating

working to reduce these threats

communications satellite called Cosmos-2251, creating

Concern about space junk goes back to the beginning of the

Even as our ability to monitor space objects increases, so too

In theory, given the vastness of space, satellite operators should

Corporation in El Segundo, California.

The field is called space traffic management, because it’s similar

F. authoritative catalog= an official and reliable list

developed. It draws on several sources, such as catalogs draw on = use something

environmentalist = conservationist, green

space community will continue devolving into a tragedy in which

archaeologist= a person who study and explore

F or centuries, historians and archaeologists have puzzled

As early as the 1970s, geologists have been adding their voices

shadowy = unclear, mysterious, ambiguous

** Celtic — The Celts were people who lived in Britain and

powerful = strong, potent, mighty

gatekeeper = guardian, overseer, monitor

L eonardo da Vinci's ideal city was centuries ahead of its time

from fading into insignificance, his thinking has carried down

be renowned as= be celebrated as, be famous for,

identify= discern, recognize, ascertain

feature= characteristic, attribute, trait

C oncrete is everywhere, but it’s bad for the planet,

F. vice-president = deputy, second-in-command,

H. promising = hopeful, potential, encouraging

T he successes and failures of the Doble brothers and their

B. glory = fame, honor, prestige

P icture this scene. It’s an English literature lesson in a UK

As a teacher myself, I’d think my lesson would be going rather

autonomous. If we accept this model, it follows that streaming

Having a variety of different abilities in a collaborative learning

buildings than in many parts of the world, which makes it easier

E. expertise = knowledge, skill, proficiency

The idea of the growth mindset is based on the work of

implementation = execution, application,

treatment of his other scientific work is no less detailed, though I

Wegener left behind a few published works but, as was standard

extensive = widespread, comprehensive, vast

* Paleoclimatology — The study of past climates

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