Environmental Issues

Before globalization, 2 traditional environmental concerns: conservation of natural resources

and damage caused by pollution- didn’t need to more than 1 state
Environmental problems like pollution and climate change- increased in intensity with glob.
(ecological footprint increased)- do not respect national boundaries- global problems that
need concerted multilateral efforts through global environmental gov.
Global climate politics- different political positions in intl. system playing out in the climate
change negotiations
Actors include States, media, civil soc., intl. org.s

Climate change- one of the central environmental issues in international politics- refers to the
shifting weather patterns, especially due to global warming induced by human activities-
threatening human security, food security, energy security and various life-forms on earth
Multifaceted problem affecting all sectors of human life: food production, water shortage,
rising sea level, heatwaves, heavy rain/flooding, hurricanes, etc. -> malnutrition, drought,
diseases, deaths
Failure to address CC would lead to disruption of socio-economic activity-> 20% decrease in
global GDP
Affects all parts of globe- but some areas affected more like Artic, Africa, low-lying islands
Climate change deniers, CC sceptics (who challenge link b/w global warming and human
activity) been proven wrong

Global Environmentalism
● Discourse on environmentalism got global attention following Rachel Carson’s work
‘The Silent Spring’ in 1962- damage done to environ. by pesticides
● 1970s- numerous environment-related incidents: mercury poisoning in Minamata,
hydrogen bomb testing, ozone depletion, global warming, etc.- brough environmental
issues to forefront- role of UN, environ. movt. highlighting cost of industrialization,
NGOs like Greenpeace- addresses 3 general problems: resource prob., sink prob.,
ethical prob. (eg. animal rights and welfare)
● UN Conference on the Environment (1972) in Stockholm- put protection of global
environment & sustainable dev. on intl. agenda- established UN Environment
Program
● Environ. pushed to bg b/c economic crisis 1973 and intensification of CW- revived in
mid-1980s by environ. catastrophes like Bhopal gas tragedy and Chernobyl +realisation
that environ. degradation associated w/ glob.- 1987 Brundtland Report coined
sustainable dev.
● 1990s- Climate change became focus
● Rift between industrialised global North countries and developing global South- latter
demanded the right to development

Approaches to Addressing Environmental Problems

Ecocentrism- environment is valued for its own sake- eg. conventions prohibiting destruction
of environment as warfare strategy and use of warfare means that cause damage to natural
environment
Anthropocentrism- environment valued for its benefits to humans- eg. UNFCCC says climate
system should be protected for present and future generations’ benefit

Major Themes in Global Environ. Debates

● Global Commons- refers to the shared earth resources like the atmosphere, oceans and
space- idea is that countries cannot indiscriminately pollute them- polluting countries are
to be held responsible for their contributions and should bear the burden to address the
problems
idea of the ‘tragedy of the commons’ - ‘global commons’ (sometimes seen as ‘common pool
resources’)- threats posed to these by overpopulation, pollution, resource depletion, habitat
destruction and over-fishing - exceeding the carrying capacity
● Development- developing countries and environmentalists argued that industrialised
nations responsible for majority of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere
But developed countries also demanded the active participation of major emerging
economies like India and China, citing that their national emission is high due to their
development projects- this demand was challenged by prominent environmentalists Anil
Agarwal and Sunita Narain, arguing that fairer to calculate national emissions on per
capita basis and not country-wise
● Climate Justice and Equity- Developing countries contributed less to climate change +
gap of wealth & technology between global North & South -> shouldn’t bear same
responsibilities- differentiated resp.
● Power Relations- role of power politics in the climate negotiation process- consent from
vulnerable states manufactured through adoption, co-option, and alignment of interests-
reflects how weaker states have to compromise during the negotiations
● Gender- gender gaps and absence of indigenous voices in conventions like UNFCCC
● Information- online advocacy by environmental org.s for climate justice- eg. 350.org &
Avaaz

Geo-engineering- tech to bring about man-made favourable climatic changes

Major International Agreements

First Climate Conference (1979) at Geneva- scientific discussion- led to creation of IPCC
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988- intergovernmental body
responsible for producing scientific reports on climate change
Second Climate Conference in 1990- more political in nature than the 1st as it envisioned
global climate treaty
1) Montreal Protocol (1987)- discovery of ozone hole -> MP to protect ozone layer-
monitors and controls CFCs’ use (+ led to rigorous research on environ. issues)
2) UN Convention to Combat Desertification (1994)- focuses on sustainable land
management- strives to prevent land degradation and improve condition of affected
ecosystems
3) Convention on Biological Diversity (1992)- UN Conference on Environment &
Development (UNCED) or the ‘Earth Summit’ held at Rio de Janeiro - legally binding
multilateral treaty for sustainable use & conservation of biodiversity and other natural
resources- regulatory framework which also outlined environmental impact assessment
as tools for biodiversity protection and preservation
4) UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992)- Earth Summit- lays down
guidelines for countries to meet their climate change commitments- principles of
Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC)-
but contains no legally binding targets
+ Conference of the Parties (COP) ultimate authority on matters of the convention-
COP meetings are conducted regularly to review progress and make relevant policies
i) Berlin Mandate (1995)- 1st COP meeting- proposed legally binding targets and
timetables for Green House Gas emission cuts- directed towards developed countries
ii) Kyoto Protocol (1997)- legally binding emission cuts for the developed countries as
proposed in Berlin mandate- principles of CBDR-RC: divided climate
responsibilities b/w industrialised developed countries & developing countries,
without binding targets for developing countries
Clean Development Mechanism, Joint Implementation, Carbon Credits
system/emission trading (private and public entities from developed countries can
fund renewable projects in developing countries to meet their emission targets)
iii) Copenhagen Accord (2009)- climate diplomacy started taking different trajectory:
accord not legally binding- voluntary commitments to emission cuts by countries-
met with oppn. from developing countries for diluting principles of equity & CBDR
Not able to endorse continuation of Kyoto Protocol- but greater commitment made
for financial assistance for developing countries by developed ones
iv) Paris Agreement (2015)- voluntary contributions concept firmly laid down-
countries decide own carbon reduction targets (no CBDR principle)- historic:
developing countries also made voluntary commitments along with developed ones

Architecture of Intl. Agreements

● Commitments to Mitigation- general commitments in Paris agreement (applies to all
parties)- but Kyoto Protocol contains differentiated commitments/ responsibilities for
different categories of countries
● Adaptation- Bali Action Plan 2007- adaptation policy as pillar for climate action- not
just mitigation- eg. relocation of settlements from coastal zones & improved sea walls
● Technical and Financial Assistance- imp. for mitigation and adaptation
 Concrete steps towards technology transfer recent- Cancun Agreement created
Technology Mechanism recommending developed countries to transfer or facilitate
access to green technologies
Finance- UNFCCC requires certain developed countries to provide financial
assistance to developing countries (but doesn’t specify amount or have mandatory
assessment) Copenhagen meeting- decided to establish Green Climate Fund (GCF)-
incorporated into Cancun Agreement- developed countries agreed to mobilise
US$100 billion per year by 2020
● Emission Trading- Kyoto Protocol- provisions finalised in 2001 Marrakesh Accords-
market approach to environmental regulation- developed countries can fund projects
in developing countries to generate “certified emission reductions” to meet their
targets
● Reporting and International Review- Under UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol,
provision requiring states to submit their annual Green House Gas national
inventories- transparency & progress tracking
● Compliance system- degree of forcefulness varies- eg. UNFCCC attempts to
facilitate rather than coerce states in their climate actions- but Kyoto Protocol has
strong compliance system (Compliance Committee with 2 branches: facilitative
branch & enforcement branch)

Effective International Action Hampered by:

1. Conflict between the collective good and national interests
2. Tensions between developed and developing states
3. Economic obstacles- biases within capitalism in favour of growth
4. Ideological obstacles- deeply-rooted ethic of materialism and consumerism

Other Issues
Resource security/ energy security -> resource wars – resource curse
Link b/w resources and global power can be seen in the emergence of a new international
energy order- state’s ranking in the hierarchy of states no longer measured by conventional
economic and military capabilities, but by the vastness of its oil and gas reserves and its
ability to mobilize other sources of wealth in order to purchase (or otherwise acquire) the
resources of energy-rich countries
 Human Security
Trad. sec. meant protection of state’s sov. & territorial integrity from ext. military threats- natl.
sec. during CW era
1970s & 80s- academia began to view sec. in broader, non-military terms- but state remained
entity to be protected
Human sec.- challenges state-centric notion of sec.- focuses on indiv. as object of sec.- dangers
to human safety and survival posed by poverty, disease, human rights abuse, armed conflict,
etc.- reqd. in era of glob.

Definition
Foundation laid by dev. economists like Mahbub ul Haq (‘human sec demands more resources
for dev & fewer for arms’) and intl. commissions like Palme Comm.

Origin in UNDP’s Human Dev. Report 1994- defined scope to include 7 areas:
• Eco. sec.- assured basic income- through work or govt. safety net
• Food sec.- physical and eco. access to basic food
• Health sec.- min. protection from diseases
• Environ. sec.- protection from natural & man-made environ. threats and deterioration
of environ.
• Pers. sec.- protection from all kinds of phys. Violence
• Comm. sec.- protection from loss of trad. r/s & values and from ethnic/sectarian
violence
• Pol. sec.- ensuring basic HR, freedoms, etc.

3 elements of HS: 1) focus on indiv. as object of sec.

2) multidimensional nature- broaden notion of sec to include non-military threats
3) global scope- applies to all nations/soc.s

Influenced by 4 dev.s which natl. sec. could not account for:

1) rejection of eco. growth as main dev. indicator + rise of human dev. concept
2) rising intra-state conflicts over cultural, ethnic and religious diff.s
3) emphasis on HR and humanitarian intervention post CW
4) trans-natl. crises caused by glob. like spread of terrorism and pandemics

Debates about HS
I. ADVOCATES VS. SCEPTICS
Criticized:
1) Too broad/vague to be analytically useful or to serve as basis for policy-making- dk
what to study or prioritize in case of competing policy goals
 2) Unattainable and unrealistic- creates false expectations about assistance in victims of
violence which intl. comm. can’t deliver
3) Ignores role of state as provider of sec. to ppl.
HS advocates never totally discounted imp. of state as guarantor of HS or claimed that
human and natl. sec. contradict- but in some countries, HS threatened by govt. actions
itself- therefore, state can’t be regarded as sole protector of HS

II. SCOPE OF HS (debate among advocates)

HS as freedom from fear vs HS as freedom from want
• Freedom from fear- protecting ppl from violent conflicts- measure like intl.
humanitarian law & ban on landmines
• Freedom from want- broader notion- reducing threats to ppl’s well-being like poverty
But both sides agree that HS about indiv.s rather than states and requires going beyond natl.
sec. + inter-related (freedom from fear can’t exist w/o freedom from want and vice-versa)

Dimensions/Threats
Decrease in armed conflict and number of deaths per conflict post CW- b/c of rising eco.
interdependence, democratization, intl. inst.s (esp. UN’s role), intl. norms against violence, end
of colonialism, end of CW
In recent years, increase in armed conflicts- related to war on terror Islamist pol. violence,
sectarian conflicts, etc.- horrific costs of these conflicts: deaths, displacement, civilian
casualties (part. children, women, elderly & sick), sexual violence against women, use of child
soldiers and landmines + indirect consequences on well-being: eco. disruption, disease,
malnutrition, ecological destruction -> vicious cycle of conflict and underdev.

Conversely, poverty and environ. degradation contribute to conflict

• Terrorists exploit poverty and exclusion to tap into popular discontent
Orissa- poverty, deprivation & lack of eco. opportunity triggered insurgency
Freedom from fear and want inextricably linked
• Environ. degradation and climate change -> competition for scarce resources
Darfur- desertification & low rainfall -> exacerbated inter-communal conflict over
scarce resources & land

Climate change- HS concern in itself- linked to increased poverty, state failure, food shortages,
water crisis, disease, etc.

Women & HS
R/s has multiple dimensions- 5 main aspects:
1) violence against women
2) gender ineq. in control over resources
 3) gender ineq. in power & decision-making
4) women’s HR
5) women as actors, not victims

Conflicts- women as victims of rape, increase in domestic violence, trafficking to become

forced labourers or sex workers, women comprise large % of refugees and IDPs
Role of women as actors in conflicts- participate in combat + support functions like logistics,
staff & intelligence services in conflict
Need to secure greater participation of women in intl. peace operations- gender mainstreaming
in peacekeeping operations and conflict reso. negotiations beneficial

Promoting HS
Multilateral actions like Anti-Personnel Landmines Treaty- bans landmines and obliges
signatories to destroy existing stockpiles
Establishment of War Crome Tribunals & ICC- trials for serious crimes of intl. concern like
genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, etc.

UN peacekeeping & peacebuilding operations contributed to decline in conflict: peacekeeping

forces + UN Peacebuilding Commission (assists in post-conflict recovery & reconstr.,
including institution-building and sustainable dev.)
UN humanitarian interventions
UN Specialized Agencies- crucial role in promoting HS- eg. UNDP & WHO at forefront of
fighting poverty and disease resp.

NGOs- provide early warning about conflicts, relief channels, support to govt. or UN missions
+ promote sustainable dev.- eg. Intl. Committee of Red Cross

Canada and Japan made HS major part of FP- but freedom from fear and freedom from want
conception resp.

But challenges to HS promotion: 1) HS not replaced natl. sec.- countries still spend more
money on latter
2) Ethnic separatist movt.s (which result from ppl’s rejection of colonial-imposed state
boundaries)- state responses accompanied by violations of HS by govt.s
3) Authoritarian rule in countries like China hinders HS
4) War on Terror revived trad. emphasis on natl. sec. + used to restrict/violate civil lib.s
 Nuclear Proliferation-Unit 3
(Sheena Chesnut Greitens+sol)
● The US use of nuclear wmd on 2 japanese cities was the first and only proper use of such
weapons.
● Although the number of wmd have decreased since the cold war with only nine nuclear
states, debates surrounding it(certain nuclear disarmament programs, use of nuclear
energy by non state actors etc.)
● There are several lines of debates regarding nuclear weapons-1. Regarding Nuclear
Proliferation, 2. The state’s motivation regarding different behaviours surrounding nw,
3.The effect nw has on the peace and conflict of the international systen.
WMD tech and its spread
● The spread of the technology which was used in manufacture and use of WMD spread
much faster than the weapons.
● By 1965, the nuclear states(recognised under Nuclear Non Proliferation Treaty-1968)
were the US,Soviet Union(russia),France,China,UK, and were the 5 permanent members
of UNSC.
● By early 2020s 9 countries are known to have nuclear weapons, India,Pakistan,North
Korea and Israel being the other 4. Other countries have possessed or inherited nw
arsenals but relinquished them.
● Similarly many states that had developed Chemical weapon arsenals chose to destroy
them after the Chemical Weapons Convention in 1997.

Evolving views on nuclear weapons since 1945.

● During the cold war,the superpowers built large nuclear arsenals with wide ranging yields
and multiple delivery vehicles.
● Some were smaller and used to target in the battlefield using artillery, aircraft or cruise
missiles.
● Others were larger for higher ranging yields launched by land based intercontinental
ballistic missiles.(icbm) or submarine launched ballistic missiles(slbm),there was also a
weapon in which a single missile had multiple heads and could attack multiple targets.
● Nuclear weapons in the cold war were used for the obvious aim of Nuclear Deterrence, to
ensure avoidance of a direct war between the two superpowers.
● There is a huge body of literature on ‘Nuclear Deterrence’ which talks about how
‘nuclear weapons can be used to prevent an opponent from taking an undesirable action.’
● The idea behind this was that even a small risk of a conventional attack might be
reciprocated by the opponent with a nuclear attack,leading to huge acceleration.
● Additionally US and Nato feared that the Soviet Union would use its advanced army to
invade west.Europe, and relied on the belief that an apprehension of nuclear retaliation
was preventing it from doing so.
● To deter the Soviet, USA used 2 nuclear targeting strategies: Counterforce strategy and
countervalue strategy.
● In Counterforce strategy, by nuclear weapons they targeted Soviet nuclear and
conventional military assets.
 ● In Countervalue strategy the assets threatened with nuclear weapons were of social and
industrial value, hence targeting cities with large populations.
● The US might also have used the strategy of extended deterrence, where the threat of a
nuclear attack was aimed to deter attacks on its allies.

● This strategy leads to a dilemma which extended deterrence faces. Would the US use its
nuclear weapons after its allies suffer attack,thus making itself vulnerable to further
nuclear attacks? Would it sacrifice New York for Paris?
● As more regional powers acquired nuclear weapons,they devlp. arsenals and aimed to use
them if diff ways.
● Nuclear postures of 3 kinds were identified by Vipin Narang based on how decision
makers aimed to use them; these varied in terms of capabilities,transparency and control
arrangements. Diff postures have diff effects on deterrence success.
1. Catalytic- used by Israel. It aims to catalyze the capability of an outside 3rd party in the event of
a severe crisis. This state does not have enough weapons for surviving a military attack and their
capabilities are non transparent. This posture is not successful in deterrence against nuclear or non
nuclear opponents.
2. Assured retaliation- used by China and India. It assures retaliation using survivable weapons in
a transparent way to deter nuclear attack. The success of this position depends on the intensity of
attack and weapons possessed by the attacker.
3. Asymmetric Escalation- used by France or Pakistan. It involves deter by retaliation of
conventional attack with escalation by using nuclear weapons against the attacker. It thus often
uses the first use of nuclear weapons. It is usually most effective in deterrence but it runs the risk
of accidental use, command and control issues etc.
● With globalization there has been an increase in concerns about carbon emissions, which
raises challenges about international security.

Environment and Human Concerns

● Fissile material is emitted during production of nuclear energy and limiting nuclear
weapons becomes essential to limit this emission.
● The International Atomic Energy Agency is responsible for ensuring fissile material does
not get directed from nuclear power plants to nuclear weapons by countries who have
signed NPT.
● Countries can choose to leave NPT like North Korea did and become an independent
nuclear weapons state.
● There is a lot of monitoring which occurs at the level of NPT which has repercussions on
international negotiations. Eg-Iran’s nuclear centres functioning were questioned as their
attempt to produce nuclear weapons.
● The use of nuclear energy is complex and often nuclear accidents occur which harm
humans and the environment.
● Eg- March 2002 earthquake and tsunami in Japan which lead to meltdown of 3 nuclear
reactors in Fukushima
● The global anti nuclear movement which has organisations like Greenpeace, points at
such incidents to encourage nuclear disarmament.
 ● There are other risks such as radioactive contamination or loss of nuclear warhead, which
the US terms as ‘Broken Arrow’ incidents to refer to those accidents of nweapons which
cause issues beyond nuclear war.

Theoretical debates about nuclear proliferation

Definitions
●Many states have recently after acquiring nuclear weapons, have not developed massive
nuclear arsenals which raised questions about the nature of these weapons and what is
nuclear proliferation?
● The first issue is of nuclear opacity, pursued by Israel. Israel has not confirmed that it has
developed a nuclear arsenal, and has not signed the NPT and has not conducted a
full,overt nuclear test. It has asserted that it will not be the first in the Middle East to
introduce nuclear weapons.
● This approach is called ‘nuclear ambiguity' or locally as ‘the bomb in the basement’.
● The second issue is that of latent capacity. This issue arises as there is a very limited gap
between nuclear latency and actual nuclear weapons proliferation. Understanding a
country’s intent is very essential when it comes to the international community’s
evaluation and reaction to a country’s nuclear activities.
● This latent capacity is an issue even in chemical and bio. weapons, as many nations have
infrastructure and technical capacity to create weapons.
Motivation and behaviour
● Early scholars opined that nuclear weapons were used for their capability to fight and win
wars. eg-US attack on Japan,1945
● However, eventually they began to be used for more strategic issues like deterrence.
● This led to a technological determinism that all states having the ability to develop
nuclear weapons would do so for security benefits.

Why do states build nuclear weapons?

● Security-states: build nuclear weapons to increase national security against foreign
threats.
● Domestic Politics: they build nw to advance domestic and bureaucratic interests. Leaders
may want inward pol and economic platform than pursuing growth at a global level.
● Norms: they build nw because of their beliefs that nw acquisition is good or bad. It may
serve the bureaucracies or military.
● Leader psychology: they build nw because of the leader’s particular conception of nw as
being imp/desirable for the nation's identity.
● Political economy: they build nw for pol economy. Whether or not it is integrated
globally. It creates incentives for proliferation or retrain.
● Strategic culture: gives them ideas about the value of nw acquisition or use.

● Paradoxically even after all these reasons for acquiring states have not used them since
1945.
● Other than deterrence, some scholars have used the reason for the nuclear taboo against
the use of nw.
 ● Buzan and herring have called this a strategic cultural prohibition. Eg-US has not used
nw due to this taboo.
● Many states have also given up their nw and joined the NPT. Eg- After cold war
Kazakhstan,Belarus and Ukraine had inherited the USSR nw, gave them up and signed
NPT.(change in int security env after cold war)
● Despite the efforts towards prevention of nuclear proliferation, many countries have
provided other nations with nw knowledge,material and technology. This is done often in
the hope of foreign policy goal achievement or to deter a more powerful enemy.
● Scholars disagree overall the nuclear energy programme affects their ability to acquire
nw.

Chemical and biological weapons

● Chemical and biological chemicals also give rise to significant threats.
● They can be spread through water, air,contact with human skin and can quickly injure and kill
people.
● eg-Saddam Hussain used cw on Kurdish travellers in Iraq.
● The chemicals used in chemical weapons are widely available making arms control
difficult(chlorine for eg can be used for both), however the arms control is relatively.
● 193 states are a part of Chemical weapons convention which aims towards destruction of cw
worldwide,assists states with defence against cw and help chemical industries to prevent new cw
from emerging the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons(OPCW)
● Even though the majority of the CW stocks have decreased, challenges remain.
● Countries like Nkorea and Egypt refuse to sign it.
● Syria uses cw in its civil wars.

● Biological weapons use bacteria,bacterial toxins and viruses to kill people, throughout history.
● Although there is a Biological and Toxins Weapons Convention(BTWC) its monitoring and
control is difficult as they can be hidden in health research centres or pharmacies.
● The US govt commission in 2007, said that it gives most of its attention to nuclear disarmament
and some should be given to bioterrorism control.

Effects of Nuclear weapons

● Existential Deterrence is the concept that the possession of a single nuclear warhead
was enough to deter conflict, because no nation would want to risk provocation at the risk
of huge harm.
● Countries possessing nuclear weapons are more likely to be engaged in low level
conflict,which are not likely to escalate and they are more likely to get their preferred
outcomes from their non nuclear opponents.
● Kenneth Waltz gave the idea of a kind of nuclear optimism, which deals with an overall
positive view about how the nuclearization of the world will lead to decrease of war
likelihood and initiation.
● Scott Sagan’s idea was of nuclear pessimism-more maybe worse. Military organisations
may display biases,parochial interests and rigid routines which might cause breakdown of
n deterrence. The risk of n accidents and conflicts makes it undesirable. Also states with
 weak civilian pop as compared to military might lead to aggressive and controlling
military.
● Nuclear weapons create a stability instability paradox. Which means nuclear states get
into low level conflicts(and not major ones) without being worried about large scale
retaliation attacks.Eg- Putin may have used nuclear escalation to deter US to stop Ukraine
invasion.
● Are Effects of deterrence same in all countries? Recent nuclear nations respond more
frequently to military challenges than older nuclear states.
Non Proliferation Efforts
● Efforts have been put to limit horizontal proliferation or spread of nw to new countries
and vertical proliferation or increase in n. arsenal size.
● Some nations have taken complete and universal nuclear disarmament, others have taken
up limitation of nw and some have taken a counter proliferation approach by trying to
interrupt nuclear weapon acquisition

Non-prol,disarmament,arms control during the cold war.

● Efforts of non-prol. Accelerated after the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis brought the
superpowers close to a nuclear war.
● In 1963 UK,US,USSR signed the Partial Ban Treaty in 1963 which allowed them to
conduct nuclear tests underground and not in the atmosphere, outer space or underwater.
● France and China refused to sign this as they thought these efforts only advantaged those
who possessed nw.
● In the late 1970s, all the nuclear states issued negative security assurances about use of
nw against non nuclear opponents.
● These varied- eg- China claimed to not use nuclear weapons first on nuclear states, US
stated that it would not use nw against states that signed NPT.
● The Tlatelolco treaty in Latin America created the first nuclear weapon free zone.
● Central to nuclear non prol was NPT Treaty in 1968 when it was signed, came into force
1970.
● Acc to it only 5 permanent UNSC members could possess nw and all other countries
signing it agreed to forgo nuc.arsenal devlp in exchange for peaceful nuclear technology
and the 5 states to move towards eliminating nuc weapons.
● Ambassador Thomas Graham describes it as a bargain based on 3 pillars for NPT-
non-proliferation,eventual disarmament, and peaceful use of nuclear energy.
● In the words of Indian foreign minister NPT was meant to establish ‘nuclear apartheid’,
by treating the rest of the world as second class citizens and giving a small group
immense and exclusive power.
● Eventually the superpowers started thinking of nuclear disarmament. This lead for them
to sign the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I,1972) in which US and USSR
discussed terms for reduction and SALT II-1979, in this they aimed to stop acquiring
new nw and Intermediate Nuclear Force Agreement-1987( aiming at elimination of
intermediate and short range missiles.)
● They aimed at limiting ballistic missile defences(BMD) and nuclear armed missiles.
After cold war
● The end of the cold war gave the US and Russia the opportunity to revisit arms control.
● They signed the Strategic Arms Control Treaty(START I-1991) which reduced and not
just limited the number of warheads and delivery vehicles.
● START II was signed in 1993 and banned MIRVs and ICBMs.
● These efforts slowed down in 2000s.
● The US withdrew from Anti Ballistic Missile Treaty to pursue BM defence.
● Russia withdrew from START II.
● Obama cancelled some missile defence and continued with others. He conducted sea
based BMD to protect European allies against Iranian missiles.
● However the 2002 Strategic Offensive Reduction Treaty-SORT, reduced n. Stocks.
● In 1995 there was an NPT review conference, to review the terms and conditions of NPT
which was extended indefinitely.
● It highlighted issues of NPT enactment by reiterating the India,Israel,Pakistan has not
signed NPT,n Korea withdrew in 2003. Secondly the enforcement provisions have been
weak and more agreements are necessary to get NPT signed by nations like Iran and
Korea. Thirdly, NPT freezes status quo privileges.
● The comprehensive Test Ban Treaty was signed after objections and implementation
problems of similar kind.
● It has to be signed by the 5 UNSC members, the nuclear states not recognised by NPT
totalling to 44 nations to come into force.
● Some critics feel that the treaty was not verifiable and others feel not being able to
conduct nuclear tests would compromise the security of these nations.
● Many of the nations conducted their nuclear tests when CTBT was opened or signature,
which indicates there is no sign of it coming into force.
● The Fissile Material Cut Off Treaty saw similar problems. Most nuclear states saw it as a
way to stop the spread of nuclear weapons and non nuclear weapon states saw it as an
attempt to stop vert. prol.
● India wanted to retain its nuclear option and was against FMCT.
New Approaches
● One of the approaches is counter proliferation, which aims to slow or roll back efforts of
the state to roll back and slow down programmes of states that are pursuing nuclear

weapons.
Global terrorism and its impacts

● Terrorism involves terror because of a political motive by using it as a method.

● Terror involves essentially indiscriminate target of civilians or non combatant or symbolic
targets and are not inadvertent, to spread a fear in society
● One man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter
● Used to non state actors on state actors in an asymmetrical warfare
● State can support terrorism as well.eg-south africa
● Realists opine that use of violence by terrorists is illegitimate as such violence is only
legitimate for the state.
● Terrorists groups Global Terrorism and its impacts have different motives- some hope
that the extent of their violence will portray them to be more powerful than their opponent
through media coverage.eg-mumbai 2008 attacks. Others hope that the disproportionate
state reactions will turn citizens against the state.
● Transnational terrorism increased post 1970s as a result of 3 factors-increase of air
travel,availability of televised coverage and broad ideological alignment globally.
● Air travel-skyjackings or hijacking aeroplanes. They provided mobility and thus security
to terrorists
● Terrorists had to compete for coverage in the media and viewer interest and undertook
spectacular acts.
● During the 1990s Marxist Leninist transnational terr. groups were decreasing and Islamic
fundamentalists increasing

Types of terrorist groups

Terrorism: impact of globalisation
● Violent islamic extremism drew global recognition after the ‘New Base’ in september 11
2001 of washington and new york.
● The exact meaning of violent islamic extremism continues to be in contestation.
 ● Even though Al qaeda and islamic state seem to have lost their influence, there has
been a rise of other extremist groups on the ideology of Islamic extremism , however
they are not identified by a single leader or group,instead they exist as a loose network
of franchised groups.
● Other scholars point out that too much focus on islamic extremist overlooks other types
of extremism like right wing for eg.
● Despite contestations on the issue islamic extremism constitutes both dynamically
heterogeneous radicalised individuals and terrorist groups.
● To explain terrorism and islamic extremism we need to understand cultural,eco and
religious explanations.
Cultural explanation
● A reason why violent islamic extr. Has been successful in the underdeveloped countries
might be because many see the use of violence as the last resort left to preserve their
cultural identity against cultural tsunami of the west.
● After being introduced to Western secularism and materialism, many sections of the
population perceive a threat to their traditions.
● Free market capitalism with globalisation and other trends led to insecurity among
groups who recognised themselves as the losers of globalisation.
● Thus in an attempt to safeguard their identity,these groups distinguish themselves from
the despised ‘others’. This leads to cultural friction at the regional level.
● Samuel Huntington said that there exists limited civilisations globally. The islamic
civilisation feels insecure of the Western civilisation because of its military presence in
the Gulf.
● Critics of Huntington argue that this idea oversimplifies the issue.
● They claim that Islam has many internal conflicts like that of the Shias and Sunnis which
prevent them from coordinating against the west.
● Radicals in islam aim to kill those who are infidels,non-believers which include other
religions as well as muslims who do not follow their interpretation of Kuran.
● Bin Laden gave Abu musab Zarqawi instructions to kill all Shias in Iraq.
● It raised questions about the legitimacy of the self-proclaimed guardians of islam.
● Their radical ideas affect other muslims and not just westerners.
Economic explanations
● Although globalisation access to the world market has led to capitalism and western
economic imperialism.
● The countries in the global north or post industrial ones i.e. core countries control the
global economy in the sense that they control bodies like world bank, set rates of
exchange and fiscal policies.
● The actions of the core nations are harmful for the global south or peripheral nations.
● The decision of the leaders in the global south to privatise industries and compete in the
global market was not often met with positive reactions due to social and economic
upheaval from the nations, who often turned to terrorism and illegal activities.
● Such activities include using dark web, global shadow economies or system D and using
alt currencies like bitcoin.
 ● Ted Gurr theorised that with rising living standards and accessible education which
comes with globalisation, people often cannot realise these standards which they have
expectations about, leading to them turning to extreme political views.
● Alienation and isolation often are found to be reasons in joining e.groups.
● However, its also noted that these groups have individuals who are graduates, from
backgrounds like engineering and are not poverty stricken.
● Revolutionary Franz Fanon suggested that this violence aimed to right economic
wrongs.
● Terrorism was aimed towards inequalities in global economy
● Eg-9/11 attacks were not towards US policies per say but a blow to an icon of global
capitalism.
● Neo nazis,far left groups are evidence of why globalisation causes extremism.

Religion and ‘new terrorism’

● Postmodern or new terrorism rose due to reasons like promising people about the
afterlife in return for killing non-believers.
● This new terrorism often linked to global jihad was viewed as a reaction of muslims
against oppression of the West and their spiritual emptiness.
● Islamic country leaders like that of pakistan and saudi arabia were considered to be
traitors of islam as they succumbed to secular views acc to extremists.
● Most islamic scholars viewed jihad as an internal struggle for spiritual purity extremists
like Baghdad saw it as a mission to punish those traitors of islam and non muslims.
● Al zawahiri and Baghdad might have died but such ideas remain.
● There thus arises a difference between secular and religious terrorists.
● Secular terrorists aim to stay within the system and fix its flaws, while religious terrorists
are ready to kill themselves to punish infidels and obtain their ultimate aim. This extreme
stance makes it difficult for the state to offer them material things
● Their ultimate aim is to overturn the existing government and bring in Islamic state
governed by Sharia.
● The personal motivation for terrorism varies(achieving fame, revenge,rewards to
family)Religious leaders although don't martyr themselves claiming to have divine
sanction for committing certain acts.

Globalisation,technology,terrorism
Technology helped increase terrorism.
1) Coordination
● Technologies associated with globalisation have helped terrorist groups to coordinate in
diff countries.
● Simultaneous bombings in Kenya and Tanzania by the US.
● Technologies like Handheld radios and phones have allowed them to communicate from
distances
● Global System for mobile Communication standard ensured that anywhere gsm network
was established phones will work.
● The 9/11 hijackers used cheap pre-paid phone calls-were readily available.
● In the 2008 Mumbai attacks, terrorists kept contact with leaders in Pakistan with mobile
phones.
● Twitter,instagram,emails also allow sending messages.
● There are online forums and discussion groups that also help in coordination.
● Islamic State was producing many propaganda items including YT videos everyday.
● Phrase used by activists ‘think globally, act locally.’ Thus is embodied by these groups.

2) Security
● Terrorist groups without security measures are vulnerable to being discovered.
● For example-Al Qaeda manuals had surveillance and counter surveillance techniques,
thus it was of immense imp to them.
● Technological progress in globalisation help the TG from having security measures like
encrypted communication, easy mobility etc.
● Terrorist groups use encryption software like 128 encryption which is time consuming
and difficult to crack, protecting their identities.
● They restrict access to hardware like mobiles and computers, providing access to only
select people.
● They also use anonymity tools like VPN that protect their identities online
● They use chat rooms and content sharing platforms like Uploadfiles.
3) Mobility
● The reduced size of personal electronics gave terrorists advantages of mobility.
● Globalisation has increased the volume of air travel, facilitating movement for them, thus
allowing them to move within and across borders.
● The use of international air travel by terrorists has been noticed.
● Carlos the Jackal for eg fled arrest via air.
● The volume of goods transported due to globalisation is increasing and it is difficult to
monitor everything, and westerners fear terrorists will use containers to transport WMD.
4) Lethality
● Counter terrorism experts are concerned about the use of WMD in the future.
● In the transnational era, terrorists could obtain and use more WMD but they did not use
them for more lethal attacks.
● The exact reason is unknown but experts feel terrorist groups did this to avoid attracting
greater efforts by the state to eradicate them.
● However many terrorist groups have indicated inclination towards its usage as well.
● Virtual jihad academy-in which information regarding ambushing and creating weapons
is taught.
● Islamic state has been dropping bombs on defence officials since 1950s raising
concerns about lethality.
Post 9/11 Developments
● The magnitude of terrorist attacks had not been felt internationally before.
● It caused destruction and loss of lives in the US
● 9/11 was a series of suicide attacks by a radical fundamentalist group Al Qaeda on the
Twin towers, Pentagon in the US.
● The Bush administration expressed the aim of weeding out terrorism from the Axis of
Evil(Iran,Iraq,Saudi Arabia) as well as Afghanistan
● The Bush administration expressed the aim of using WMD to prosecute the potential
threats.
● Post 9/11 there was an expansion of terror attacks with a large network and spread of
activities.
● These terror attacks which had media coverage, terrorised the entire world.
● Bali bombings of 2002 and London Tube bombings of 2005 occurred because of this
influence.
● The delay of the UN to come up with a ‘Comprehensive Convention on Terrorism’ and
difficulty to come up with a definition of ‘Jihad Terrorism’ became a reason for more fear
regarding the issue.
● Many groups began to align themselves under the umbrella of Al Qaeda and adopt their
ideology in targeting common enemies.
● Lakshar E taiba, The Mumbai attacks of 2008 were ideologically similar to Al Qaeda.
● LET hideout in Pakistan was a breeding ground for these activities, however it remained
an ally of the US in the global war on terrorism.
● Bush declared the Global war on terror and invaded Afghanistan and deposed Saddam
Hussain on the suspicion that they possessed WMD. In Iraq, however, the US had to
withdraw its troops but US interventions in these countries remained.
● The US took over the role of ‘world policeman’.
● Even after the killing of Bin Laden, the threat of international terrorism remained.
Post 9/11 and threats
● Post 9/11 the pattern of attacks have changed with most attacks on civilians
● Today hijacking has been replaced by suicide bombers and IEDs.
● Cyberspace,online communication GPS has become more pronounced.
● This has led to disruption of economic activity and foreign investment.
● Post 9/11 there has been a rise in use of social media and online messaging tools.
● Use of a variety of methods like suicide bombers, vehicle borne explosive devices have
been used.
● The extreme response by the US like racial profiling, drone attacks on civilians has in
fact increased terrorism due to a feeling of injustice.
Global response to 9/11
● This event caused a shift in the perception of terrorism with a stronger sense of
condemnation
● Counter terrorism activities post 9/11- operation enduring freedom:the US military
invasion in Afghanistan to overturn the Taliban regime.
● Counter terror legislation: The Patriot Act ,Homeland Security Act in the US.
 ● Counter terror Institutions- UN Counter Terrorism Committee,Counter Terrorism
Implementation task Force etc were formed.
● Policing cyberspace.

How to combat terrorism?

● During the cold war the nations affected by transnational terrorism introduced anti
terrorism laws, implemented security measures at airports and counter terrorism units in
West Germany.
● National counter terrorism forces proved the countries could respond to terrorism abroad
and nationally. Eg-prince gate in London.
● Multilateral approaches by international organisations and conventions were limited but
they existed from the side of the Un and aviation organisations However unilateral and
national approaches against terrorism have been effective.
● Different countries view this problem differently, some viewing islamic terrorism as
unsolvable.
● However the best way to combat it is by pooling together resources of the countries and
creating a coalition of the willing.
● A global counter terrorism network to detect, track and eliminate terrorist forces by non
military efforts by both global north and south.
● One example of using technology to weed out terrorism is the use of drones to gather
videos and send them to operation centres without military force. The general reaction
towards this is considered helpful but some also see it as extrajudicial and targeting.
● Many leaders also do not agree with the idea of ‘war on terror’. To combat violence with
military state violence is not wise and it should be dealt with by law enforcement while
preserving democratic principles and upholding martial law.
● A war on terror runs the risk of turning into an Orwellian state and robs people of their
privacy.
● Despite these opinions the most difficult and tedious task is the locating of terrorists.
● Use of AI to analyse data and predict behaviour
● Although the ethical aspects of targeting terrorists caused protests among google
employees.
● Therefore using force is of no benefit and will breed more extremism that occurs against
the guise of spiritual enlightenment and education.

Benny barber -Mcworld vs Jihad

● Mcworld was spread by globalisation of western ideas of free market,fast food
chain(mcdonaldization of the world)
● Jihad is the cultural and economic backlash against Mcworld.
● Both terms are metaphoric, interconnected and a threat to democracy.
● Jihad hindered global cooperation and breeds violence,religious extremism
● Mcworld lead to consolidation of media, too much power in the hands of MNCs
● Barber said the emergence of global terrorism is due to Mcworld ,capitalism had its
losers(global south) who became isolated from certain benefits.