Scaling Laws in Dynamical Systems

Nonlinear Physical Science Edson

Denis Leonel
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Nonlinear Physical Science

Edson Denis Leonel

Scaling Laws
in Dynamical
Systems
Nonlinear Physical Science

Series Editors
Albert C. J. Luo , Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering,
Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, Edwardsville, IL, USA
Dimitri Volchenkov , Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Texas Tech
University, Lubbock, TX, USA

Advisory Editors
Eugenio Aulisa , Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Texas Tech
University, Lubbock, TX, USA
Jan Awrejcewicz , Department of Automation, Biomechanics and Mechatronics,
Lodz University of Technology, Lodz, Poland
Eugene Benilov , Department of Mathematics, University of Limerick, Limerick,
Limerick, Ireland
Maurice Courbage, CNRS UMR 7057, Universite Paris Diderot, Paris 7, Paris,
France
Dmitry V. Kovalevsky , Climate Service Center Germany (GERICS),
Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Hamburg, Germany
Nikolay V. Kuznetsov , Faculty of Mathematics and Mechanics, Saint Petersburg
State University, Saint Petersburg, Russia
Stefano Lenci , Department of Civil and Building Engineering and Architecture
(DICEA), Polytechnic University of Marche, Ancona, Italy
Xavier Leoncini, Case 321, Centre de Physique Théorique, MARSEILLE CEDEX
09, France
Edson Denis Leonel , Departamento de Física, São Paulo State University, Rio
Claro, São Paulo, Brazil
Marc Leonetti, Laboratoire Rhéologie et Procédés, Grenoble Cedex 9, Isère, France
Shijun Liao, School of Naval Architecture, Ocean and Civil Engineering, Shanghai
Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
Josep J. Masdemont , Department of Mathematics, Universitat Politècnica de
Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain
Dmitry E. Pelinovsky , Department of Mathematics and Statistics, McMaster
University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
Sergey V. Prants , Pacific Oceanological Inst. of the RAS, Laboratory of
Nonlinear Dynamical System, Vladivostok, Russia
Laurent Raymond , Centre de Physique Théorique, Aix-Marseille University,
Marseille, France
Victor I. Shrira, School of Computing and Maths, Keele University, Keele,
Staffordshire, UK
C. Steve Suh , Department of Mechanical Engineering, Texas A&M University,
College Station, TX, USA
Jian-Qiao Sun, School of Engineering, University of California, Merced, Merced,
CA, USA
J. A. Tenreiro Machado , ISEP-Institute of Engineering, Polytechnic of Porto,
Porto, Portugal
Simon Villain-Guillot , Laboratoire Ondes et Matière d’Aquitaine, Université de
Bordeaux, Talence, France
Michael Zaks , Institute of Physics, Humboldt University of Berlin, Berlin,
Germany

Nonlinear Physical Science focuses on recent advances of fundamental theories and

principles, analytical and symbolic approaches, as well as computational techniques
in nonlinear physical science and nonlinear mathematics with engineering
applications.
Topics of interest in Nonlinear Physical Science include but are not limited to:
• New findings and discoveries in nonlinear physics and mathematics
• Nonlinearity, complexity and mathematical structures in nonlinear physics
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Edson Denis Leonel

Scaling Laws in Dynamical

Systems
Edson Denis Leonel
Departamento de Física
São Paulo State University
Rio Claro, São Paulo, Brazil

ISSN 1867-8440 ISSN 1867-8459 (electronic)

Nonlinear Physical Science
ISBN 978-981-16-3543-4 ISBN 978-981-16-3544-1 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3544-1

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To my son Gustavo
Preface

The main goal of this book is to present and discuss many of the common scaling
properties observed in some nonlinear dynamical systems described by mappings.
The unpredictability of the time evolution of two nearby initial conditions in the
phase space together with the exponential divergence from each other as time goes
by lead to the concept of chaos. Some of the observables in nonlinear systems exhibit
characteristics of scaling invariance being then described via scaling laws.
From the variation of control parameters, physical observables in the phase space
may be characterized by using power laws that many times yield into universal
behavior. The application of such a formalism has been well accepted in the scientific
community of nonlinear dynamics. Therefore I had in mind when writing this book
was to bring together few of the research results in nonlinear systems using scaling
formalism that could be treated either in under-graduation as well as in the post-
graduation in the several exact programs but no earlier requirements were needed
from the students unless the basic physics and mathematics. At the same time, the
book must be original enough to contribute to the existing literature but with no
excessive superposition of the topics already dealt with in other textbooks. The
majority of the chapters present a list of exercises. Some of them are analytic and
others are numeric with few presenting some degree of computational complexity.
In Chap. 1 we discuss the fundamental concepts and the main definitions used
along the book and that are also known in nonlinear dynamics theory.
Chapter 2 is dedicated to a discussion of discrete mapping, emerging from the
idea of Poincaré surface of section. After introducing the concept of mapping, the
fixed points and their stability are discussed and an application involving the logistic
map is made.
In Chap. 3 some dynamical and statistical properties for the logistic map are
discussed. The investigation is started from the convergence to the stationary state at
and near the bifurcations. Using a set of scaling hypothesis and a homogeneous and
generalized function an analytic expression involving the three critical exponents is
obtained leading to a scaling law. A route to chaos is discussed via period doubling
bifurcation where a ratio between the control parameters identifying the period
doubling bifurcation lead to the Feigenbaum exponent. An algorithm to discuss the
Lyapunov exponent calculation is also presented.
vii
viii Preface

Chapter 4 is dedicated to a discussion of a generalized version of the logistic

map which is referred to as the logistic-like. Some dynamical properties for the
mapping are discussed including the fixed point determination, their stability, the
types of bifurcation observed and also a careful discussion on the behavior of the
convergence to the stationary state and near the bifurcations. It is shown that the
critical exponents characterize a scaling law for the convergence to the fixed point
for the transcritical or supercritical pitchfork are not universal and do indeed depend
on the nonlinearity of the mapping. On the other hand the exponents measured in
the period doubling bifurcation are universal and independent on the nonlinearity of
the mapping. Two different approaches are considered where one of them considers
a phenomenological description with scaling hypotheses while the other takes into
consideration a procedure that transforms the equation of differences into an ordinary
differential equation whose solution gives analytically all the critical exponents.
A generalization to discuss two-dimensional mappings is made in Chap. 5
starting with the linear mappings obtaining and classifying the fixed points. Then
the nonlinear mappings are introduced as well the procedure used to classify the
stability of the fixed points. Two examples of nonlinear mappings are given: (i) the
Hénon map and; (ii) the Ikeda map. A procedure to obtain the Lyapunov exponents
for two-dimensional mappings is also presented.
Chapter 6 is dedicated to discuss the Fermi accelerator model. A historical back-
ground is presented followed by a careful construction of the equations describing the
dynamics, the properties of the phase space including fixed point determination and
chaotic sea investigations leading to a scaling invariance for the chaotic diffusion.
In Chap. 7 some dynamical properties of the dissipative Fermi accelerator model
are discussed. Different types of dissipation are taken into consideration including
inelastic collisions leading to a fraction loss of energy upon collision with the
walls. Depending on the control parameters the stable and unstable manifolds of a
saddle fixed point can cross each other leading to a destruction of a chaotic attractor
producing hence a boundary crisis. Other type of dissipation considered is a drag
force that consists of a particle crossing a media with a fluid reducing the energy of
the particle along its trajectory. Three types of drag forces are considered, namely, (i)
proportional to the velocity of the particle; (ii) proportional to the squared velocity
of the particle; (iii) proportional to a power of the velocity which is not linear nor
quadratic. Then a stochastic perturbation to the boundary is considered leading to an
interesting scaling observation.
An alternative version of the Fermi accelerator model, often known as a bouncer is
discussed in Chap. 8. The reinjection mechanism of a particle for a further collision
with the wall is made by a constant gravitational field. An interesting property of the
bouncer model is that depending on the combination of control parameters and initial
conditions, unlimited energy growth can be observed leading to Fermi acceleration.
Chapter 9 discusses a procedure that uses a connection with the standard mapping
to localize the position of the first invariant spanning curve above of the chaotic sea for
a family of area preserving mapping which angles diverge in the limit of vanishingly
action. The idea is to use a transition from local to global chaos present in the standard
Preface ix

map to obtain the position of the first invariant spanning curve and hence, describe
the limit of the chaotic diffusion.
In Chap. 10 three different procedures to described the chaotic diffusion for a
family of area preserving mappings are described. The first of them considers a
phenomenological description which is obtained from scaling hypotheses leading
to a homogeneous and generalized function and hence to a scaling law involving
three critical exponents. The second one considers a transformation of the equation
of differences of the mapping into an ordinary differential equation which is solved
analytically allowing a determination of one of the critical exponents and also to
an excellent agreement of the theory with the numerical results. The localization of
the first invariant spanning curve plays a major rule in defining one of the critical
exponents of the scaling invariance. Finally a third one considers the solution of the
diffusion equation giving the probability to observe a particle at a certain position
in the phase space at a specific time. From the knowledge of the probability, all the
average observables are determined leading to the three critical exponents.
The discussions of the scaling properties for a dissipative standard mapping are
made in Chap. 11. We concentrate in the scaling invariance for chaotic orbits near
a transition from unlimited to limited diffusion, which is explained via the analyt-
ical solution of the diffusion equation. Indeed it gives the probability of observing
a particle with a specific action at a given time. The momenta of the probability are
determined and the behavior of the average squared action is obtained. The limits of
small and large time recover the results known in the literature from the phenomeno-
logical approach while a scaling for intermediate time is obtained as dependent on
the initial action.
The elementary concepts of billiards are introduced in Chap. 12. In a billiard, a
classical particle or, in an equivalent way an ensemble of non-interacting particles,
move inside a closed domain to where they collide with the boundary. The dynamical
description is made by the use of nonlinear mappings that define the position of the
particle at the boundary and the orientation of the trajectory after the collision. Three
types of billiards are considered and the structure of the phase space depends on the
shape of the boundary. One of them is the circle billiard. Another one is the elliptical
and finally a third one which has an oval shape. Both the circle and elliptical have
integrable dynamics while the oval has mixed phase space leading to the observation
of the chaos, invariant spanning curves and periodic islands.
Chapter 13 is dedicated to the discussion of some properties of time dependent
billiard that is a billiard which boundary moves in time. The nonlinear mapping
describing the dynamics of the particle is constructed furnishing the dynamical vari-
ables at each impact using that the velocity is obtained by the momentum conservation
law. After the collision, the energy of the particle changes, consequently a new pair
of variables must be included to the traditional ones describing the dynamics for the
static boundary, namely, the velocity of the particle and the instant of the collision.
The Loskutov-Ryabov-Akinshin (LRA) conjecture, which claims that the chaotic
dynamics for a static billiard is a sufficient condition for Fermi acceleration when
a time perturbation to the boundary is introduced, is discussed. The conjecture was
tested for the oval billiard leading then to unlimited energy growth. In the elliptic
x Preface

billiard, which is integrable for the static case, an introduction of a time dependence
to the boundary leads the separtrix curve presented in the phase space to transform
into a stochastic layer and hence producing the needed condition to observe Fermi
acceleration.
In Chap. 14 we introduce a drag force in the dynamics of the oval billiard.
From the discussion made in Chap. 13 we saw from the LRA conjecture, the oval
billiard exhibits unlimited energy growth when a time perturbation to the boundary
is introduced. The essence of Chap. 14 is to investigate the dynamics of the oval
billiard under three different types of drag force, namely, (i) F ∝ −V ; (ii) F ∝ ±V 2
and; (iii) F ∝ −V δ with δ = 1 and δ = 2 and we show the presence of dissipation
suppresses the unlimited energy growth for the bouncing particles. This is a clear
evidence the Fermi acceleration seems not to be a robust phenomena.
In Chap. 15 we discuss some thermodynamic properties for a set of particles
moving inside a time dependent oval billiard. Two different approaches will be
considered. One of them considers the heat flow transfer obtained from the solu-
tion of the Fourier equation leading to an expression of the temperature. The other
one considers the time evolution for an ensemble of particles by using the billiard
evolution. A connection with the equipartition theorem and the knowledge of the
average squared velocity allows the determination of the temperature of the gas.
All of these notes were typed by myself since from the title until the last word of
the references using LaTeX. As graphical editors I used xmgrace and gimp, in almost
all figures.

Rio Claro, São Paulo, Brazil Edson Denis Leonel

April 2021
Acknowledgements

The main motivation to write this book comes from a request of a group of students in
both under-graduation and graduation in Physics at Unesp—São Paulo State Univer-
sity, at the city of Rio Claro, to course a discipline in nonlinear dynamics. The course
was composed of part in nonlinear dynamics and part presenting some of the results
involving scaling formalism long investigated in my research group. I offered then
the course more than once and noticed there was space in the literature to construct a
standard textbook joining the topics. At the same time, the written material should not
overlap the existing literature well settled in the community for a long while. After
running the course few times and a good compilation of the material this monograph
emerged.
I acknowledge my students for taking part on the course particularly Célia Mayumi
Kuwana, Joelson Dayvison Veloso Hermes, Felipe Augusto Oliveira Silveira, Anne
Kétri Pasquinelli da Fonseca, Lucas Kenji Arima Miranda, Yoná Hirakawa Huggler,
Raphael Moratta Vieira Rocha, Laura Helena Pozzo and Danilo Rando for actively
participation, careful reading and valuable suggestions on the text.
I am also very grateful to Professors Paulo Cesar Rech, Juliano Antonio de
Oliveira, Ricardo Luiz Viana and Antonio Marcos Batista for a critical reading on
the material.
I kindly acknowledge the Department of Physics of Unesp in Rio Claro for
providing the needed conditions for the construct and edition of the present material.

xi
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Initial Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2 One-Dimensional Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 The Concept of Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.1 Asymptotically Stable Fixed Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2.2 Neutral Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2.3 Unstable Fixed Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3 Fixed Points to the Logistic Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4 Bifurcations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.4.1 Transcritical Bifurcation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.4.2 Period Doubling Bifurcation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.4.3 Tangent Bifurcation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3 Some Dynamical Properties for the Logistic Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.1 Convergence to the Stationary State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.1.1 Transcritical Bifurcation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.1.2 Period Doubling Bifurcation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1.3 Route to Chaos via Period Doubling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1.4 Tangent Bifurcation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.2 Lyapunov Exponent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4 The Logistic-Like Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.1 The Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.2 Transcritical Bifurcation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.2.1 Analytical Approach to Obtain α, β, z and δ . . . . . . . . . . 49

xiii
xiv Contents

4.2.2 Critical Exponents for the Period Doubling

Bifurcation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.3 Extensions to Other Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.3.1 Hassell Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.3.2 Maynard Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5 Introduction to Two Dimensional Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.1 Linear Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.2 Nonlinear Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.3 Applications of Two Dimensional Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.3.1 Hénon Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.3.2 Lyapunov Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.3.3 Ikeda Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6 A Fermi Accelerator Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.1 Fermi-Ulam Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.1.1 Jacobian Matrix for the Indirect Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.1.2 Jacobian Matrix for the Direct Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
6.1.3 Fixed Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
6.1.4 Phase Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6.1.5 Phase Space Measure Preservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6.2 A Simplified Version of the Fermi-Ulam Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6.3 Scaling Properties for the Chaotic Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.4 Localization of the First Invariant Spanning Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6.5 The Regime of Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
7 Dissipation in the Fermi-Ulam Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
7.1 Dissipation via Inelastic Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
7.1.1 Jacobian Matrix for the Direct Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
7.1.2 Jacobian Matrix for the Indirect Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . 95
7.1.3 The Phase Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
7.1.4 Fixed Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
7.1.5 Construction of the Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
7.1.6 Transient and Manifold Crossings Determination . . . . . . 99
7.1.7 Determining the Exponent δ from the Eigenvalues
of the Saddle Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
7.2 Dissipation by Drag Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
7.2.1 Drag Force of the Type F = −η̃v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
7.2.2 Drag Force of the Type F = ±η̃v 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7.2.3 Drag Force of the Type F = −η̃v γ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Contents xv

7.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

7.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8 Dynamical Properties for a Bouncer Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
8.1 The Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
8.2 Complete Version of the Bouncer Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
8.2.1 Successive Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
8.2.2 Indirect Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
8.2.3 Jacobian Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
8.2.4 The Phase Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
8.3 A Simplified Version of the Bouncer Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
8.4 Numerical Investigation on the Simplified Version . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
8.5 Approximation of Continuum Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
8.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
8.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
9 Localization of Invariant Spanning Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
9.1 The Standard Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
9.2 Localization of the Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
9.3 Rescale in the Phase Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
9.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
9.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
10 Chaotic Diffusion in Non-Dissipative Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
10.1 A Family of Discrete Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
10.2 Dynamical Properties for the Chaotic Sea:
A Phenomenological Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
10.3 A Semi Phenomenological Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
10.4 Determination of the Probability via the Solution
of the Diffusion Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
10.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
10.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
11 Scaling on a Dissipative Standard Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
11.1 The Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
11.2 A Solution for the Diffusion Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
11.3 Specific Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
11.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
11.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
12 Introduction to Billiard Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
12.1 The Billiard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
12.1.1 The Circle Billiard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
12.1.2 The Elliptical Billiard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
12.1.3 The Oval Billiard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
12.2 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
12.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
xvi Contents

13 Time Dependent Billiards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

13.1 The Billiard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
13.1.1 The LRA Conjecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
13.2 The Time Dependent Elliptical Billiard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
13.3 The Oval Billiard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
13.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
13.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
14 Suppression of Fermi Acceleration in the Oval Billiard . . . . . . . . . . . 191
14.1 The Model and the Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
14.2 Results for the Case of F ∝ −V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
14.3 Results for the Case of F ∝ ±V 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
14.4 Results for the Case of F ∝ −V δ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
14.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
14.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
15 A Thermodynamic Model for Time Dependent Billiards . . . . . . . . . . 205
15.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
15.2 Heat Transference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
15.3 The Billiard Formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
15.3.1 Stationary Estate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
15.3.2 Dynamical Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
15.3.3 Numerical Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
15.3.4 Average Velocity over n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
15.3.5 Critical Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
15.3.6 Distribution of Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
15.4 Connection Between the Two Formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
15.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
15.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

Appendix A: Expressions for the Coefficients j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

Appendix B: Change of Referential Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Appendix C: Solution of the Diffusion Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Appendix D: Heat Flow Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Appendix E: Connection Between t and n in a Time Dependent
Oval Billiard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Appendix F: Solution of the Integral to Obtain the Relation
Between n and t in the Time Dependent Oval Billiard . . . . 239
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Illustration of a damped oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Fig. 1.2 Illustration of a pendulum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Fig. 1.3 Figure illustrating a Poincaré section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Fig. 1.4 Plot of the orbit diagram for the logistic map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Fig. 1.5 Plot of the orbit diagram obtained for the logistic map
considering a finite transient. The number of iterations
considered were: a n = 10; b n = 100, c n = 1000
and d n = 10000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Fig. 1.6 Illustration of the Fermi–Ulam model. Here l corresponds
to the distance of the fixed wall up to the origin of the system . . 10
Fig. 1.7 Plot of the phase space of the Fermi–Ulam model. Axes are
represented by the velocity of the particle V and the phase
of the moving wall φ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Fig. 1.8 Sketch of a billiard and its dynamical variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Fig. 1.9 a Plot of the phase space and b and c show typical orbits
of the circle billiard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Fig. 1.10 a Plot of the phase space; and illustration of the typical
orbits for the elliptical billiard considering: b rotational
orbits and c librational orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Fig. 1.11 Plot of the phase space for the oval billiard. The parameters
used were p = 2 and: a  = 0.05 and b  = 0.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Fig. 2.1 Pictorial illustration of a Poincaré surface of section
and the sequence of points x0 → x1 → x2 → x3 · · ·
that can be described by a discrete mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Fig. 2.2 Illustration of the two types of monotonic convergence
to the fixed point x ∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Fig. 2.3 Illustration of an alternating convergence to the fixed
point x ∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

xvii
xviii List of Figures

Fig. 2.4 Graphical analysis showing the convergence to the fixed

point. In (a) a monotonic convergence using
xn+1 = f (xn ) = 2xn (1 − xn ) while in (b) an alternating
convergence for xn+1 = f (xn ) = 2.8xn (1 − xn ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Fig. 2.5 Schematic illustration of the monotonic divergence
of the fixed point x ∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Fig. 2.6 Schematic illustration of the alternating divergence
of the fixed point x ∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Fig. 2.7 Plot of the orbit diagram for the logistic map obtained
from Eq. (2.7) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Fig. 2.8 Plot of the orbit diagram obtained for the logistic map
given by Eq. (2.7) emphasizing the period 3 window
coming from a tangent bifurcation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Fig. 2.9 (a) Plot of xn+3 versus xn for three different control
parameters. (b) Amplification of the central region of (a)
emphasizing the approximation of xn+3 to the equation
xn+3 = xn with the control parameter given by R < Rc
before, at R = Rc and R > Rc after. (c) Channel formed
by the function xn+3 and the equation xn+3 = xn and time
evolution of an orbit near the channel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Fig. 3.1 (a) Plot of x versus n for R = 1 and different values
of the initial condition x0 , as shown in the figure.
(b) Overlap of the curves shown in (a) onto a single
and universal plot after the following scaling
transformations x → x/x0α and n → n/x0z with α = 1
and z = −1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Fig. 3.2 Plot of n x versus x0 . A power law fitting gives z = −1 . . . . . . . . 32
Fig. 3.3 Plot of x versus n for x0 = 0.1 and two different values
of the control parameter namely R = 0.99 and R = 0.999 . . . . . 32
Fig. 3.4 Plot of τ versus μ considering tol = 10−10 . A power law
fitting gives δ = −0.994(1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Fig. 3.5 (a) Plot of x(n) − x ∗ versus n
for different initial conditions, as shown in
the figure. A power law fit gives β = −0.49939(7).
(b) Overlap of the curves shown in (a) onto a single
and universal curve after the following scaling
transformations (x(n) − x ∗ ) → (x(n) − x ∗ )/(x0 − x ∗ )α
and n → n/(x0 − x ∗ )z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Fig. 3.6 Plot of the cascade of bifurcations in the logistic map
showing the period doubling sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Fig. 3.7 (a) Plot of λ versus n considering R = 4 and x0 = 0.499
for the logistic map. (b) Amplification of the box shown
in (a) illustrating the fluctuations of the Lyapunov exponent
for small values of n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
List of Figures xix

Fig. 3.8 Example of a computational code written in Fortran

to calculate the Lyapunov exponent applying a convergence
criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Fig. 3.9 Plot of λ versus R in the logistic map using the initial
condition as x0 = 0.499 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Fig. 4.1 (a) and (c) Plot of x versus n for R = 1, γ = 1
and γ = 3/2 respectively and different values of x0 ,
as shown in the figures. (b) and (d) show the overlap
of the curves plotted in (a) and (c) into a single and hence
universal curve. The scaling transformations used are
x → x/x0α and n → n/x0z with α = 1 and z = −1 for (b)
and α = 1 and z = −3/2 for (d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Fig. 4.2 Plot of n x versus x0 for γ = 1 and γ = 2. Power law
fittings give z = −1.0002(3) and z = −2.001(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Fig. 4.3 Plot of τ versus μ for γ = 1 and γ = 3/2. A power law
fitting gives δ = −1 and is independent of γ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Fig. 4.4 Plot of the coefficient j6 versus γ evaluated
at x ∗ = (1 − 1/R)1/γ and Rc = 2+γ γ
....................... 52
Fig. 5.1 Illustration of the chaotic attractor generated
from the evolution of the initial condition
(x0 , y0 ) = (0.1, 0.1) for the control parameters
a = 1.4 and b = 0.3. The region in white corresponds
to the basin of attraction of the chaotic attractor
while the region in gray marks the initial conditions
that diverge to x → −∞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Fig. 5.2 Plot of the convergence of the positive Lyapunov exponent
for the Hénon map given by Eq. (5.14). We considered
5 different initial conditions in the basin of attraction
of the chaotic attractor. The average value for large enough
time was λ = 0.4192(1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Fig. 5.3 Plot of the chaotic attractor produced from the iteration
of the Ikeda map using the initial condition
(x0 , y0 ) = (0.1, 0.1) for the control parameters p = 1,
B = 0.9, k = 0.4 and α̃ = 6. The white region
identifies the basin of attraction of the chaotic attractor
shown in the figure while the gray region shows
the basin of attraction of the attracting fixed point which
the coordinates are not shown in the scale of the figure . . . . . . . . 65
Fig. 6.1 Illustration of the Fermi-Ulam model. The motion
of the moving wall is given by xw (t) = ε cos(ωt). The
fixed wall is placed at x = l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
xx List of Figures

Fig. 6.2 Plot of the phase space for the Fermi-Ulam model
obtained from the Mapping (6.9) for the control parameter
 = 10−3 . The position of the first invariant spanning
curve is shown. The stability islands and other invariant
curves are also shown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Fig. 6.3 Illustration of the area evolution in the phase space
from the instant n to the instant (n + 1). One can notices
that the area of the phase space in the instant (n + 1)
is given by the area of the phase space in the instant
n through the determinant of the Jacobian matrix, i.e.
d An+1 = det Jn d An . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Fig. 6.4 Plot of the convergence of the Lyapunov exponent λ
versus n for the control parameter  = 10−3 , the same used
in Fig. 6.2 for the Fermi-Ulam model given by the Mapping
6.9. The average value of the positive Lyapunov exponent
for sufficiently large time is λ = 0.728(1) considering
5 different initial conditions along the chaotic sea,
as mentioned in the figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Fig. 6.5 Plot of the phase space for the simplified Fermi-Ulam
model given by Mapping (6.37) for the control parameter
 = 10−3 . The position of the lowest velocity invariant
spanning curve is illustrated by red dots and is identified
as fisc. Periodic islands and other invariant curves are
also shown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Fig. 6.6 (a) Plot of Vr ms versus n considering the parameters
 = 10−4 ,  = 10−3 and  = 10−2 for an initial velocity
V0 = 10−3  at each curve. (b) The same curves shown in
(a) after a transformation n → n 2 . The numerical fitting
gives β = 0.4921(5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Fig. 6.7 Plot of Vsat versus . A power law fitting gives
α = 0.516(5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Fig. 6.8 Overlap of the curves presented in Fig. 6.6a
onto a single and universal plot after doing the following
transformations: (i) Vr ms → Vr ms / α and; (ii) n → n/ z . . . . . . 84
Fig. 6.9 Plot of Vr ms versus n for the control parameter
 = 10−4 considering numerical simulation (symbols)
and the analytical result given by Eq. (6.65) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Fig. 6.10 Sketch of the Fermi-Ulam model with the wall
moving according to  the equation
s(t) = R cos(wt) + L 2 − R 2 sin2 (wt) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Fig. 6.11 Illustration of a periodically corrugated waveguide
and the dynamical variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
List of Figures xxi

Fig. 7.1 Illustration of a chaotic attractor and an asymptotically

stable fixed point for the following combination of control
parameters: α = 0.93624, β = 1 and  = 0.04. The curve
shows the lower limit for the chaotic attractor. A saddle
fixed point is also shown in the figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Fig. 7.2 Plot of the stable (gray) and unstable (black) manifolds
originated from the same saddle point S. The control
parameters used were α = 0.93624, β = 1 and  = 0.04 . . . . . . 99
Fig. 7.3 Plot of the basin of attraction for the chaotic attractor
(black) and for the attracting fixed point (gray). The
boundary between the two is limited by the stable manifolds
emanating from the saddle point, marked by a star. The
asymptotically fixed point is marked by a bullet. One
of the two branches of the unstable manifold converges
to the attracting fixed point spiraling counterclockwise
while the other evolves towards the chaotic attractor.
The control parameters used are β = 1, α = 0.93624
and  = 0.04 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Fig. 7.4 Plot of V versus φ considering the control parameters
β = 1,  = 0.04 and α = 0.9375. The black dots identify
the region of the phase space where the chaotic attractor
existed (transient) prior the crisis while the circles show
the convergence to the asymptotically stable fixed point.
The doted line was added only as a guide to the eye . . . . . . . . . . 101
Fig. 7.5 Plot of the stable and unstable manifolds from the same
saddle point for the control parameters  = 0.04,
β = 1 and α = 0.9375. Black shows the unstable
branch departing from the saddle point converging
towards the attracting fixed point. The dots identify
the other branch passing in the region of the phase space
where the chaotic attractor existed prior the crisis. The
stable manifolds are also visible. The box shows the several
crossings between the manifolds confirming the boundary
crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Fig. 7.6 Plot of τ versus μ. A power law fitting gives δ = −2.01(2).
We considered an ensemble of 5 × 103 different
initial conditions in the region of the phase space
where the chaotic attractor existed prior the crisis. The
control parameters used were β = 1 and  = 0.04 while α
was varied around αc = 0.93624 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
xxii List of Figures

Fig. 7.7 Plot of V versus n for the control parameter  = 10−2

and η = 10−3 . A linear fitting furnishes a slope
of −0.0002 = −2η, in well agreement with the analytical
approximation. The inset corresponds to an amplification
of the regime of the decay, showing the behavior
of the decay in a smaller scale of time, illustrating
the oscillations at small window of time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Fig. 7.8 Plot of: (a) V versus n for the parameter  = 10−2
and drag coefficient η = 10−3 . An exponential fitting
gives a slope −0.002 = −2η, in well agreement
with the analytical description. (b) Plot of the phase space
for the non-dissipative model overlapped for the time
evolution of the dissipative case showing the approximation
to the asymptotically stable fixed point identified as star
at V f ∼
= 0.321 . . .. The inset plot of (a) shows the time
evolution of V versus n near the region of the fixed point . . . . . . 108
Fig. 7.9 Plot of V versus n for the control parameters
 = 10−2 and η = 10−2 . A polynomial fitting gives
V (n) = V0 + αn + βn 2 where α = −0.001257(1)
and β = 9.998 × 10−8 with V0 = 9.902 ∼ = 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Fig. 8.1 Sketch of a bouncer model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Fig. 8.2 Plot of the phase space for Mapping (8.7) considering
γ = 1 and the following control parameters:
(a)  = 0.1; (b)  = 0.2; (c)  = 0.3 and; (d)  = 0.4 . . . . . . . . . 120
Fig. 8.3 Plot of the phase space for the Mapping (8.11)
considering γ = 1 and the following control parameters:
(a)  = 0.1; (b)  = 0.2; (c)  = 0.3 and; (d)  = 0.4 . . . . . . . . . 121
Fig. 8.4 Plot of V versus n for the control parameters γ = 1
and  = 10 considering: (a) a simplified version
and; (b) a complete version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Fig. 8.5 Plot of V versus n for  = 10 and γ = 0.999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Fig. 8.6 (a) Plot of Vr ms versus n. (b) Same of (a)
after the transformation n → n 2 , hence a plot of Vr ms
versus n 2 . The control parameters are shown in the figure . . . . . 125
Fig. 8.7 (a) Plot of V sat versus (1 − γ ) and (b) V sat versus . The
numerical values for the exponents are α1 = 0.998(8)
and α2 = −0.4987(8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Fig. 8.8 Plot of n x versus (1 − γ ) for a fixed value of . A power
law fit gives z 2 = −0.998(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Fig. 8.9 (a) Plot of different curves of average velocity as a function
of n. (b) Overlap of all curves shown in (a) onto a single
and universal plot after the scaling transformations given
by Eqs. (8.33) and (8.34) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Fig. 8.10 Plot of Vr ms versus n considering γ = 0.999. The
theoretical result is given by Eq. (8.52) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
List of Figures xxiii

Fig. 9.1 Plot of the phase space for Mapping (9.1) considering
the control parameters: (a) K = 0.5; (b) K = 0.75; (c)
K = 0.97 and; (d) K = 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Fig. 9.2 Plot of the phase space for Mapping (9.2) considering
F(I ) = I1γ for the control parameters  = 0.01
and: (a) γ = 1 and (b) γ = 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Fig. 9.3 Plot of I ∗ versus . Continuous lines correspond
to the theoretical result given by Eq. (9.6) while symbols
together with their uncertainty represented by the error
bars denote the numerical simulation. Circles correspond
to the parameter γ = 1 while squares are obtained for γ = 2 . . . 139
Fig. 9.4 Plot of the phase space shown in Fig. 9.2
after the transformation I → II ∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Fig. 10.1 Plot of the phase space for the Mapping (10.11) considering
the control parameters  = 0.01 and γ = 1. The symbols
identify the elliptic fixed points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Fig. 10.2 Plot of Ir ms as a function of: (a) n, and (b) n 2 . The control
parameters used were γ = 1 considering  = 10−4 ,
 = 5 × 10−4 and  = 10−3 , as shown in the figure . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Fig. 10.3 Plot of Ir ms,sat versus  for: (a) γ = 1 and (b) γ = 2. The
critical exponents obtained are: (a) α = 0.508(4) and (b)
α = 0.343(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Fig. 10.4 Plot of n x versus  for: (a) γ = 1 and (b) γ = 2. The
critical exponent obtained was: (a) z = −0.98(2) and (b)
z = −1.30(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Fig. 10.5 (a) Plot of Ir ms versus n for γ = 1 and different values of 
as shown in the Figure. (b) Overlap of the curves shown
in (a) onto a single and hence universal plot after the scaling
transformations Ir ms → Ir ms / α and n → n/ z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Fig. 10.6 Plot of Ir ms (n) versus n for different control parameters.
The symbols denote the numerical simulations
while the continuous curves correspond to the Equation
(10.55) with the same control parameters as used
in the numerical simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Fig. 10.7 Sketch of the potential V (x, t) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Fig. 11.1 (a) Plot of the phase space for a dissipative standard
mapping considering the parameters  = 100
and γ = 10−3 . (b) Normalized probability distribution
for the chaotic attractor shown in (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
xxiv List of Figures

Fig. 11.2 (a) Plot of Ir ms versus n for different control parameters

and initial conditions, as labeled in the figure. Symbols
are for numerical simulation, while continuous curves
are analytical. (b) Overlap of the curves shown in (a)
onto a single and universal plot after the appropriate
scaling transformations. Inset of (b) shows an exponential
decay to the attractor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Fig. 12.1 Illustration of the angles describing the billiard. The
trajectory of the particle is drawn by the line segments
and change after the impacts with the boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Fig. 12.2 (a) Plot of the phase space for the circle billiard. (b) and (c)
Illustrate a trajectory in the billiard with different length
of time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Fig. 12.3 (a) Illustration of the phase space for the elliptical billiard.
(b) Example of a rotating orbit and (c) a librating orbit . . . . . . . . 175
Fig. 12.4 Plot of the phase space for the oval billiard considering
the control parameters: (a)  = 0.05 and (b)  = 0.1; (c)
 = 0.2 and (d)  = 0.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Fig. 12.5 Plot of the periodic orbits in the oval billiard: (a) period 2
and; (b) period 4. The control parameters used were p = 2
and: (a)  = 0.05; (b)  = 0.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Fig. 12.6 Plot of the positive Lyapunov exponent for the chaotic
regions shown in Fig. 12.4(c), (d). The control parameters
used were p = 2 and: (a)  = 0.2 and (b)  = 0.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Fig. 12.7 Illustration of the stadium billiard with parabolic
boundaries and the unfolding mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Fig. 13.1 Plot of four collisions of a particle with a time dependent
boundary. The position of the boundary is drawn
at the instant of the impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Fig. 13.2 Plot of the phase space for the elliptical billiard
together with a sketch of the stochastic layer produced
by the destruction of the separatrix curve. The control
parameters used were: (a) static case e = 0.4, q = 1; (b)
time dependent boundary e = 0.4, a = 0.01 with V0 = 1
with 104 collisions of the particle with the boundary . . . . . . . . . . 185
Fig. 13.3 Plot of the average velocity: (a) average over the orbit
and considering an ensemble of different initial conditions,
and; (b) average over the orbit. The control parameters
used were a = 0.1 and: (a) e = 0.1, e = 0.2, e = 0.3,
e = 0.4 and e = 0.5; (b) e = 0.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Fig. 13.4 Plot of the average velocity V versus n for the control
parameters:  = 0.08, p = 3 and η = 0.5. The initial
velocities are shown in the figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
List of Figures xxv

Fig. 13.5 Plot of the curves shown in Fig. 13.4 onto a single
and universal curve after the following scaling
transformations: V → V /V0 α and n → n/V0z . The control
parameters used were:  = 0.08, p = 3 and η = 0.5. The
initial velocities are shown in the figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Fig. 14.1 (a) Plot of V versus n. The control parameters considered
were  = 0.1, η = 0.1, p = 3 and η̃ = 10−3 starting the
dynamics with the initial velocity V0 = 10. (b) Linear
fitting for the decay of the average velocity as a function of η̃ . . 194
Fig. 14.2 (a) Plot of the average velocity V versus n considering
the initial velocity V0 = 10. The control parameters used
were  = 0.1, η = 0.1, p = 3 and η̃ = 10−3 . (b) A linear
fit for the decay of the velocity as a function of η̃ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Fig. 14.3 (a) Plot of the average velocity for large values of n
as a function of the control parameter η̃. The control
parameters used were  = 0.1, η = 0.1 and p = 3. (b)
Plot of n c versus η̃ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Fig. 14.4 (a) Plot of the average velocity V versus n for three
different control parameters η̃, as shown in the figure. The
initial velocity was V0 = 10−2 and the control parameters
considered  = 0.1, η = 0.1 and p = 3. (b) Plot of V sat
versus η̃. A power law fitting gives α = −0.5005(4). (c)
Plot of n x versus η̃ with a fitting giving z = −1.027(1) . . . . . . . 198
Fig. 14.5 Same plot of Fig. 14.4(a) with the rescaled axis showing
an universal curve. The control parameters used are
 = 0.1, η = 0.1 and p = 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Fig. 14.6 (a) Plot of r versus t for different values of the exponent
δ, as shown in the figure. The initial velocity used
was V0 = 10−3 . (b) Same plot of (a) but with initial
velocity V0 = 10−2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Fig. 14.7 Plot of f versus δ. For the parameter δ > 1.48
and considering 105 collisions with the boundary, none
of the particles have their energy completely dissipated.
The control parameter used were p = 3,  = 0.1, η = 0.1
and the drag coefficient used was η̃ = 10−3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Fig. 14.8 Decay of the velocity for the particle considering δ = 1.5.
The control parameters used were p = 3,  = 0.1,
η̃ = 0.1 and η = 10−3 . The best fit gives a decay
described by a second degree polynomial function given
by V (n) = 10.02(1) − 0.00485(1)n + 5.871(1) × 10−7 n 2 . . . . . 202
Fig. 15.1 Sketch of a set of particles moving in a billiard
with time dependent boundary. The highlighted area
corresponds to the collision zone and defines the domain
to where the particles can collide with the boundary . . . . . . . . . . 206
xxvi List of Figures

Fig. 15.2 Sketch of the region where heat transference may be

observed. The arrows identify the direction of the heat flux
when the temperature of the gas is T < Tb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Fig. 15.3 Illustration of 4 collisions of the particle with the boundary
of the billiard. Each color corresponds to a given collision.
The boundary position is ploted at the instant of the collision . . . 211
Fig. 15.4 (a) Plot of < V > versus n for different values
of γ and two different combinations of ηε. (b)
Overlap of the curves shown in (a) onto a single
and universal plot after the application of the following
scaling transformations: n → n/[(1 − γ )z1 (ηε)z2 ]
and < V >→< V > /[(1 − γ )α1 (ηε)α2 ]. The continuous
lines give the theoretical results obtained from Eq. (15.42) . . . . . 215
Fig. 15.5 Plot of: (a) < V sat > and (b) n x as a function of (1 − γ ).
The inner plots show the behavior of < V sat > and n x
for different values of εη . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Fig. 15.6 Plot of the probability distribution for an ensemble
of 105 particles in a dissipative and stochastic version
of the oval billiard. Blue was obtained for 10 collisions
with the boundary while red was obtained for 100
collisions. The inner figure was obtained for 50, 000
collisions. The initial velocity considered was V0 = 0.2
and the control parameters used were η = 0.02
and γ = 0.999 for p = 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Fig. A.1 Plot of the coefficients j4 (left) and j6 (right),
both as function of γ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Fig. A.2 Plot of the coefficients j7 (left) and j8 (right),
both as a function of γ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Fig. B.1 Position of a particle measured by two referential frame
as inertial (left) and non-inertial (right) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
List of Tables

Table 3.1 Table showing the order of the bifurcation, the period
of the orbit, the numerical values of the parameters
and an estimation of the exponent δ f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Table 3.2 Table showing the critical exponents α, β, z and δ
for the three bifurcations of fixed points observed
in the logistic map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

xxvii
Chapter 1
Introduction

Abstract The aim of this chapter is to present a short discussion on the fundamental
concepts treated along the book and commonly used in the investigation of nonlinear
dynamical systems.

1.1 Initial Concepts

The primordial of the investigation of dynamical systems back to the centuries XV

and XVI and is mostly related to celestial mechanics. However the mathematical
modelling of a time varying dynamical system only had progress after the semi-
nal works of Isaac Newton and his laws of motion. In a dynamical system exists a
mathematical relation that, given the knowledge of a certain instant, generally char-
acterized as an initial condition, allows to obtain the state of the system at a future
time. For a mechanical system, the set of equations determining the position and
velocity for future time can be classified as linear or as nonlinear. In a linear system
the equations describing the dynamics assume only linear power. As example one
may consider ẋ = −ax where a ∈ R is a control parameter and x is the dynamical
variable. The term ẋ = ddtx corresponds to the first derivative of x(t) with respect to
the time t. On the other hand for nonlinear equations the powers of the dynamical
variables are different from the unity and can also assume other functions such as
sine, cosine, exponential and others. To illustrate a nonlinear equation it is consid-
ered ẋ = b sin(x) with b ∈ R corresponding to a control parameter. Often nonlinear
equations may depend on more than one variable as for example ẋ = a − y and
ẏ = b + x y. In this case the nonlinearity is given by the product x y.
The nonlinear equations are not restricted to systems described by Newtons law
of motion. They go far beyond and can be used to describe electric/electronic cir-
cuits where nonlinear characteristic can be observed in transistor, diode etc. In fluid
systems, the density, viscosity among other relevant parameters can contribute with
nonlinear terms to the dynamical equations. Lasers can also be described by nonlin-
ear equations mainly associated with coupling and other processes such as feedback
etc. The celestial mechanics also presents a vast majority of investigated dynamical
systems described by nonlinear equations. The dynamical evolution of a given initial

© Higher Education Press 2021 1

E. D. Leonel, Scaling Laws in Dynamical Systems, Nonlinear Physical Science,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3544-1_1
2 1 Introduction

state produces a set of new states that, followed in chronological order, defines an
orbit. From the change of the initial condition the time evolution furnishes other
sequence of different states, hence other orbit. A set of all orbits defines the phase
space and gives information about all the allowed states of a system.
Relevant properties of the dynamics can be extracted from the phase space.
Depending on the system, the phase space may exhibit three different typical behav-
iors: (i) periodic; (ii) quasi-periodic and; (iii) chaotic. Such behavior can coexist
on the phase space or be observed separated in different systems. For the periodic
behavior the dynamics repeats at each well defined interval of time leading the time
evolution of the dynamics to be regular and foreseen. For the quasi-periodic dynam-
ics the repetition at defined interval of times, characteristic of periodic dynamics,
is not observed. At the same time, exponential spreading in time of two nearby ini-
tial conditions is not observed. Finally the chaotic dynamics is determined from the
evolution of two closely initial conditions that spread from each other exponentially
as time goes on. Such a spreading implies that the knowledge of one state evolved
in time from an initial condition does not allow to say absolutely nothing about the
state of the other close initial condition. This exponential separation defines the so
called Lyapunov exponent. When it assumes positive values, chaos is present in the
dynamics. The chaotic dynamics is a consequence of the nonlinearity present in the
equations describing the dynamics in the sense that chaos is present in nonlinear
systems. However there are nonlinear systems that do not present chaos.
The knowledge of the laws describing the dynamics of the systems allows one
to make a distinction between deterministic and non-deterministic dynamics. In the
first, the laws of motion are known explicitly and stochasticity1 is not present. To
illustrate a deterministic system consider the application of the second Newton’s law
of motion to a one-dimensional spring-mass system under the presence of a viscous
drag force as shown in Fig. 1.1. The equation describing the dynamics is written as
m ẍ = −γ ẋ − kx where m is the mass of the oscillator, γ is the drag coefficient and
k is the spring constant. The dynamical variable is denoted by x where the velocity is
2
given by ẋ = ddtx while the acceleration is written as ẍ = ddt x2 . Starting from the initial
configuration x(t = 0) and ẋ(t = 0), all the following states are determined through
an explicit equation hence characterizing the system as deterministic. The differ-
ential equation describing the dynamics of the damped oscillator is linear. Another
interesting deterministic system, this time described by a nonlinear equation is the
pendulum, as illustrated in Fig. 1.2. The system is composed of a particle of mass
m connected to a massless cable of length l oscillating in the vertical whose angle
position is given by θ (t) due to the action of a constant gravitation field g. From the
second Newton’s law of motion the dynamics is governed by θ̈ + gl sin(θ ) = 0. The
solution for this equation is simple in the limit of small angles where the following
approximation applies sin(θ ) ∼ = θ . When the approximation of small angles is not
valid anymore, the solution is still possible through elliptical integrals.
On the other hand the equations of motion of a stochastic system have terms
which are not completely known but only the probability of a certain event to be

1As stochastic we want to say there are random forces acting on the system that are not known.
1.1 Initial Concepts 3

Fig. 1.1 Illustration of a

damped oscillator

Fig. 1.2 Illustration of a

pendulum

observed. For example consider the problem of a random walk in which a walker
can give a step to the right with probability p while a probability to give a step to
the left is q with p + q = 1. The existence of a stochastic component characterizes
the system as non-deterministic. Problems involving non-determinism are common
in statistical mechanics particularly linked to random walk problems. Solution of
such types of problems are mostly connected to the Fokker–Planck and Langevin
equations. One should not confuse non-deterministic with chaotic dynamics. In a
chaotic system, the laws of motion are known. However the nature of the nonlinear
equations do not let foresee long time future state since the exponential spreading
of two nearby initial conditions lead to the concept of unpredictability although the
system is deterministic.
The solutions2 of the differential equations, either the linear or nonlinear equa-
tions lead to the N dimensional flux in the phase space. The time evolution of such
a flux describes the dynamics of the system. Depending on the complexity of the
set of equations describing the dynamics it turns out to be computationally expen-

2Often in nonlinear systems the analytical solutions are not completely known. A large number

of important numerical methods for the solution can be used, as is the case of the Runge–Kutta
method.
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beheld it in a sombre hue. The heavens were overcast, the mist, once of a
dazzling whiteness now took a dusky tint, and hung over the cataract like a
mourning veil. It was more in accordance with my feelings than to have
bade her adieu while she was smiling in the ‘bright garish eye of day’—one
might fancy she was sad at losing such true worshippers. But you cannot
understand such feelings now, they no doubt seem ridiculous—come here,
and you will experience the truth of such emotions. At two o’clock, soon
after dinner, we sat out on the rail road for Buffalo. The road for some time
is laid along the river bank, and gives us a fine view of the islands, rapids,
and other objects of interest, as Fort Schlosser, and Chippewa,—and then a
long low wooded island floating upon the bosom of the broad stream was
shown, as Navy island, the head quarters of the Canadian revolutionist in
’37 and ’38. The band have however now dispersed, and the island has
returned to its parent, promising never to do so any more. It contains 700[5]
acres of good land. The river now begins to expand from one mile to eight,
including Grand Island in the centre. This is twelve miles in length, and
contains 17,384 acres of rich land and stately timber. A neat village called
White Haven stands upon its shore, containing among other buildings, a
steam saw mill which furnishes ship stuff from 20 to 70 feet in length. A
fine situation, for such an establishment, as there is plenty of the raw
material for this manufacture in sight all around.
There are 15 or 20 islands between the falls and Lake Erie, some of them
very pretty, adorned with clumps of maple, oak, or cedar. Upon one of
them, Tonawanda isle, is a fine mansion with cultivated grounds and fields
around it. Our road lay through a village of the same name situated upon
Tonawanda creek, a small place through which runs the Erie canal. We had
sufficient time to survey the beauties of Rattle-snake Island at our leisure,
for, when just opposite, a part of our engine gave way, and we came to a
sudden pause. The male passengers were soon out, to discover the cause,
and came back with a report that we could proceed no farther, as the injury
was very great. We were declared to be ‘in a pretty fix.’ A horse was
procured from a house in sight, and a man was despatched upon it to
Buffalo about eight miles distant. Many of the passengers sat out to walk to
Black rock 4 miles a head, where they could procure carriages to take them
to Buffalo. The rest of us remained seated in the coaches, with a hot July
sun streaming through the windows. What should we do—scold at the road,
or the train, or the engineers? No, an American never vexes himself about
such things—he is calm and indifferent under every circumstance. Some of
us fell to reading, some to napping and some to rambling. We undertook the
latter, but as we were only surrounded by ploughed fields soon returned to
the coach, where I busied myself in writing the above. Pray read on if it is
only to repay me for my sufferings those two hours in the heat. I think I had
better abuse this rail road a little, for it deserves it. Do not, however,
suppose I am vexed at being left thus ‘sitting on a rail!’ The iron is ripped
up in several places, causing a jolt when we strike against these land snags,
and a man rides beside the engineer with a hammer to nail them down. It is
the worst rail road I ever travelled over: however, as it is only used a few
months in the year when Niagara is fashionable, perhaps it may not yield
sufficient profit to allow much expense upon it. Something is seen coming
up the road—all heads are out, and we hope to be released from our captive
state—it turns out to be the return train which had been waiting for our
engine and cars, and now has been obliged to take horses instead. As it was
impossible to pass us, the passengers and their baggage were turned out,
and placed in our coaches, to the Niagara end of which their horses were
fastened. They looked very sourly at us while this was passing, thinking
perhaps of the maxim of Pythagoras to his scholars—Do not remain in the
highway. They wondered at us for sitting in their highway, depriving them
of their engine, and condemning them to the loss of a fine afternoon at
Niagara. Some of them perhaps might have been of that whisking class of
tourists who intended to return the next morning early, and to them it would
be quite a loss.
A joyous shout announced the appearance of our horses, and we were
soon on our way again. We passed through Black Rock, a considerable
village, and then followed the Erie canal for some distance. The last two
miles were upon the borders of Lake Erie which stretched away a mighty
mass of green waters, to the horizon. As this was our first view of our great
‘inland seas, we gazed upon it with much interest. There are many
handsome villas in the vicinity of the town commanding fine views of the
lake and city; one of them, a large Gothic stone mansion, promises to be
quite an ornament to the country if ever finished. At Buffalo we drove of
course to the American Hotel, as its fame had reached us at home. It is a
large stone building, well kept, and elegantly furnished. The drawing room
is as handsome as any in the country, and the dining room is a large airy
commodious apartment lighted with five large gilded chandeliers. The
staircases and halls are of oak covered with copper in some places—the
bedrooms, private parlors, table and attendance as good as we could find in
our boasted city. There is here also a public room, hired sometimes, for
concerts and lectures, which is well lighted with chandeliers and set round
with green silk couches. In fact every thing is good and neat.

June 28th.—Sabbath morning—that blessed day of rest, given in mercy

as a moment of repose in the wearied journey of life to the ‘world’s tired
denizen!’ We felt its benefit, and rejoiced no stage horn could hurry us
onward, and no bell, save the ‘church going bell’, could summon us forth.
The presbyterian church is a plain building, but handsomely fitted up inside,
and very comfortable. Rev. Mr. Lord is the minister, an able and pious man.
We heard in the morning a very interesting discourse from Mr. Stilwell of
the American Bethel Union. He delivered it in a Baptist church in which the
Rev. Mr. Choules officiates when in the city. It is a neat, commodious
building, the pews made of the native black walnut cushioned and lined
with horse hair. A choir of good singers accompanied by instruments led the
music. The society to which Mr. Stilwell belongs devotes itself to the
sailor’s interest. The state of the boatmen upon the Erie canal he reported to
be very wretched. There are about 25,000 boatmen and sailors employed
upon the canal and in lake navigation, who were of the lowest and most
worthless class of men; seeming inaccessible to all efforts for their
reformation or conversion. These, mixing with the lower population of
Buffalo, and other towns on their route, exerted a baneful influence. The
Bethel Union attempted to send missionaries among them, but they were
abused, insulted and almost discouraged. Still, as they felt it their duty,
these self-denying men persevered every Sunday in addressing the men
along the canal, and in presenting bibles and tracts. They soon began
however to have some hope, for when the canal closed last autumn there
were only two men who had refused tracts, and only three who insulted
them. With this success, small as it was, they were excited to go on, hoping
the Lord was smiling upon their labors. The minister most successful
among them had once been a canal boy himself, and while sitting upon his
horse dragging the boat, employed himself for hours in inventing new and
strange oaths to surprise his fellow boatmen. The men now readily listened
to him. They were conscious of their degradation, knew they were despised
by all good men, and never hoped to rise. Seeing now, one of their number
so bright and shining a light, they trusted a boatman’s name would not
always be an object of scorn. These poor men complained to him, that they
had no day of rest, as there was as much forwarding upon the Sabbath as
upon any other day. The Captains of the lake boats were also obliged to
struggle against this evil, and in some instances had renounced their trade
upon that account, or upon remonstrance had been turned adrift for some
less scrupulous Captain. The fault then seems to lie upon the forwarding
merchants, whom Mr. Stillwell addressed, begging their forbearance in this
respect.
It is to be hoped this address produced its intended effect, and the
merchants who claim a day of repose for themselves, have granted the same
to the unfortunate boatmen.[6]

June 29.—This morning we sent for a carriage and sat out to see the city
and make some visits. Buffalo, although suffering with all our cities in the
stagnation of trade, seems to be doing a great deal of business. The rows of
shops, and handsome ware-houses, seem to contain every article necessary
for comfort or luxury. It is a larger city than Rochester, but has not its air of
elegance and neatness. The town was burnt by their neighbors, the
Canadians, in 1814, but has since been rebuilt. The streets are wide and
airy, Maine street, the principal avenue, is more than a mile in length. The
churches are neat buildings, one of them, a catholic, promises, when
finished, to be handsome. The court house is a solid well built edifice
having pillars up to the roof. The markets are very good also. The city is
well situated upon ground rising gently from the lake, the upper part being
covered with handsome private dwellings, which thus obtain fine views of
the lake and surrounding country, and secure for themselves room for their
gardens which are very prettily laid out. There is here also a military station
for the United States troops, whose barracks, comfortable brick buildings,
are built around the parade ground and surrounded by a good wall. Our
friend’s cottage was upon elevated ground looking down upon the green
Niagara river, and enjoying a view of the lake in front, and behind an extent
of country covered with the untamed forest. It was the first time I had seen
a forest landscape, and I looked with much interest upon this vast plain of
green leaves reaching to the distant horizon; a smoke curled in one spot
telling of some settler clearing his way through the green wood. The
handsomest private dwellings here do not affect the Gothic or Grecian,
which had prevailed along our road, but were substantial square stone or
brick buildings, having a marble portico in front, an cupola upon the top,
surrounded by a fancy railing. Our drive around Buffalo was very
interesting, and we wondered, as we marked such a mass of solid buildings,
and depots of articles from every region in the world, and such throngs of
human beings deposited in a wilderness, but a few years redeemed from the
Indian, the buffalo, and the bear. What industry, what energy, has been
employed to bring hither all these materials. Buffalo is a frontier town, and
grand portal of the west, through which is flowing a constant stream of
travellers and emigrants. This mixture of all nations in the streets, give them
an unique appearance. Here you see the Indian beau with his tunic bound
with a crimson sash, his hat surrounded by a circle of feathers; his deer skin
pantaloons richly embroidered in barbaric patterns, while ribbons and
tassels swing out from his dress at every step. After him will pass a band of
United States soldiers; then a rough back-woodsman, upon a horse looking
as wild as himself, its uncut mane and tail waving in the wind as he gallops
violently through the streets. Then follows a party of comical German
emigrants; a scarlet clad British officer; a Canadian; a Frenchman; a wild
looking son of Erin; a sturdy ruddy, gaiter legged English farmer; a
Tonawanda squaw with her papoose upon her back; and lastly the dainty
lady traveller with her foreign abigal, and fantastically dressed children.
Among the crowd I observed a curious figure—a one legged negro, wearing
an old uniform coat with ruffled cuffs, ringing a bell most energetically. The
old English custom of sending a bell-man to proclaim the loss of any
article, prevails here, as in some of our other towns, I believe. ‘What is lost,
Sambo?’ inquired a person. ‘Your wits, massa,’ he replied quickly, setting
his juvenile train off in a fit of laughter. To another inquirer, he replied, ‘My
leg is lost, don’t you see’ holding up the stump. He is, I suppose a
privileged wit, who, if he cannot set the table, no doubt does the street in a
roar. The Buffalonians are a gay social people. The unamiable fashion of
exclusiveness being very little known here, for, living where the population
is continually changing and where strangers are constantly claiming their
hospitality, they have acquired an easy unsouciant manner, and are ever
forming social meetings to entertain the stranger. Our letters procured for us
much kind attention, and we had an opportunity of witnessing this free
hospitable spirit. In the afternoon one of our friends called, and we drove
down where a fanciful yacht awaited us, and a pleasant party of ladies and
gentlemen, for the purpose of taking us over to the ruined fort opposite the
city. This is a favorite picnic haunt of the young citizens. Fort Erie is upon
the Canadian shore, opposite Buffalo, just at the point where the Niagara
river runs out of lake Erie. It was destroyed during the war of 1812.
I have scarcely enjoyed any thing so much as that sail over Lake Erie.
The lake is here five or six miles broad. The water rushes swiftly past, as if
eager to accomplish its glorious destiny of plunging over the rocks of
Niagara, there to be a spectacle which nations come from afar to gaze upon.
We caught the excitement which seemed to animate the water, as we were
tossed upon its wavelets with quick, gay, tilting motion; and gazed with
much delight at the novel objects around us. The city, with its numerous
domes and spires; the bright Niagara rushing and gurgling at a rapid rate
over the ledge of rocks which once was Erie’s barrier ere the waters burst
their bounds—the gulls wheeling above us, or floating upon the waves; and
above all, that immense lake, that mighty mass of sparkling emerald water,
stretching far into the mysterious west. The air, breathing from the fresh
forest and cool lake, was so refreshing that I was almost sorry when we
reached the shore. Landing upon a sandy beach, we repaired to the fort,
where under the shadow of a ruined wall, we seated ourselves upon the
green sward, and while refreshing ourselves with the contents of our
provision baskets, our discourse fell upon the hapless fate of those whose
blood had dyed the fair turf around us; or upon other scenes which occurred
during that border war. But now all this is over; conqueror and vanquished
are both beneath the ‘clod of the valley’; the echo of the war trump has died
away; the green earth smiles again as peacefully as if it had never drank the
blood of the dying, and wall, and bastion, are fast crumbling into their
parent elements. The lake, the sky, the shore, are no longer vexed with
sights and sounds of strife. Alas! whence come wars and fighting among
us? Must these things always be? Must earth’s children ever thus hack and
tear each other? And we who are brethren, whose homes are in sight upon
either shore of this bright lake, can we not dwell in unity? They who have
opposite creeds, who differ in dress, in manner, in language, may and will
rival, dislike, detest, fight and exterminate each other; but we, who are sons
of the same father, who speak the same tongue, Oh, must we be ever thus at
enmity?
[7] Though ages long have passed
Since our fathers left their home;
Their pilot in the blast
O’er untravelled seas to roam,—
Yet lives the blood of England in our veins!

And still from either beach

The voice of blood shall reach,
More audible than speech,
“We are one!”

I have said this is a favorite place of resort, and here a party of gay
young people came to avoid the noise of the city, and spend a quiet day
with their books and work, upon the fourth of July. Their little feast was
spread under the shade of the fortress, and they were in the act of drinking
to the day, when they were suddenly taken captive by a band of English
soldiers. It was at that unhappy time when Canada was disturbed by
revolutionary projects, and it was naturally imagined they had come there
purposely to insult them. It was an imprudent frolic, and they paid dearly
for it; they were marched off three miles to a military station, where, after
being fully examined and no signs of revolution being found upon them,
they were suffered to depart and return as they best might. I relate the
anecdote to show how easily we may mistake each other’s motives, and
how soon ill-blood may be brewed between those who are suspicious of
each other, and ready to take offence.
While we were thus discoursing, the sky grew gradually dark, and a veil
of blackness was let down over the lake, giving token of a thunder shower.
We were soon in the boat which tossed very much, but we had able young
seamen who landed us safely just as the sun, bursting forth, smiled at our
idle fears. An evening of social pleasure ended our agreeable day.
June 30th.—This morning we were again employed in rambling about
the city. The situation of Buffalo is calculated to make it a great commercial
mart. It is upon the high road to the west, and will command much of the
business of the lakes, while the great Erie canal connects it with the
Atlantic. This canal is indeed a ‘herculean achievement.’ It is three hundred
and sixty-three miles in length, forty feet wide, and four deep; contains six
hundred and eighty-eight feet of locks; is crossed by several fine aqueducts;
and all this was completed in eight years. There are other canals connected
with it. This great artery, bringing up the produce of Europe to the west,
through this city, must increase its prosperity[8] and population.
At twelve o’clock this morning embarked in the steamboat Constellation
for Chicago, through lakes Erie, St. Clair, Huron and Michigan, a distance
of twelve hundred miles, for which we are to pay twenty dollars, ten each.
The wharves as we left them presented a busy scene. We counted forty
steamboats and canal boats, beside several large vessels. Among the latter
was the Queen Charlotte, a stately ship of war belonging to Canada, but
degraded to the ignoble fate of a Buffalo trader. She had, it is true, lost some
of her original brightness ere thus fallen, for she had been twenty-three
years under water, having been sunk in a naval fight on Lake Erie, and
lately raised. The wharves were loaded with produce and merchandize,
while carts, boats, and men, were loading and being unloaded.
We left Buffalo with regret. Its majestic river and noble lake—its back
ground of forests, gay streets, and social people, have left a vivid and
pleasing picture upon our memories. A fine pier, or breakwater as they call
it, of solid mason work extends 1100 feet, protecting the wharves from the
waves. A light house stands upon the end of the pier. When the city had
completely faded into the distant horizon we turned our gaze on our
companions. Upon one corner of the deck was a promiscuous heap of
chairs, children, pots, kettles, men and women, being a family moving west.
That old man with a cocked hat, and large metal buttons, the young man in
a blue frock, and women with embroidered stomachers and indescribable
caps, sitting upon a pile of strange looking articles of husbandry, and huge
unwieldy chests, is a band of emigrants from central Europe. A party of
English gentleman from Canada were there, bound upon a hunting
expedition to Wisconsin—another of Buffalo young men, were going to
while away the summer months in a fishing excursion upon Lake Superior,
a long light skiff being part of their travelling luggage. There were also
tourists for pleasure, information and health like ourselves, and some few
going to inspect lands which they had bought unseen. Our steamboat is a
very fine one although not of the first class. There is a handsome saloon for
the ladies surrounded by a circle of state-rooms opening upon the deck—
below are the eating rooms and gentlemen’s cabin, the whole fitted up with
comfort and elegance. There are about 53 steamboats upon lake Erie, some
of them of six hundred tons, and fitted up with every luxury and elegance,
many costing from $15,000 to $120,000 each. They are built upon a fine
model, and are well finished. The upholsterer’s bill sometimes amounts to
$4,000. They are generally built very strong to resist the waves that run
high here. The complement of men for one of these boats amounts to 40;
the captain receiving $100 a month. After an excellent dinner we ascended
to the promenade deck which, like our Hudson river boats is the uppermost
deck, surrounded with seats. We were out upon lake Erie, and gazed around
us with wonder and delight. The water was a fine dark green, which as the
wind was high, was tossed in waves crested with white foam, or sparkling
spray. The shores were in some places low and wooded, alternating with
gentle elevations, at whose foot ran a line of yellow sand—a sky of purest
azure dotted with fleecy clouds was above. What a lovely scene—

“Where shall we find in foreign land

So lone a lake, so sweet a strand?”

asks Sir Walter. This lake however is rather larger than his Scottish lake, it
being 290 miles long. It has the character of being the most tempestuous of
all the lakes, a fact we were soon able to verify, for in the afternoon the
wind increased to a gale, and the waves dashing against our vessel gave us
each time a shock as if she had struck a rock.
The ladies soon began to feel the effects of such tossing, and one after
another retired to their berths quite ill. Forty-five miles from Buffalo we
stopped at the town of Dunkirk, which is the termination of the New York
and Erie rail road. It commences at Hudson river 25 miles above the city of
New York, a distance of 450 miles from its end. This town, under these
circumstances, is rising rapidly. It has a fine circular bay having two
projecting points which protect it, one and a half miles across—and is one
of the best harbors upon the lake. There is also a pier within the shelter of
which five large schooners were moored. We observed a rail road depot
ready for the future engines and train—a church, tavern and a few stores.
Several little boys came on board with pails of cherries for sale, which they
disposed of at four cents a quart. Here we landed a passenger, an inhabitant
of Dunkirk, who, during the voyage, had been vaunting the advantages of
his town. The day would soon come, he said, when he should no longer
resort to Buffalo for his goods, as the new rail road would bring all the trade
to Dunkirk. Darkness drove us to our state room, which we found replete
with every convenience—a circumstance much to our satisfaction as we
were to spend a week in it ere we reached our destined haven. I would
recommend you if you ever travel this way, to choose, as we did, a state
cabin looking towards the shore, for these boats stop at every considerable
town, and of course keep near the coast. In consequence of this
arrangement, we could, if inclined, sit in our cabin, and through the open
door, or window, behold the scenery at our ease; while those upon the
opposite side, gazed out upon an uniform waste of waters without a shore. I
thus obtained a sight of the town of Erie where we stopped during the night.
Aroused by the noise, I looked from my window and saw the town
distinctly by clear starlight. This town is in Pennsylvania, and is the
termination of the Pittsburg and Erie canal. In the canal basin, beside canal
boats, I saw a large steamboat and several schooners. Presque Isle defends
the harbor. There was a large hotel brightly illuminated, and some stage
coaches, awaiting the arrival of passengers. Erie stands upon a high mass of
Schistose rock surmounted by a stratum of clay—the whole forty feet above
the lake.[9] There is said to be here a neat court house, and several pretty
houses surrounded by trees—the streets are at right angles, and the trade
considerable. There was a bridge spanning the canal, which I hoped was the
one where the revered La Fayette was feted. It was formed into a large tent
by sails and flags, which had waved in the battle upon the lake, under which
was a fine collation. Several ships of war have been built here. You will
surely give me credit of being a first rate correspondent when I leave my
slumbers to collect items for your amusement and edification.

July 1st.—Early this morning we found ourselves off Conneaut, which

we looked upon with interest as belonging to the great state of Ohio. It is a
small place, at the mouth of Conneaut creek near the boundary line between
Pennsylvania and Ohio—is a small but flourishing place. The next town we
passed was Ashtabula, or rather its landing place, the town being some
miles in the interior. A wooden breakwater defends the harbor. A river of
the same harmonious Indian designation empties itself into the lake sullying
its pure acqua-marine, with a dark brown tint which could be distinctly seen
a mile from the shore. The day is lovely—our boat glides swiftly upon her
course. On one hand we have a line of green waving forest coast, where the
oak, the elm, the linden, and the maple, and stately yellow birch are
standing in pretty groups, or gracefully bending over the water—upon the
other we have a shoreless ocean. For miles there are no signs of human
existence, and then some little village appears with its invariable
accompaniment, a pier, lighthouse and schooner. We passed Fairport, at the
mouth of Grand river, and from thence the ground begins to rise, being a
band of argillaceous schist, which extends to Cleveland. This is a beautiful
town standing upon this formation mixed with sand and pebbles elevated
sixty or seventy feet above the lake of which it commands a fine prospect. It
was a pretty object in our view as we approached, its steeples and buildings
crowning the summit of the picturesque cliff. We lay here some hours
taking merchandise, thus enjoying sufficient time to examine it. The
steamboat passed up, the Cuyahoga river through two piers each 1200 feet
in length. Upon each side the ground arose from the river covered with the
buildings of two rival towns, Cleveland and Ohio city. The business streets
are upon the banks of the Cuyahoga river, and the wharves were lined with
vessels, merchandise and native buckeyes, as the Ohio people are called
after their beautiful tree. Cleveland is built upon a plain; the streets running
at right-angles, wide and airy with a pretty square in the centre. There are
six churches, a neat court house, banks, public library, and many handsome
dwelling houses. The population is 7,000 and several newspapers and
periodicals are published here.[10] It is 170 miles from Buffalo. We had
been a day and a half reaching it, on account of our frequent stoppages.
This being the northern termination of the Ohio canal a great deal of
business is done here. Their trade in flour and wheat is very great, they
having exported nearly a million of barrels of flour in one season—cotton,
tobacco and other southern merchandise has passed up from the Ohio river
through the canal. This canal runs the whole length of the state of Ohio to
Portsmouth upon the Ohio river a distance of 309 miles. It is forty feet
wide, four deep, and has 152 locks.[11] The Cuyahoga river is sixty three
miles in length, and running down over the sandstone ledges which abound
in that region, it has a fall of 240 feet, affording a fine water power. From
Buffalo to the borders of Michigan there is a band of alluvion upon the lake
shore from three to twenty miles in width. This is bounded by a ridge of
rocks 40 or 50 feet high once, according to Darby and Schoolcraft, the
original boundary of the lake, thus giving another proof that these lakes
were once higher than at present they are. This ridge is composed of
micaceous limestone, and schistose rocks, covered with farms, and groves
of beech and oak which attain to a large size. Yesterday afternoon while
sailing upon the lake, we observed these hills making a pretty back ground
to the towns on the shore—now it trends too much to the interior to be seen.
In this ridge arise waters which flow each way, some into lake Erie, and
others, as the Muskingum and Alleghany, into the valley of the Ohio. This
last river, becoming the Ohio, falls into the gulf of Mexico ‘upwards of
twelve degrees of latitude from its source.’[12] Successive ledges or steppes
of sandstone rock lead down to the lake, over which the rivers flow in
rapids or falls, making the scenery in that region very beautiful. We took in
at Cleveland several barrels of flour, and nails, and Selma salt, and boxes of
merchandise,—landed several passengers, and then left this interesting
town. It must, I imagine be a very delightful place of residence. The
Cuyahoga could be distinctly traced some distance from the shore in a long
dark line.
The swell in the lake still continuing, most of our passengers had
become too ill to leave their berths. A horse which was at the other end of
the vessel also became affected. Our German emigrants felt it least, as they
had been seasoned by crossing the Atlantic. I saw them seated upon their
packages, eating brown bread and cheese as merrily as ever. Their passage
costs them little as they provide their own frugal fare, and sleep upon their
goods on the deck. Several others pursued this economical plan. The
emigrants from the German and Swiss nations are invaluable to us and
ought to be warmly received, for in industry, economy and patience, they
set a very excellent example to our extravagant people. They always
succeed; their settlements and farms present an admirable order and
neatness, and yield a rich reward to their patient labor. The restless spirit,
the excitement, caused by a hope of rising in the world, of seeing no one
above him, which animates the American bosom, and many of our
transplanted brethren, never agitates them. Where they plant themselves
they remain, and in labor and social duties, pass the even tenor of their way.
The motion, rendered it impossible to walk, or even stand unless supported,
and instead of being unpleasant to me, I have seldom experienced
sensations so novel and delightful. My companion being an old traveller felt
no ill effects from it either. Leaning over the railing, we watched the vessel
as she surmounted one huge wave to sink again as soon. The fresh western
breeze, breathing perfume from the forest clad shores, exhilerated our
spirits, and spread forth our star-spangled banner in a bright canopy over
our heads. Two noble steamboats filled with passengers from the ‘far west’
passed us with their banners flying, the bells of the three boats ringing out
their friendly salutations to each other. They are gone—the white foam of
their track alone remaining to show where so many human beings had just
been wafted away. How glorious was that sunset on lake Erie! Dark and
stormy clouds had gradually gathered from every quarter, and now dropped
down as a veil over the west concealing the sun from our view, and the lake
is one vast gloomy abyss. But see—some fairy hand has touched the clouds
with gold and purple and every gorgeous hue—the surface of the water is
streaked with rose, and every wave is gilded. The towers of Cleveland now
distinctly painted against the dark horizon, are glittering as if cut from
jewelry. Our fears of storms are vanishing, when suddenly a black terrific
cloud spotted with fiery blood color, appeared in front of us, as if the Indian
Manitou had arisen from the lake to arrest our progress and forbid our
farther entrance into his dominions. Larger and larger it grew, until the
heavens were covered with inky blackness, A terrible blast lashed the lake
into fury—the waves arose in their might as if to reject us from its bosom—
our vessel careened fearfully upon one side, and confusion ensued. Men
hurried forward to remove the merchandise to the other side and trim the
vessel—women’s heads were, from the cabin doors asking ‘what’s the
matter’ and torrents of rain are surging over the deck. The awnings are
buttoned down—all is proclaimed tight and right, and we retired to our
state-room to listen to the wail of the wind, and write our promised journals.
 LETTER VI.
July 2, 1840.
Dear E.—Rocked by the tempest we slept soundly, but arose in time to
witness a glorious sunrise scene upon lake Erie. We were in the centre of
the lake—no land was visible on either side, save two lonely islands, one of
which was just vanishing upon the distant horizon, while the other one was
only a short distance from our vessel. Suddenly a dazzling radiance shot up
from the east, and in a few moments the sun came rushing from out the
water as if in eager haste to greet his favorite lake. A flood of glory lighted
up the green depths of Erie; tinging the foam with a thousand prismatic
hues, and tipping with gold the white plumage of the birds which were
soaring over our heads. The dark alleys of beech, maple, and hickory which
covered the island, and its pebbly shore covered with diamond spray, were
illumined with the morning rays, receiving new beauty from every touch.
We were stretching from Sandusky bay upon the Ohio shore to the Detroit
river; many islands were passed, some of them quite large. Cuningham
island contains 2,000 acres. They are of limestone rock covered with forest
trees. Here was the scene of the famous naval battle upon lake Erie, and
these peaceful glades once echoed with the cannon’s roar. I regretted not
seeing Sandusky, a large and pretty town, situated upon a river and bay of
the same name. Here also is the mouth of the Maumee river, or the Miami
of the lakes, northern termination of the great canal which commences at
Cincinnati, and is connected with the canals of Indiana.
Land began to appear upon our western quarter, and soon the State of
Michigan became visible. The mouth of Detroit river was soon after seen
here, five miles wide from the Canadian shore to Michigan. At
Amherstburg, a small Canadian town, we stopped about seven o’clock, for
the purpose of taking in wood. The flashing of bayonets and the red
uniform, as the sentinel walked up and down the wharf, told us we were in a
land belonging to another nation. Fort Malden is passed soon after. Upon a
platform, in front of the fortress, a file of soldiers were going through their
exercises, their brilliant scarlet dresses and arms, prettily flashing back the
morning sun. A boat, filled with red-coated soldiers, was passing over to an
island to relieve the guard which stood upon a romantic point, near his little
sentry box. A large ship came rapidly down the river, with all its sails out,
looking like a huge bird of prey winging his flight to the shore, adding to
the variety of the scene. Detroit is a beautiful river, connecting lakes St.
Clair and Erie. Its width is generally about a mile—opposite Detroit city
three-fourths of a mile. The shores are very beautiful, cultivated upon each
side, with several pretty islands in the centre. Upon the Canadian side we
observed several French settlements, their windmills upon every point
giving a novel and unique effect to the scene. We did not reach Detroit until
ten o’clock, although it is only 19 miles from the mouth of the river, owing
to our delay in taking in wood. The city appeared well, covering a plateau
of ground elevated 40 feet above the river. Three steamboats were in sight
as we approached, one being a ferry boat to the town of Sandwich,
opposite. As we were to remain here some time we landed and walked
about the city. The city stands upon a plain which commands an extensive
view of the river and surrounding country. A broad street runs through the
centre called Jefferson avenue, lined on each side with shops and hotels. At
the upper end are several handsome dwellings surrounded with gardens.
The churches are common in their appearance, except the catholic, which I
must say was uncommon. It is a large building of unpainted wood, having
two odd looking steeples exactly alike, in the centre of the front; at the back
is a dome having on each side a belfrey. Adjoining this is the residence of
the Bishop, a large brick building. I was disappointed in the appearance of
this city. It was built by the French, you know, in 1670, and being so much
older than Rochester or Buffalo, we naturally supposed it would be larger
than it is. But the same causes do not operate here which influence the
prosperity of the other cities. It has not the old and settled state of New
York behind it, nor the great canal. Michigan, of which Detroit is the
capital, has been recently settled, and that only in the southern parts. The
fur trade was for years its main dependence, and that has of late fallen off
very much. As man invades the recesses of the forest, the animals retreat
before him. Detroit has, however, felt the wind in her sails, and is rapidly
following after her southern sisters. Of this, the increase of population is
one proof—2,222 being their number in 1830, and 1839, 9,278. Several
railroads are planned out, which, when the river and lakes are filled with
ice, will be of much service. Of these, the Detroit and St. Joseph are the
principal—leading from this city across the State to lake Michigan, a
distance of 194 miles; 33 miles are completed. Many persons take this route
to Chicago, in preference to the more extensive one around the lakes.
Besides these, there are in contemplation the Detroit and Pontiac; Shelby
and Detroit, &c. Michigan will soon fill up, as its population has increased
since 1830, seven hundred per cent.; then it was 28,600, and now, in 1840,
they count 211,205. Detroit will then be the great depot of the lakes, and
bids fair to rival the neighboring cities. Here we landed our German
emigrants, who were bound to the rich plains of Michigan. Upon the wharf
were men busily engaged packing white fish salted, with barrels, fifty of
which we took on board. The white fish is a delicious fish, something the
form of our shad, averaging from 4 to 10 lbs. and sometimes weigh 14 lbs.
There is a great trade of this fish upon the lakes. 30,000 barrels were
exported from Cleveland this season. While passing the city, when we had
resumed our voyage, we observed several rows of handsome ware houses,
many of which seemed as if newly erected. We also noticed a large brick
building erected for the hydraulic works which supply the city with water, it
being in these lakes fit for cooking, washing and drinking. This city is the
scene of one of Pontiac exploits. He was one of those brave and haughty
spirits who cannot accustom themselves to the yoke of the white men. Of
these, a few have appeared in latter years; Black Hawk being the last. The
French he had become accustomed to, and suffered their presence in his
realms, but when another nation appeared he determined to root them out
the land. They were at peace apparently, but a deceitful peace, for Pontiac
was organizing a confederacy against the English, who then occupied
Detroit. ‘There was no sounding of the tocsin, no alarm of war given, no
motion of the waves were felt,’ to quote the words of McKenney—‘In this
moment of stillness, a scout returned bringing the intelligence that a large
body of Indians were crossing lake St. Clair in canoes, and coming in the
direction of Detroit, while numerous bands were appearing at every point.’
Pontiac appeared in the neighborhood with 3,000 warriors, who, in a
friendly manner approached the fort, erected their wigwams, and
commenced their Indian games, to lull all suspicion. That very band,
unknown to the English, had just returned from the bloody massacre of Fort
Michilimackinack, which they had surprised in the manner they now
intended. Major Gladwin, however, suspected them, and admitted only six
Indians at a time in the fort. The wily Pontiac at length succeeded in having
a council held at the fort, and was permitted to attend with thirty-six chiefs.
Their rifles were cut short and hid under their robes, with which they were
to shoot down the officers and seize the fort. Were it not for the fidelity of a
squaw to her master in the fort, the plan would have succeeded. As it was,
they suffered severely from famine, and many were cut off who came to
reinforce them, before the Indians finally retreated. Ten miles from Detroit
the river gradually expands into lake St. Clair. A pretty lake—a most sweet
lake—appearing small among its larger sisters, and yet it is 90 miles in
circumference. The waters are cool and transparent, fringed with the
graceful ash, the linden, ‘tasseled gentle,’ the beech, and the stately
lioriodendron, and many other varieties. We felt reluctant to enter and ruffle
the glassy surface, and disturb the profound repose which reigned around.
The shores are low and there are no houses in sight. A wood cutter’s hut,
and at its extremity, a light-house, were the only signs of life we saw. The
trees were throwing their flickering shadows upon the placid water, or
leaning over, as if to admire their own reflection so perfectly painted upon
the mirrored surface,—

In which the massy forest grew,

As if in upper air;
More perfect both in shape and hue,
Than any waving there.

If you do not choose to emigrate to any of those charming spots I have

mentioned along the road; if Auburn, or Rochester, or Cleveland do not lure
you, perhaps you would like to come to the picturesque shores of St. Clair,
and weave you a bower ‘in some sweet solitary nook’ under those trees of
‘ancient beauty;’ or erect a picturesque hermitage with a pet skull, and
moralize and spiritualize your hours away. I have heard many declare they
could better worship their Creator in the fields and woods than in temples
made with hands, and can ‘look from nature up to nature’s God.’ I fear such
are greatly deceived in the nature of their feelings, and many a lonely
anchorite has thus mistaken adoration of the beauties of creation for
worship of its Creator. His heart may be filled with the most elevated
emotions while contemplating the glory and grandeur of God’s works, and
he may be subdued to tears of tenderness while reflecting upon that
kindness and mercy which has adorned the residence of man with such
exquisite loveliness; but will that regenerate his heart? will it give him a
knowledge of his Savior; shew him the mysteries of faith and redemption,
and subject his will to that of Christ? If so, let him live upon a mountain
top, and gaze at will; but I much fear these sentiments are but the
‘semblance of sacredness.’
The shores of St. Clair, being low, display the rise which has taken place
in these northern lakes. That there is a rise and fall in this singular mass of
fresh water has been observed for many years; and many opinions have
been hazarded as to its cause. Some of the Indians declare there is a regular
rise and fall every seven years; while the scientific traveller, Darby, tells us
there is a rise once in fifty years. A person, upon whose knowledge we
could rely, told us at Buffalo, one year, while he resided upon the banks of
the St. Lawrence, the current ran out of lake Ontario at the rate of ten miles,
and the next year the lake had unaccountably risen, and ran thirteen miles
an hour. It must have been one of those extraordinary floods, of course
much higher, which caused the lakes to overflow, as I have mentioned
above—that is, if it were not a diluvial torrent. The captain of our
steamboat, who had navigated these lakes for several years, a man of
intelligence and integrity, agreed with the Indians in the belief of a gradual
rise and fall in seven years. During these last two years the water has risen
to the height of five or six feet. Our captain pointed to many spots, upon the
shore, where the water had overflowed the land. Upon one pretty place a
farm house had been abandoned, and a fine apple orchard, standing two
years in the water, had been destroyed; and now, while all around was
green, their limbs were bare and leafless. A very intelligent man, a settler
upon the river St. Clair, pointed to several noble maple and beech trees, as
we passed the Michigan shore, whose gradual decay he had watched, while
making his spring and fall trips in order to purchase goods in New York. It
was pitiable, he said, to behold such goodly trees, ‘green robed senators of
ancient woods,’ sinking beneath the subtle destroyer, as some noble heart
withering away at the touch of affliction! He watched them with an interest
he would a friend consuming under a slow decay—their glorious beauty
dimmed and faded, until a lifeless skeleton alone remained.

“a huge oak dry and dead,

Still clad with relics of its trophies old,
Lifting to heaven its aged hoary head,
Whose foot on earth hath got but feeble hold.”

This man’s history interested us much, and I will relate it for your
edification. He was a native of our city of New York, one of a large family
straightened for means. While quite young he had married, and struggled
for years to support his family respectably, but sickness and ‘bad times’
rendered his lot a gloomy one. Hearing so often of the happiness and
prosperity of ‘the west,’ he resolved to remove thither, and accordingly
bought a tract of land upon St. Clair river, then farther west than it now is.
He came here twenty years since, with a wife and several young children,
and a mere trifle in money. A little village has now risen around him, of
which he is the owner. He has built a good tavern for travellers, which he
rents out; has erected a saw-mill; a few shops and houses, and a little
church. His children are married and settled around him; and he is, as he
expressed himself, ‘independent of the world.’ Once a year he goes to New
York or Buffalo, to purchase goods for his shop. How much better is this
state of things than to remain, struggling for a morsel, among the hungry
crowd of a large city. I asked him if he never repented renouncing a city
life. ‘No, indeed!’ he answered—‘I go there once or twice a year to transact
business, but hurry away, for I feel as if in prison. I want elbow room, and
never breathe free until threading my green lakes and vast forests again. I
am glad to leave such fictitious existence, where each man models his
conduct upon that of his neighbor, and dare not act as his spirit prompts
him.’ We had passed into St. Clair river, and about sun-down dropped this
man and his goods at his little village, which was seated upon a green slope,
cut out of the forest, upon the Michigan shore. The houses were surrounded
by little gardens and seemed comfortable.
The sign of the village inn was swinging in the summer breeze; a
traveller had just alighted from his horse in front of the piazza, and the
steam from his mill was rising high above the trees tinted purple in the
evening light. From a shop door a young man, probably his son,
accompanied by a neighbor, stepped forth to greet him; while, from the
honeysuckle-covered porch of a neat cottage a woman, whom I fancied his
wife, was looking eagerly out to watch his approach. Every thing denoted
industry, cheerfulness, and independence.
Soon after leaving the village of Clay, we observed a ship at anchor near
the shore, quite a picturesque object. It proved to be the Milwaukie, a ship
of three hundred tons burthen, bound from Buffalo to Chicago. It was
waiting for wind, or steam, to enable it to enter lake Huron, as this lake
pours into the river St. Clair with so strong a current, that vessels can
seldom stem it without a strong wind. She was soon attached to our
steamboat, and we both passed swiftly along. What a superb western sky!
The sun has long left us, and yet we scarcely miss its light, so golden and so
brilliant is the mantle he has left behind him. It is nearly nine o’clock, and
yet I can see to write this, but fatigue drives me to my cabin, and forces me
to say adieu until to-morrow.

July 3d.—Still in the river St. Clair. We stopped some hours in the night
at Newport, to take in a supply of wood. The captain purchased eighty cords
at $1,50 a cord. He told us it was his opinion the steamboats upon these
waters would soon be obliged to burn coal, although surrounded by such a
world of trees, as there is so much time wasted in stopping for it. I did not
regret our detention, as I was anxious to lose no part of a scenery to me so
novel and pleasing. This is a beautiful river about sixty miles long, and half
a mile broad, having several little towns upon it. Cotrelville and Palmer we
had also passed in the night; the latter a thriving place, from which a rail
road is contemplated to Romeo, twenty-six miles, there to meet the Shelby
and Detroit rail road. A communication will thus be continued with Detroit
through the winter. The country upon the Canadian shore is wild and
uninhabited, while the Michigan side of the river is frequently adorned with
fields of grass or wheat, or thrifty orchards. The houses are plain, but
seemed surrounded by every comfort. Our course ran quite near this shore,
so close, that I might fancy myself transported into the midst of a farm yard,
with all its morning business going on. A pretty white wood house is before
me now, surrounded by fields and barns, having a row of cherry trees in
front whose fruit is glistening red in the morning sun. In the barn yard a
man is chopping wood, to cook the breakfast, I suppose—another is busy
hoeing in a potatoe field—a boy is leading a horse down to the river for
water, while numerous other children are arrested in their play and stand
open mouthed gazing at us—ducks are dabbling in the wavelets—pigs are
rooting up the turf—a flock of geese are running down the bank at us with
beaks and wings extended in a warlike attitude—while a sober cow chews
her cud under a large hickory nut tree. The next moment all is gone, to give
place to the silent groves of oak, maple and ash. Upon a long narrow island
near the Canadian shore, my eyes were attracted by what seemed a row of