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Detailed Contents
Preface to the Seventh Edition
What’s New in This Edition
Acknowledgments
About the Authors
PART I• MANAGING IN CONTEMPORARY ORGANIZATIONS
Chapter 1 • Communicating in Contemporary Organizations
A Brief History of Managerial Communication
Management Communication in Ancient Times
1900s: Management Efficiency and One-Way
Communication
1920s: The Human Relations Approach and the Rise of
Interpersonal Communication
1950s: The Behavioral Approach and Organizational
Communication
1990s: The Empowerment Approach and Participative
Communication
21st Century: The Contingency Approach to
Management Communication
Factors Affecting Communication Contingencies
Diversity
Gender Diversity
Cultural Diversity
Age Diversity
Education Diversity
Competition and the Drive for Quality
Ethics
The Importance of Studying Managerial Communication
Summary
• Cases for Small-Group Discussion
Chapter 2 • Understanding the Managerial Communication
Process
Levels of Managerial Communication
A Strategic Approach
 The First Layer
Communication Climate
Cultural Context
The Second Layer
Sender (Encoder)
Receiver (Decoder)
Purpose of the Message
The Third Layer
Message Content
Channel of the Message
Physical Environment
Time
Feedback and Measures of Effectiveness
Critical Errors in Communication
The Assumption–Observation Error
The Failure to Discriminate
Allness and the Process of Abstraction
Summary
• Cases for Small-Group Discussion
Chapter 3 • Communicating With Technology
A Framework for Using Technologically Mediated
Communication
Bandwidth
Perceived Personal Closeness
Feedback
A Symbolic Interactionist Perspective
Matching Technology and the Message
Message Sensitivity
Message Negativity
Message Complexity
Message Persuasiveness
Communicating with Technology at Work
E-mail
Electronic Messaging: IM and Text
Blogging
Videoconferencing
Social Networks
 Considerations for Technology Use
Monitoring Technology Use
Decision Making
Job and Organizational Design
Collaboration
The Management Challenge
Summary
• Cases for Small-Group Discussion
PART II• COMMUNICATING WITH GROUPS
Chapter 4 • Managing Meetings and Teams
Advantages and Disadvantages of Working in Teams
Advantages of Teams
Disadvantages of Teams
Groupthink
Strategic Considerations for Meetings
Strategic Consideration 1: Should We Meet?
Strategic Consideration 2: Who Should Attend?
Strategic Consideration 3: Agenda and Materials
Strategic Consideration 4: Leadership Style
Leading Project Teams
Strategic Consideration 5: Managing Disruptions
Before the Meeting
During the Meeting
Strategic Consideration 6: Follow-Up
Strategic Considerations for Face-to-Face Meetings
Strategic Consideration 7: Physical Facilities
Seating Arrangements
Strategic Considerations for Virtual Meetings
Strategic Consideration 8: Technological Adequacy
Strategic Consideration 9: Team Relationships
Strategic Consideration 10: Cultural Differences
Group Decision-Making Formats
Rational Problem-Solving Process
The Nominal Group Technique
The Delphi Technique
Summary
• Cases for Small-Group Discussion
Chapter 5 • Making Presentations
Plan Your Presentation
Purpose
Length
Audience Analysis
Organize Your Presentation
Introduction
Organization of Persuasive Presentations
Persuasion Variables
Ethical Persuasion
Organization of Informative Presentations
Transitions
Evidence
Factual Evidence
Opinions as Evidence
Closing
Anticipate Questions
Prepare Your Visual Aids
Criteria
Types
Deliver Your Presentation
Speaking Anxiety
Speaker Notes
Nonverbal Aspects
Body Language
Vocal Style
Media Presentations
Team Presentations
Impromptu Speaking
Summary
• Exercises
Chapter 6 • Communicating Visually
Document Design
Design Principles for Managerial Communication
Building Blocks
Grid
Alignment
 Typography
Color
Conventions
Relationships
Emphasis
Unity
Using Graphics
Data Displays
Tables
Charts
Quantitative Charts
Concept Charts
Creating Ethical Data Displays
Illustrations
Photographs
Line Art
Designing Graphics for Accessibility
Tables
Charts
Copyright Considerations for Graphics
Summary
• Cases for Small-Group Discussion
PART III• WRITING AS A MANAGER
Chapter 7 • Writing in the Workplace
The Unique Role of Managerial Writing
Stage 1: Planning
What?
Why?
Who?
When?
Where?
How?
Stage 2: Composing
Selecting Words
Principle 1: Choose Words Precisely
Principle 2: Use Short Rather Than Long Words
 Principle 3: Use Concrete Rather Than Abstract
Words
Principle 4: Economize on Words
Principle 5: Avoid Clichés and Jargon
Principle 6: Use Positive Words That Convey
Courtesy
Principle 7: Use a Conversational Style
Organizing Words for Effect
Principle 8: Keep Sentences Short
Principle 9: Prefer the Active to the Passive Voice
Principle 10: Organize Paragraphs Logically
Principle 11: Be Coherent
Stage 3: Revising
Collaborative Writing
Advantages of Collaborative Writing
Disadvantages of Collaborative Writing
Guidelines for Effective Collaborative Writing
Summary
• Exercise: Plain English at a Glance
• Case for Small–Group Discussion
• Exercise for Small Groups
Chapter 8 • Writing Routine Messages
Audience Adaptation
Basis of the You Attitude
Anticipating Questions
Stressing Reader Benefits
Avoiding Negatives
Nonverbal Elements and the You Attitude
Diction
Organizational Strategies
Direct Strategy
Opening
Body
Close
Indirect Strategy
Opening
Body
 Close
Handling Negatives
Specific Types: Direct Messages
Inquiries and Requests
Opening
Body
Close
Positive Responses to Inquiries and Requests
Opening
Body
Close
Claims
Opening
Body
Close
Positive Responses to Claims
Opening
Body
Close
Specific Types: Indirect Messages
Negative Responses to Inquiries
Opening
Body
Close
Refused Claims
Opening
Body
Close
Apologies
Persuasive Messages
Opening
Body
Close
Letter Formats
Internal Correspondence
Memo Format
E-mail Format
 Memo and E-mail Uses
Communicating to Groups
Fixing Responsibility
Communicating With Opponents
Communicating With the Inaccessible
Types of Internal Correspondence
Announcements
Requests for Action
Political Uses in Business
Summary
• Cases for Small-Group Discussion
• Exercise for Small Groups
Chapter 9 • Writing Reports and Proposals
The Report-Writing Process
Groundwork
Defining the Problem or Objective
Developing Recommendations
Seeking Data
Report Parts
Strategic Considerations
Design
Audience
Effort
Significance
The Original Assignment
Precedent
Arrangement of Points
Direct Order
Indirect Order
Organization of the Body
Time
Place
Quantity/Size
Criteria or Factors
Headings
Content Headings
Heading Levels
 Transitions
Memo and Letter Reports
Memo Reports
Introduction
Body
Close
Letter Reports
Organization
Introduction
Body
Close
Elements of the Formal Report
Front Matter
Title Page
Transmittal Document
Table of Contents
List of Illustrations
Executive Summary
The Report Proper
Introduction: Required Elements
Introduction: Optional Elements
Body
Summary, Conclusions, and/or Recommendations
Back Matter
References/Bibliography
Appendixes
Visual Aids
General Rules
Summary
• Cases for Small-Group Discussion
PART IV• UNDERSTANDING MESSAGES
Chapter 10 • Listening
Benefits of Listening
Barriers to Listening
Preparing to Listen
Specific Techniques for Active Listening
Identify the Main and Supporting Points
 Organize the Message
Summarize the Message
Visualize the Message
Personalize the Message
Take Notes
Specific Techniques for Interactive Listening
Paraphrasing
Questioning
Open–Closed Questions
Primary–Secondary Questions
Neutral–Directed Questions
Responding to Negative Messages
Listening to Informal Communication
Listening to the Total Environment
Developing a Listening Climate
The Micro Listening Climate
The Macro Listening Climate
Summary
• Cases for Small-Group Discussion
• Exercise for Small Groups
Chapter 11 • Communicating Nonverbally
The Importance of Nonverbal Communication
The Functions of Nonverbal Cues
Movement
Spatial Messages
Spatial Zones
Spatial Differences
Strategic Use of Space
Personal Appearance
Voice
Applications of Nonverbal Communication Research
Phone Sales and Service
Teams and Meetings
Informal Communication
External Communication
Nonverbal Signs of Deception
Baseline
 Movement
Dress
Personal Space
Artifacts
Voice
Summary
• Cases for Small-Group Discussion
Chapter 12 • Communicating Across Cultures
Rationale
The Global Economy
Foreign Direct Investment
Culturally Diverse Workforces
What Is Culture?
Intercultural Myths
Some of the Ways in Which We Differ
Power Distance
Uncertainty Avoidance
Collectivism/Individualism
Masculinity/Femininity
Context
Monochronic/Polychronic
Should You Learn the Language?
Nonverbal Sensitivity
Greetings
Dress
Space, Touch, and Posture
Gestures
Food
Gifts
What Is a Good Intercultural Communicator?
Developing Interculturally Sensitive Managers
Cultural Competence in Foreign Environments
Cultural Competence in Domestic Environments
Summary
• Cases for Small-Group Discussion
• Exercise for Small Groups
PART V• COMMUNICATING INTERPERSONALLY
Chapter 13 • Managing Conflict
Benefits of Conflict
The Relationship Between Communication and Conflict
Sources of Conflict
Conflict and Perception
Strategies in Conflict Resolution
Avoiding
Accommodating
Forcing
Compromising
Problem Solving: The Win–Win Strategy
Description of the Strategy
Beliefs Necessary to Implement the Strategy
Belief 1: Cooperation Is Better Than Competition
Belief 2: Parties Can Be Trusted
Belief 3: Status Differences Can Be Minimized
Belief 4: Mutually Acceptable Solutions Can Be
Found
Implementing the Strategy
Conflict and Management Success
Summary
• Cases for Small-Group Discussion
• Exercise
Chapter 14 • Negotiating
Negotiation and Networking
Negotiation and Conflict
A Strategic Model for Negotiations
Layer 1: Culture and Climate
Layer 2: Sender, Receiver, and Purpose
Purpose
Defining the Maximum Supportable and Least
Acceptable Outcomes
Finding the LAO and MSO
Defining BATNA
Layer 3: Time, Environment, Content, and Channel
Time
Environment
 Message Content
Opening Messages
Concessions
Questions
Answering Questions
Channel
Layer 4: Core Strategies
Surprise
Bluff
Stacking
Fait Accompli
Take It or Leave It
Screen
Summary
• Cases for Small-Group Discussion
• Exercise for Small Groups
Chapter 15 • Conducting Interviews
Barriers to Effective Interviews
Barrier 1: Differing Intentions
Barrier 2: Bias
Barrier 3: Confusing Facts With Inferences
Barrier 4: Nonverbal Communication
Barrier 5: Effects of First Impressions
Barrier 6: Organizational Status
Strategies for Effective Interviews
1: What Is the Interview Objective?
2: Where Is the Best Place to Conduct the Interview?
3: What Is the Best Way to Begin the Interview?
4: What Is the Best Questioning Strategy?
5: What Is the Best Sequence for the Questions?
6: What Are the Best Types of Questions?
7: What Is the Best Way to Close the Interview?
Employment Interviews
Planning
Legal Concerns
The Employment Interview Process
Use Appropriate Questioning Strategy
 Do Not Do Most of the Talking
Keep Records
Performance Review Interviews
Types
Planning
Timing
Environment
Message Content
The Performance Interview Process
Supportive Communication Climate
Evaluative Versus Descriptive
Control Versus Problem Orientation
Neutrality Versus Empathy
Superiority Versus Equality
Certainty Versus Provisionalism
Providing Performance Feedback
Establishing Goals
Networking
Purpose
How to Network
Summary
• Cases for Small-Group Discussion
• Exercise for Small Groups
Index
Preface to the Seventh Edition

The roots of this textbook extend back to 1984, when John Wiley and Sons
published Managerial Communication: A Strategic Approach, by Larry
Smeltzer and John Waltman. Their practical, results-oriented examination
of managerial communication was groundbreaking at the time. In the
preface they stated the book’s objective: “to develop managers who
communicate in a creative manner by understanding and strategically
applying appropriate concepts.” That objective is still valid.

A second edition added Don Leonard as third author in 1991. Gerry Hynes
adopted the 1994 edition, authored by Larry Smeltzer and Don Leonard, by
then titled Managerial Communication: Strategies and Applications. She
had been looking for a graduate-level text that presented a balanced
approach to workplace communication and that was written for managers
and executives.

These strengths drew Gerry to that early edition:

A strategic approach
A solid research base
Comprehensive coverage of contemporary issues
An even-handed examination of oral and written communication
channels
A focus on managerial rather than entry-level competencies

Gerry came onboard as third author with Smeltzer and Leonard for the
2002 edition and obtained sole authorship starting with the 2008 edition.
In 2017, she invited Jennifer to join her as a second author on the new
(seventh) edition. Our goal continues to be ensuring that the qualities that
made the original book unique and successful are still present in this
seventh edition. Truth is truth. It does not change with the times.
Therefore, our task is to bring timeless communication principles into the
contemporary workplace. To meet the needs of today’s busy
manager/student, we updated the chapters, describing current business
practices, summarizing relevant research, and providing guidelines for
strategic managerial communication.

The reality is that an effective contemporary manager must possess a wide

range of skills. While being accountable to an executive team and a
customer base, a manager must be able to motivate subordinates and
cross-functional work groups with diverse backgrounds, interpret
complicated rules, foster process improvement, and meet sometimes-
unclear organizational expectations. Furthermore, today’s manager often
must use new technology to accomplish these tasks. Since these advanced
abilities do not necessarily come from prior work experience,
communication education is a vital component in managerial
development.

Working together on this textbook has been both enjoyable and

challenging. It has forced us to evaluate the content of the managerial
communication courses we teach in our MBA programs, Gerry at Sam
Houston State University and Jennifer at Minnesota State University,
Mankato, to sort out what is important and what is no longer important for
our students to know and be able to do. We hope that the results of these
efforts satisfy other students’ professional communication needs as well.
After all, we know for sure that effective communication leads to
managerial and organizational success. The value of these courses is not
controversial; the key is to keep the course content fresh.
What’s New in This Edition

Many adopters of the sixth edition of Managerial Communication:

Strategies and Applications indicated that major strengths are its balanced
approach to managerial writing and oral communication, the end-of-
chapter cases and exercises that offer opportunities for practice and
application of the principles, and the comprehensive instructor
supplements. We retained these strengths in the seventh edition. On the
other hand, this edition shakes things up a bit. We realized that the book
was missing an important mode of communication, so we added a new
chapter on visual communication. We updated the content of the other
chapters as well; the new features are described below.

New Chapter
Audiences expect professional documents to be not only accurate and
thorough but also attractive and usable. Visual elements attract attention,
organize information, and enhance the persuasiveness of messages.
Although a comprehensive discussion of document design exceeds the
scope of this book, we introduce a collection of design principles that
managers can easily apply in their reports, proposals, presentations, and
other documents. We also describe best practices for using a variety of
graphics, including tables, data displays, and illustrations. Because some
readers may have visual impairments, we offer advice about improving the
accessibility of graphics. We conclude with a reminder about copyright
protections that may limit use of graphics that students may find online.

Changes in Existing Chapters

Every chapter features updated examples and references to research and
practice of managerial communication. Chapter-specific improvements in
the seventh edition include the following:
Chapter 1 (“Communicating in Contemporary Organizations”) has an
expanded consideration of the challenges that managers face in
communicating with diverse groups of employees.
Chapter 2 (“Understanding the Managerial Communication Process”)
includes a clearer discussion of the strategic communication model,
with examples for each level.
Chapter 3 (“Communicating With Technology”) is updated to include
greater coverage of electronic messaging at work, videoconferencing,
and social media. Emphasis is on the principles and best practices
that apply to both emerging technologies and better-established
technologies, such as e-mail and videoconferencing. A section on
surveillance warns students to expect that their employers will
monitor their technology use.
Chapter 4 (“Managing Meetings and Teams”) includes a considerably
expanded discussion of effective communication for virtual teams
and new Stop and Think inserts.
Chapter 5 (“Making Presentations”) has an expanded section on
virtual presentations and a new section on storytelling as a persuasive
strategy.
Chapter 7 (“Writing in the Workplace”) contains updated references.
Advice about collaborative writing has been moved to the end of the
chapter to return the focus to the writing process.
Chapter 8 (“Writing Routine Messages”) offers updated guidelines
for formatting and designing e-mail, letters, and memos. The
expanded discussion of negative messages includes recent examples
of corporate apologies.
Chapter 9 (“Writing Reports and Proposals”) takes an in-depth look
at formal and informal business reports, including proposals and
analytical reports. It also provides more information about evaluating
and citing sources of information.
Chapter 10 (“Listening”) has a new section on social listening. It also
expands the discussion of techniques for listening and responding to
negative messages.
Chapter 11 (“Communicating Nonverbally”) now includes a section
on the use of emoji in business documents.
Chapter 12 (“Communicating Across Cultures”) explores cultural
differences in business communication. New examples of
corporations that prepare their managers to function in culturally
diverse environments, both abroad and domestically, have been
added.
Chapter 13 (“Managing Conflict”) adds new emphasis to advice on
choosing conflict resolution approaches.
Chapter 14 (“Negotiating”) includes a new expanded discussion of
cross-cultural negotiation strategies.
Chapter 15 (“Conducting Interviews”) presents additional guidelines
for employment interviews and performance appraisal interviews.
Strategies are offered for networking as a type of informational
interviews.
Acknowledgments

Most importantly, we wish to acknowledge John Waltman, Larry Smeltzer,

and Don Leonard, who pioneered this textbook. They explicated the
centrality of communication for managerial success, which we now know
is an enormous undertaking. We deeply respect their wisdom and vision.

Many people helped make this edition a reality. Josh Davis, an SHSU
graduate business research assistant, performed his tasks with diligence,
accuracy, and good cheer. Maggie Stanley, our SAGE acquisitions editor,
smoothed the way with her perspicacity and dependability. Katie Ancheta
and Alissa Nance kept us on schedule and helped us navigate the revision
process. Andrew Olson, our Production Editor, was very professional,
positive, and constructive as he shepherded this book through the final
crucial stages. Several reviewers offered valuable insights and suggestions
that shaped this edition. They are Abram Anders, University of Minnesota
Duluth; Silvina Bamrungpong, California Lutheran University; Yvonne
Block, College of Lake County; Rodney Carveth, Morgan State
University; Renee King, Eastern Illinois University; Lisa Kleiman, Boise
State University; Holly Lawrence, University of Massachusetts; and Astrid
Sheil, California State University San Bernardino.

—Geraldine E. Hynes and Jennifer R. Veltsos

Thank you, Gerry, for inviting me to work with you on this book,
mentoring me through the process, and being open and welcoming as I
ventured into your world.

I am grateful to Johnna S. Horton for her unfailing encouragement and for

her unknowing role as a persona for the revision of this book. Whenever I
questioned a decision, I would ask “What would a manager like her need
to know?” and the solution would often become clear.

My husband, Christophe, may not have intended to become a writer, but

his enthusiasm and passion for communicating ideas with others has
become a model of the kind of career I want to have. I thank him and our
sons for their patience and support through this unexpected opportunity.

—Jennifer R. Veltsos

A special thanks goes to Dave Fosnough, former Irwin/McGraw-Hill field

sales supervisor, who started me down this path in 1993, and to Patricia
Quinlin, former SAGE business editor, who turned me in the right
direction. I am where I am today because they believed in me.

Thank you, Jennifer, for joining me on this journey. The new edition is
better than ever because of your contributions. It’s an honor to be your
collaborator and friend.

I am forever grateful to my family—Jim, Maureen, Erasmus, Kellie, Bob,

and my incandescent grandchildren, Ben, Aaron, Trixie, Samuel, and Clara
—for their unreserved love and support.

Finally, I salute my students because they are dedicated to improving their

managerial communication skills and strategies, and because they believe
that I can help them do it. This book is for you.

—Geraldine E. Hynes
About the Authors

Geraldine E. Hynes,
PhD, retired in 2017 from Sam Houston State University, Huntsville,
Texas, USA, where she had been a professor in the College of
Business Administration since 2001, teaching business and
managerial communication at the undergraduate and graduate levels.
She continues her practice as a communication consultant, executive
coach, and contract trainer for business, government, and not-for-
profit organizations. Her award-winning research has been published
in scholarly journals and books in several countries and languages.
She provides leadership to her discipline through the Association for
Business Communication and was elected ABC president in 2010.
Jennifer R. Veltsos,
PhD, is an associate professor of technical communication at
Minnesota State University, Mankato, USA. Since 2007, she has
taught undergraduate courses in business communication, technical
communication, visual rhetoric and document design, and research
methods; at the graduate level, she has taught managerial
communication, proposals, and instructional design. Since 2017, she
is also the director of the university’s Center for Excellence in
Teaching and Learning.
Part I Managing in Contemporary
Organizations
1 Communicating in Contemporary
Organizations

Extremists think “communication” means agreeing with them.

—Leo Rosten, U.S. (Polish-born) author and political scientist

As we move deeper into the 21st century, management communication is

both challenging and exciting. It is challenging because organizations are
becoming much more complex, and many new forces confront the
manager. Greater competitive pressures, shorter product life cycles,
increased demands for quality and service, more regulatory constraints,
greater concerns for cost containment, heightened awareness of
environmental concerns, and renewed emphasis on human rights are just
some of the pressures increasing the complexity of the manager’s job. But
these pressures also make managerial communication exciting. The
contemporary manager has a greater opportunity than ever to make a
significant difference in the success of the organization and increase the
quality of work life for fellow employees. But that requires effective
managerial communication skills, which are becoming more complex,
making them more difficult to master.

The workplace is much more diverse and complex than it was just a few
decades ago, and it requires more sophisticated management
communication skills. At the start of the 20th century, heavy
manufacturing was the industrial base of Western countries. Products
changed little from year to year, and the workforce consisted mainly of
white males. But today, products and entire management systems change
rapidly, and employees must adapt just as quickly. In addition, work teams
are extremely diverse. At Intel, one of the world’s largest and highest
valued semiconductor chip makers, it is not uncommon to have a design
engineer from Singapore working with a purchasing manager from Ireland
and an accountant from California. This means the project manager must
have the sophisticated skills required to communicate to a diverse work
group in a rapidly changing environment.

Technology helps with this communication challenge, but it also adds new
requirements. Advances in telecommunications have increased our
communication capabilities, but we must learn how to best use these
capabilities. In addition, the improved communication systems mean we
have greater abilities to interact with multiple cultures, which require that
we become better cross-cultural communicators. Furthermore, as technical
products and services become more complex, we must be able to
communicate about more complicated concepts than in the past.

Effective communication has been shown to be a leading indicator of

financial performance. Towers Watson, a global company that provides
human capital and management consulting services, conducted research on
651 organizations from a broad range of industries and regions over a ten-
year period. They found that those companies that communicate
effectively are 3.5 times more likely to significantly outperform their
industry peers than those companies that do not communicate effectively.
Other key findings include these approaches:

Managers at the best companies are three times more likely to

communicate clearly to their employees the behaviors that are
expected of them, instead of being focused on cost.
Managers at the best companies pay careful attention to their
employees in their change planning; they communicate reasons for
changes, provide training, and support the employees, instead of
using a top-down approach. Extensive managerial communication
improves the likelihood of successful change.
Managers at the best companies are more than twice as likely to use
new social media technologies to facilitate collaboration on work
projects. Furthermore, they typically see better employee
productivity and financial performance.1

Communication and its role in the life of an organization will continue to

evolve. As a result, we must think about how communication will occur in
the future. One way to understand what this will mean for managerial
communication behavior is to look at the different stages through which
managerial communication has already passed. As you read the following
pages and note how managerial communication has changed over time, it
is interesting and valuable to speculate how it will change during your
career. Knowledge of the past will help us prepare for the future.

A Brief History of Managerial Communication

Managers communicated with employees in markedly different ways in
the past than they do today. To best understand these changes, it is helpful
to review the eras of management as listed in Table 1–1. After an overview
of each era, the management communication strategies and techniques
appropriate for that era are discussed.

Management Communication in Ancient Times

The earliest known example of managerial communication may be the
record keeping procedure developed by Sumerian priests around 5000
BCE.2 These records, consisting of pictograms scratched or pressed into
clay tablets, reflected cross-cultural business transactions, such as
payments of beer to workers.3 Around the same time, Egyptians were
developing hieroglyphics, which they wrote on clay, wood, or most often,
papyrus.4 The Babylonians seem to have adopted cuneiform, the Sumerian
form of writing. The Code of Hammurabi is a code of conduct or what we
might think of as an early form of putting a request in writing, written
circa 1750 BCE.5 Tablets found in London reveal that the ancient Romans
were the first managers, using commercial languages to request payments,
lend money, and settle legal disputes in the year 57 CE.6 The first
committee may have been organized around 325 BCE, as Alexander the
Great organized staff groups.

Table 1–1 Historical Perspective of Managerial Communication

Era Characteristics Communication

Ancient and Initial efforts to

Written records
medieval organize commerce
 Era Characteristics Communication

Clearly defined job

1900s duties, time
specifications for One-way
Scientific
completing the task, and communication, heavy
management
adherence to rules reliance on written job
Administrative instructions and rules
theory Emphasis on authority
and discipline

1920s Listening and

Relationship among
interpersonal
managers and workers is
Human communication skills
important
relations become important

Development of
Complexity of
1950s communication theory,
organizational behavior
beginning to apply
Behavioral and communication
theory to organizational
recognized
practice

Two-way
1990s Distribution of power to
communication;
everyone in the
Empowerment organization participation of
employees

Today Interdependence of jobs, Communication

organizations, and strategy must be applied
Contingency people to the situation

Venice, Italy, was a major center for merchants and economic exchange
during medieval times. Merchants built warehouses and used an inventory
system that required periodic reports for the city governing body.7 These
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And Christ their bodies see;
Little children, shall I play with you?
And you shall play with Me.
But then they answer’d Me ‘No,’
They were lords’ and ladies’ sons;
And I the meanest of them all,
Was born in an ox’s stall.”

6. “Though you are but a maiden’s child,

Born in an ox’s stall,
Thou art the Christ, the King of Heav’n,
And the Saviour of them all.
Sweet Jesus, go down to yonder town,
As far as the Holy Well,
And take away those sinful souls,
And dip them deep in hell.”

7. “Nay, nay,” sweet Jesus mildly said,

“Nay, nay, that must not be;
For there are too many sinful souls
Crying out for the help of Me.”
O then bespoke the angel Gabriel,
“Upon our good St. Stephen,
Although you’re but a maiden’s Child,
You are the King of Heav’n.”
[Listen] [MusicXML]
The First Nowell
 [Listen] [MusicXML]

1. The first Nowell the Angel did say

Was to certain poor shepherds in fields as they lay;
In fields where they lay keeping their sheep,
On a cold winter’s night that was so deep.
Chorus.
Nowell, Nowell, Nowell, Nowell!
Born is the King of Israel!

2. They looked up and saw a Star

Shining in the east beyond them far,
And to the earth it gave great light,
And so it continued both day and night.
Nowell, etc.

3. And by the light of that same Star

Three wise men came from country far;
To seek for a king was their intent,
And to follow the Star wherever it went.
Nowell, etc.

4. This Star drew nigh to the north-west

O’er Bethlehem it took its rest,
And there it did both stop and stay
Right o’er the place where Jesus lay.
Nowell, etc.

5. Then entered in those wise men three

Most reverently upon their knee,
And offered there, in His presence,
Both gold, and myrrh, and frankincense.
Nowell, etc.

6. Then let us all with one accord

Sing praises to our Heavenly Lord,
That hath made Heaven and earth of nought,
And with His blood mankind hath bought.
Nowell, etc.
The Cherry Tree Carol
 [Listen] [MusicXML]

1. Joseph was an old man,

An old man was he;
He married sweet Mary,
The Queen of Galilee.

2. As they went a-walking

In the garden so gay,
Sweet Mary spied cherries
Hanging over yon tree.

3. Mary said to Joseph,

With her sweet lips so mild,
“Pluck those cherries, Joseph,
For to give to my child.”

4. “O then,” replied Joseph,

With words so unkind,
“I will pluck no cherries
For to give to thy child.”

5. Mary said to cherry tree

“Bow down to my knee,
That I may pluck cherries,
By one, two, and three.”

6. The uppermost sprig then

Bowed down to her knee,
“Thus you may see, Joseph,
These cherries are for me.”

7. “O eat your cherries, Mary,

O eat your cherries now,
O eat your cherries, Mary,
That grow upon the bough.”
Dives and Lazarus
 [Listen] [MusicXML]

1. As it fell out upon a day,

Rich Dives made a feast,
And he invited all his friends,
And gentry of the best.

2. Then Lazarus laid him down and down,

And down at Dives’s door.
“Some meat, some drink, brother Dives,
Bestow upon the poor.”

3. “Thou’rt none of mine, brother Lazarus,

That lies begging at my door:
Nor meat nor drink will I give to thee,
Nor bestow upon the poor.”

4. Then Dives sent out his hungry dogs,

To bite him as he lay;
They had no power to bite at all,
But licked his sores away.

5. As it fell out upon a day,

Poor Lazarus sickened and died,
There came two Angels out of Heaven
His soul therein to guide.

6. As it fell out upon a day,

Rich Dives sickened and died,
There came two serpents out of Hell,
His soul therein to guide.

7. Then Dives looked with burning eyes,

And saw poor Lazarus blest;
“One drop of water, Lazarus,
To quench my flaming thirst!

8. “Oh! had I as many years to abide

 As there are blades of grass.
Then there would be an end; but now
Hell’s pains will never pass.”
The Holly and the Ivy