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Mathematical Analysis
Volume I
Teo Lee Peng

Mathematical Analysis
Volume I
Teo Lee Peng
January 1, 2024
Contents i
Contents
Contents i
Preface iv
Chapter 1 The Real Numbers 1

1.1 Logic, Sets and Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 The Set of Real Numbers and Its Subsets . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Bounded Sets and the Completeness Axiom . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4 Distributions of Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.5 The Convergence of Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.6 Closed Sets and Limit Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.7 The Monotone Convergence Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
1.8 Sequential Compactness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Chapter 2 Limits of Functions and Continuity 82

2.1 Limits of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.2 Continuity of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
2.3 The Extreme Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
2.4 The Intermediate Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
2.5 Uniform Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
2.6 Monotonic Functions and Inverses of Functions . . . . . . . . 136
Chapter 3 Differentiating Functions of a Single Variable 146

3.1 Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.2 Chain Rule and Derivatives of Inverse Functions . . . . . . . . 164
3.3 The Mean Value Theorem and Local Extrema . . . . . . . . . 172
3.4 The Cauchy Mean Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
3.5 Transcendental Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
3.5.1 The Logarithmic Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
3.5.2 The Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Contents ii
3.5.3 The Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

3.5.4 The Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . 223
3.6 L’ Hôpital’s Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
3.7 Concavity of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Chapter 4 Integrating Functions of a Single Variable 251

4.1 Riemann Integrals of Bounded Functions . . . . . . . . . . . 252
4.2 Properties of Riemann Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
4.3 Functions that are Riemann Integrable . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
4.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
4.5 Integration by Substitution and Integration by Parts . . . . . . 317
4.5.1 Integration by Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
4.5.2 Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
4.6 Improper Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Chapter 5 Infinite Series of Numbers and Infinite Products 354

5.1 Limit Superior and Limit Inferior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
5.2 Convergence of Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
5.3 Rearrangement of Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
5.4 Infinite Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
5.5 Double Sequences and Double Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Chapter 6 Sequences and Series of Functions 452

6.1 Convergence of Sequences and Series of Functions . . . . . . 452
6.2 Uniform Convergence of Sequences and Series of Functions . 464
6.3 Properties of Uniform Limits of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . 479
6.4 Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
6.5 Taylor Series and Taylor Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
6.6 Examples and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
6.6.1 The Irrationality of e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
6.6.2 The Irrationality of π . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
6.6.3 Infinitely Differentiable Functions that are Non-Analytic548
6.6.4 A Continuous Function that is Nowhere Differentiable 554
6.6.5 The Weierstrass Approximation Theorem . . . . . . . 558
Contents iii
References 566
Preface iv
Preface
Mathematical analysis is a standard course which introduces students to rigorous

reasonings in mathematics, as well as the theories needed for advanced analysis
courses. It is a compulsory course for all mathematics majors. It is also strongly
recommended for students that major in computer science, physics, data science,
financial analysis, and other areas that require a lot of analytical skills. Some
standard textbooks in mathematical analysis include the classical one by Apostol
[Apo74] and Rudin [Rud76], and the modern one by Bartle [BS92], Fitzpatrick
[Fit09], Abbott [Abb15], Tao [Tao16, Tao14] and Zorich [Zor15, Zor16].
This book is the first volume of the textbooks intended for a one-year course in
mathematical analysis. We introduce the fundamental concepts in a pedagogical
way. Lots of examples are given to illustrate the theories. We assume that students
are familiar with the material of calculus such as those in the book [SCW20].
Thus, we do not emphasize on the computation techniques. Emphasis is put on
building up analytical skills through rigorous reasonings.
Besides calculus, it is also assumed that students have taken introductory
courses in discrete mathematics and linear algebra, which covers topics such as
logic, sets, functions, vector spaces, inner products, and quadratic forms. Whenever
needed, these concepts would be briefly revised.
In this book, we have defined all the mathematical terms we use carefully.
While most of the terms have standard definitions, some of the terms may have
definitions defer from authors to authors. The readers are advised to check the
definitions of the terms used in this book when they encounter them. This can be
easily done by using the search function provided by any PDF viewer. The readers
are also encouraged to fully utilize the hyper-referencing provided.
Teo Lee Peng

Chapter 1. The Real Numbers 1
Chapter 1
The Real Numbers
1.1 Logic, Sets and Functions
In this section, we give a brief review of propositional logic, sets and functions.
It is assumed that students have taken an introductory course which covers these
topics, such as a course in discrete mathematics [Ros18].
Definition 1.1 Proposition

A proposition, usually denoted by p, is a declarative sentence that is either
true or false, but not both.
Definition 1.2 Negation of a Proposition

If p is a proposition, ¬p is the negation of p. The proposition p is true if
and only if the negation ¬p is false.
From two propositions p and q, we can apply logical operators and obtain a
compound proposition.
Definition 1.3 Conjunction of Propositions

If p and q are propositions, p ∧ q is the conjunction of p and q, read as "p
and q". The proposition p ∧ q is true if and only if both p and q are true.
Definition 1.4 Disjunction of Propositions

If p and q are propositions, p ∨ q is the disjunction of p and q, read as "p or
q". The proposition p ∨ q is true if and only if either p is true or q is true.
Definition 1.5 Implication of Propositions

If p and q are propositions, the proposition p → q is read as "p implies q".
It is false if and only if p is true but q is false.
p → q can also be read as "if p then q or "p only if q". In mathematics, we

usually write p =⇒ q instead of p → q.
Definition 1.6 Double Implication

If p and q are propositions, the proposition p ←→ q is read as "p if and
only if q". It is the conjunction of p → q and q → p. Hence, it is true if and
only if both p and q are true, or both p and q are false.
The stament “p if and only if q” is often expressed as p ⇐⇒ q.

Two compound propositions p and q are said to be logically equivalent, denoted
by p ≡ q, provided that p is true if and only if q is true.
Logical equivalences are important for working with mathematical proofs.
Some equivalences such as commutative law, associative law, distributive law are
obvious. Other important equivalences are listed in the theorem below.
Theorem 1.1 Logical Equivalences

Let p, q, r be propositions.
1. p → q ≡ ¬p ∨ q
2. De Morgan’s Law
(i) ¬(p ∨ q) ≡ ¬p ∧ ¬q
(ii) ¬(p ∧ q) ≡ ¬p ∨ ¬q
A very important equivalence is the equivalence of an implication with its

contrapositive.
Theorem 1.2 Contraposition

If p and q are propositions, p → q is equivalent to ¬q → ¬p.
In mathematics, we are often dealing with statements that depend on variables.

Quantifiers are used to specify the extent to which such a statement is true. Two
commonly used quantifiers are "for all" (∀) and "there exists" (∃).
For negation of statements with quantifiers, we have the following generalized
De Morgan’s law.
Theorem 1.3 Generalized De Morgan’s Law
1. ¬ (∀x P (x)) ≡ ∃x ¬P (x)
2. ¬ (∃x P (x)) ≡ ∀x ¬P (x)
For nested quantifiers, the ordering is important if different types of quantifiers

are involved. For example, the statement
∀x ∃y x + y = 0
is not equivalent to the statement
∃y ∀x x + y = 0.
When the domains for x and y are both the set of real numbers, the first statement
is true, while the second statement is false.
For a set A, we use the notation x ∈ A to denote x is an element of the set A;
and the notation x ∈ / A to denote x is not an element of A.
Definition 1.7 Equal Sets

Two sets A and B are equal if they have the same elements. In logical
expression, A = B if and only if
x ∈ A ⇐⇒ x ∈ B.
Definition 1.8 Subset

If A and B are sets, we say that A is a subset of B, denoted by A ⊂ B,
if every element of A is an element of B. In logical expression, A ⊂ B
means that
x ∈ A =⇒ x ∈ B.
When A is a subset of B, we will also say that A is contained in B, or B

contains A.
We say that A is a proper subset of B if A is a subset of B and A ̸= B. In
some textbooks, the symbol "⊆" is used to denote subset, and the symbol "⊂"
is reserved for proper subset. In this book, we will not make such a distinction.
Whenever we write A ⊂ B, it means A is a subset of B, not necessary a proper
subset.
There are operations that can be defined on sets, such as union, intersection,
difference and complement.
Definition 1.9 Union of Sets

If A and B are sets, the union of A and B is the set A ∪ B which contains
all elements that are either in A or in B. In logical expression,
x ∈ A ∪ B ⇐⇒ (x ∈ A) ∨ (x ∈ B).
Definition 1.10 Intersection of Sets

If A and B are sets, the intersection of A and B is the set A ∩ B which
contains all elements that are in both A and B. In logical expression,
x ∈ A ∩ B ⇐⇒ (x ∈ A) ∧ (x ∈ B).
Definition 1.11 Difference of Sets

If A and B are sets, the difference of A and B is the set A \ B which
contains all elements that are in A and not in B. In logical expression,
x ∈ A \ B ⇐⇒ (x ∈ A) ∧ (x ∈
/ B).
Definition 1.12 Complement of a Set

If A is a set that is contained in a universal set U , the complement of A in
U is the set AC which contains all elements that are in U but not in A. In
logical expression,
x ∈ AC ⇐⇒ (x ∈ U ) ∧ (x ∈
/ A).
Since a universal set can vary from context to context, we will usually avoid
using the notation AC and use U \ A instead for the complement of A in U . The
advantage of using the notation AC is that De Morgan’s law takes a more succint
form.
Proposition 1.4 De Morgan’s Law for Sets
If A and B are sets in a universal set U , and AC and B C are their

complements in U , then
1. (A ∪ B)C = AC ∩ B C
2. (A ∩ B)C = AC ∪ B C
Definition 1.13 Functions

When A and B are sets, a function f from A to B, denoted by f : A → B,
is a correspondence that assigns every element of A a unique element in B.
If a is in A, the image of a under the function f is denoted by f (a), and it
is an element of B.
A is called the domain of f , and B is called the codomain of f .
Definition 1.14 Image of a Set

If f : A → B is a function and C is a subset of A, the image of C under f
is the set
f (C) = {f (c) | c ∈ C} .
f (A) is called the range of f .
Definition 1.15 Preimage of a Set

If f : A → B is a function and D is a subset of B, the preimage of D under
f is the set
f −1 (D) = {a ∈ A | f (a) ∈ D} .
Notice that f −1 (D) is a notation, it does not mean that the function f has an
inverse.
Next, we turn to discuss injectivity and surjectivity of functions.
Definition 1.16 Injection

We say that a function f : A → B is an injection, or the function f :
A → B is injective, or the function f : A → B is one-to-one, if no pair of
distinct elements of A are mapped to the same element of B. Namely,
a1 ̸= a2 =⇒ f (a1 ) ̸= f (a2 ).
Using contrapositive, a function is injective provided that
f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) =⇒ a1 = a2 .
Definition 1.17 Surjection

We say that a function f : A → B is a surjection, or the function f : A →
B is surjective, or the function f : A → B is onto, if every element of B
is the image of some element in A. Namely,
∀b ∈ B, ∃a ∈ A, f (a) = b.
Equivalently, f : A → B is surjective if the range of f is B. Namely,

f (A) = B.
Definition 1.18 Bijection

We say that a function f : A → B is a bijection, or the function f : A → B
is bijective, if it is both injective and surjective.
A bijection is also called a one-to-one correspondence.
Finally, we would like to make a remark about some notations. If f : A → B

is a function with domain A, and C is a subset of A, the restriction of f to C is
the function f |C : C → B defined by f |C (c) = f (c) for all c ∈ C. When no
confusion arises, we will often denote this function simply as f : C → B.
1.2 The Set of Real Numbers and Its Subsets
In this section, we introduce the set of real numbers using an intuitive approach.
Definition 1.19 Natural Numbers

The set of natural numbers N is the set that contains the counting numbers,
1, 2, 3 . . ., which are also called positive integers.
N is an inductive set. The number 1 is the smallest element of this set. If n is

a natural number, then n + 1 is also a natural number.
The number 0 corresponds to nothing.
For every positive integer n, −n is a number which produces 0 when adds to
n. This number −n is called the negative of n, or the additive inverse of n.
−1, −2, −3, . . ., are called negative integers.
Definition 1.20 Integers

The set of integers Z is the set that contains all positive integers, negative
integers and 0.
We will also use the notation Z+ to denote the set of positive integers.
Definition 1.21 Rational Numbers

The set of rational numbers Q is the set defined as
nm o
Q= m, n ∈ Z, n ̸= 0 .
n
Each rational number is a quotient of two integers, where the denominator is

nonzero. The set of integers Z is a subset of the set of rational numbers Q.
Every rational number m/n has a decimal expansion. For example,
23
− = −5.75,
4
27
= 3.857142857142 . . . = 3.8̇57142̇.
7
The decimal expansion of a rational number is either finite or periodic.
Definition 1.22 Real Numbers

The set of real numbers R is intuitively defined to be the set that contains
all decimal numbers, which is not necessary periodic.
The set of real numbers contains the set of rational numbers Q as a subset. If
a real number is not a rational number, we call it an irrational number. The set
of irrational numbers is R \ Q.
It has been long known that there are real numbers that are not rational numbers.
√
The best example is the number 2, which appears as the length of the diagonal
of a unit square (see Figure 1.1).
√
Figure 1.1: The number 2.
The addition and multiplication operations defined on the set of natural numbers
can be extended to the set of real numbers consistently.
If a and b are real numbers, a + b is the addition of a and b, and ab is the
multiplication of a and b.
If a and b are positive real numbers, a+b and ab are also positive real numbers.
The set of real numbers with the addition and multuplication operations is
a field, which you will learn in abstract algebra. These operations satisfy the
following properties.
Properties of Real Numbers
1. Commutativity of Addition
a+b=b+a
2. Associativity of Addition
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
3. Additive Identity
a+0=0+a=a
0 is called the additive identity.
4. Additive Inverse
For every real number a, the negative of a, denoted by −a, satisfies
a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0
5. Commutativity of Multiplication
ab = ba
6. Associativity of Multiplication
(ab)c = a(bc)
7. Multiplicative Identity
a·1=1·a=a
1 is called the multiplicative identity.
8. Multiplicative Inverse
For every nonzero real number a, the reciprocal of a, denoted by 1/a,
satisfies
1 1
a· = ·a=1
a a
9. Distributivity
a(b + c) = ab + ac
The set of complex numbers C is the set that contains all numbers of the
form a + ib, where a and b are real numbers, and i is the purely imaginary
number such that i2 = −1. It contains the set of real numbers R as a subset.
Addition and multiplication can be extended to the set of complex numbers. These
two operations on complex numbers also satisfy all the properties listed above.
Nevertheless, we shall focus on the set of real numbers in this course.
There are special subsets of real numbers which are called intervals. There
are nine types of intervals, four types are finite, five types are semi-infinite or
infinite. Their definitions are as follows.
Finite Intervals
1. (a, b) = {x ∈ R | a < x < b}
2. [a, b) = {x ∈ R | a ≤ x < b}
3. (a, b] = {x ∈ R | a < x ≤ b}
4. [a, b] = {x ∈ R | a ≤ x ≤ b}
For the intervals (a, b), [a, b), (a, b], [a, b], the points a and b are the end points
of the interval, while any point x with a < x < b is an interior point.
Semi-Infinite or Infinite Intervals

5. (a, ∞) = {x ∈ R | x > a}
6. [a, ∞) = {x ∈ R | x ≥ a}
7. (−∞, a) = {x ∈ R | x < a}
8. (−∞, a] = {x ∈ R | x ≤ a}
9. (−∞, ∞) = R.
For the intervals (a, ∞), [a, ∞), (−∞, a) and (−∞, a], a is the end point of
the interval, while any other points in the interval besides a is an interior point.
The set of natural numbers is a well-ordered set. Every nonempty subset
of positive integers has a smallest element. This statement is equivalent to the
principle of mathematical induction, which is one of the important strategies in

proving mathematical statements.
Proposition 1.5 Principle of Mathematical Induction
Let P (n) be a sequence of statements that are indexed by the set of positive
integers Z+ . Assume that the following two assertions are true.
1. The statement P (1) is true.
2. For every positive integer n, if the statement P (n) is true, the statement
P (n + 1) is also true.
Then we can conclude that for all positive integers n, the statement P (n) is
true.
Before ending this section, let us discuss the absolute value and some useful
inequalities.
Definition 1.23 Absolute Value

Given a real number x, the absolute value of x, denoted by |x|, is defined
to be the nonnegative number

x, if x ≥ 0,
|x| =
−x, if x < 0.
In particular, | − x| = |x|.
For example, |2.7| = 2.7, | − 2.7| = 2.7.

The absolute value |x| can be interpreted as the distance between the number
x and the number 0 on the number line. For any two real numbers x and y, |x − y|
is the distance between x and y. Hence, the absolute value can be used to express
an interval.
Intervals Defined by Absolute Values

Let a be a real number.
1. If r is a positive number,
|x − a| < r ⇐⇒ −r < x − a < r ⇐⇒ x ∈ (a − r, a + r).
2. If r is a nonnegative number,
|x − a| ≤ r ⇐⇒ −r ≤ x − a ≤ r ⇐⇒ x ∈ [a − r, a + r].
Absolute values behave well with respect to multiplication operation.
Proposition 1.6
Given real numbers x and y,
|xy| = |x||y|.
In general, |x + y| is not equal to |x| + |y|. Instead, we have an inequality,

known as the triangle inequality, which is very important in analysis.
Proposition 1.7 Triangle Inequality

|x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|.
This is proved by discussing all four possible cases where x ≥ 0 or x < 0,

y ≥ 0 or y < 0.
A common mistake students tend to make is to replace both plus signs in the
triangle equality directly by minus signs. This is totally assurd. The correct one is
|x − y| ≤ |x| + | − y| = |x| + |y|.
For the inequality in the other direction, we have

Proposition 1.8
|x − y| ≥ ||x| − |y|| .
Proof
Since |x − y| ≥ 0, the statement is equivalent to
−|x − y| ≤ |x| − |y| ≤ |x − y|.
By triangle inequality,
|x − y| + |y| ≥ |x − y + y| = |x|.
Hence,
|x| − |y| ≤ |x − y|.
By triangle inequality again,
|x − y| + |x| = |y − x| + |x| ≥ |y − x + x| = |y|.
Hence,
−|x − y| ≤ |x| − |y|.
This completes the proof.
Example 1.1
If |x − 5| ≤ 2, show that
9 ≤ x2 ≤ 49.
Solution
|x − 5| ≤ 2 implies 3 ≤ x ≤ 7. This means that x is positive. The
inequality x ≥ 3 then implies that x2 ≥ 9, and the inequality x ≤ 7 implies
that x2 ≤ 49. Therefore,
9 ≤ x2 ≤ 49.
Finally, we have the useful Cauchy’s inequality.

Proposition 1.9 Cauchy’s Inequality

For any real numbers a and b,
a2 + b 2
ab ≤ .
2
Proof
This is just a consequence of (a − b)2 ≥ 0.
An immediate consequence of Cauchy’s inequality is the arithmetic mean-

geometric mean inequality. For any nonnegative numbers a and b, the geometric
√ a+b
mean of a and b is ab, and the arithmetic mean is .
2
Proposition 1.10
If a ≥ 0, b ≥ 0, then
√ a+b
ab ≤ .
2
Exercises 1.2
Question 1
Use induction to show that for any positive integer n,
n! ≥ 2n−1 .
Question 2: Bernoulli’s Inequality

Given that a > −1, use induction to show that
(1 + a)n ≥ 1 + na
for all positive integer n.
Question 3
Let n be a positive integer. If c1 , c2 , . . . , cn are numbers that lie in the
interval (0, 1), show that
(1 − c1 )(1 − c2 ) . . . (1 − cn ) ≥ 1 − c1 − c2 − · · · − cn .
1.3 Bounded Sets and the Completeness Axiom
In this section, we discuss a property of real numbers called completeness. The

set of rational numbers does not have this property.
First, we introduce the concept of boundedness.
Definition 1.24 Boundedness

Let S be a subset of R.
1. We say that S is bounded above if there is a number c such that
x ≤ c for all x ∈ S.
Such a c is called an upper bound of S.
2. We say that S is bounded below if there is a number b such that
x ≥ b for all x ∈ S.
Such a b is called a lower bound of S.
3. We say that S is bounded if it is bounded above and bounded below. In

this case, there is a number M such that
|x| ≤ M for all x ∈ S.
Let us look at some examples.
Example 1.2
Determine whether each of the following sets of real numbers is bounded
above, whether it is bounded below, and whether it is bounded.
(a) A = {x | x < 2}
(b) B = {x | x > −2}
(c) C = {x | − 2 < x < 2}.

Solution
(a) The set A is bounded above since every element of A is less than or
equal to 2. It is not bounded below, and so it is not bounded.
(b) The set B is bounded below since every element of B is larger than or
equal to −2. It is not bounded above, and so it is not bounded.
(c) The set C is equal to A∩B. So it is bounded above and bounded below.
Therefore, it is bounded.
Figure 1.2: The sets A, B, C in Example 1.2.
If S is a set of real numbers, the negative of S, denoted by −S, is the set
−S = {−x | x ∈ S} .
For example, the set B = {x | x > −2} is the negative of the set A = {x | x < 2},
the set C = {x | − 2 < x < 2} is the negative of itself (see Figure 1.2). It is
obvious that S is bounded above if and only if −S is bounded below.
Next, we recall the definition of maximum and minimum of a set.
Definition 1.25 Maximum and Minimum

Let S be a nonempty subset of real numbers.
1. A number c is called the largest element or maximum of S if c is an

element of S and
x≤c for all x ∈ S.
If the maximum of the set S exists, we denote is by max S.
2. A number b is called the smallest element or minimum of S if b is an

element of S and
x≥b for all x ∈ S.
If the minimum of the set S exists, we denote it by min S.
Obviously, b is the maximum of a set S if and only if −b is the minimum of

the set −S.
Example 1.3
For the set S1 = [−2, 2], −2 is the minimum, and 2 is the maximum.
For the set S2 = [−2, 2), −2 is the minimum, and there is no maximum.
This example shows that a bounded set does not necessarily have maximum
or minimum. However, a finite set always have a maximum and a minimum.
Proposition 1.11
If S is a finite set, then S has a maximum and a minimum.
Next, we introduce the concept of least upper bound.

Definition 1.26 Least Upper Bound

Let S be a nonempty subset of real numbers that is bounded above, and
let US be the set of upper bounds of S. Then US is a nonempty set that is
bounded below. If US has a smallest element u, we say that u is the least
upper bound or supremum of S, and denote it by
u = sup S.
Example 1.4
For the sets S1 = [−2, 2] and S2 = [−2, 2),
sup S1 = sup S2 = 2.
Notice that sup S, if exists, is not necessary an element of S. The following

proposition depicts the relation between the maximum of a set (if exists) and its
least upper bound.
Proposition 1.12 Supremum and Maximum

Let S be a nonempty subset of real numbers. Then S has a maximum if and
only if S is bounded above and sup S is in S.
One natural question to ask is, if S is a nonempty subset of real numbers that
is bounded above, does S necessarily have a least upper bound. The completeness
axiom asserts that this is true.
Completeness Axiom
If S is a nonempty subset of real numbers that is bounded above, then S
has a least upper bound.
The reason this is formulated as an axiom is we cannot prove this from our
intuitive definition of real numbers. Therefore, we will assume this as a fact for
the set of real numbers. A lots of theorems that we are going to derive later is a
consequence of this axiom.
Actually, the set of real numbers can be constructed axiomatically, taken it
to be a set that contains the set of rational numbers, satisfying all properties
of addition and multiplication operations, as well as the completeness axiom.
However, this is a tedious construction and will drift us too far.
To show that the completeness axiom is not completely trivial, we show in
Example 1.6 that if we only consider the set of rational numbers, we can find a
subset of rational numbers A that is bounded above but does not have a least upper
bound in the set of rational numbers. We look at the following example first.
Example 1.5
Define the set of real numbers S by
S = x ∈ R | x2 < 2 .

Show that S is nonempty and is bounded above. Conclude that the set
A = x ∈ Q | x2 < 2

is also nonempty and is bounded above by a rational number.
Solution
The number 1 is in S, and so S is nonempty. For any x ∈ S, x2 < 2 < 4,
and hence x < 2. This shows that S is bounded above by 2. Since 1 and 2
are rational numbers, the same reasoning shows that the set A is nonempty
and is bounded above by a rational number.
Example 1.6
Consider the set
A = x ∈ Q | x2 < 2 .

By Example 1.5, A is a nonempty subset of rational numbers that is

bounded above by 2. Let UA be the set of upper bounds of A in Q. Namely,
UA = {c ∈ Q | x ≤ c for all x ∈ A} .
Show that UA does not have a smallest element.

Solution
We use proof by contradiction. Assume that UA has a smallest element c1 ,
which is an upper bound of A that is smaller than or equal to any upper
bound of A. Then for any x ∈ A,
x 2 ≤ c1 .
Since 1 is in A, c1 is a positive rational number. Hence, there are poitive

integers p and q such that
p
c1 = .
q
Since there are no rational numbers whose square is 2, we must have either
c21 < 2 or c21 > 2.
Define the positive rational number c2 by
2p + 2q
c2 = .
p + 2q
Notice that
p(p + 2q) − q(2p + 2q) p2 − 2q 2
c1 − c2 = = ,
q(p + 2q) q(p + 2q)
p2 − 2q 2
c21 − 2 = ,
q2
and
4p2 + 8pq + 4q 2 − 2(p2 + 4pq + 4q 2 ) 2(p2 − 2q 2 )
c22 − 2 = = .
(p + 2q)2 (p + 2q)2
Case 1: c21 < 2.

In this case, p2 < 2q 2 . It follows that c1 < c2 and c22 < 2. But then c1
and c2 are both in A, and c2 is an element in A that is larger than c1 , which
contradicts to c1 is an upper bound of A. Hence, we cannot have c21 < 2.
Case 2: c21 > 2.

In this case, p2 > 2q 2 . It follows that c1 > c2 and c22 > 2. Since c22 > 2, we
find that for any x ∈ A,
x2 < 2 < c22 .
Thus,
−c2 < x < c2 .
In particular, c2 is also an upper bound of A. Namely, c2 is in UA . But then
c1 and c2 are both in UA and c1 > c2 . This contradicts to c1 is the smallest
element in UA . Hence, we cannot have c21 > 2.
Since both Case 1 and Case 2 lead to contradictions, we conclude that UA
does not have a smallest element.
In the solution above, the construction of the positive rational number c2 seems
a bit adhoc. In fact, we can define c2 by
mp + 2nq
c2 =
np + mq
for any positive integers m and n with m2 > 2n2 . Then the proof still works.
Now let us see how completeness axiom is used to guarantee that there is a
real number whose square is 2.
Example 1.7
Use completeness axiom to show that there is a positive real number c such
that
c2 = 2.
Solution
Define the set of real numbers S by
S = x ∈ R | x2 < 2 .

Example 1.5 asserts that S is a nonempty subset of real numbers that is

bounded above. Completeness axiom asserts that S has a least upper bound
c.
Since 1 is in S, c ≥ 1. We are going to prove that c2 = 2 using proof by

contradiction. If c2 ̸= 2, then c2 < 2 or c2 > 2.
Case 1: c2 < 2.
Let d = 2 − c2 . Then 0 < d ≤ 1. Define the number c1 by
d
c1 = c + .
4c
Then c1 > c, and
d d2 d d
c21 = c2 + + 2
≤ c2 + + < c2 + d = 2.
2 16c 2 16
This implies that c1 is an element of S that is larger than c, which contradicts
to c is an upper bound of S.
Case 2: c2 > 2.
Let d = c2 − 2. Then d > 0. Define the number c1 by
d
c1 = c − .
2c
Then c1 < c, and
d2
c21 = c2 − d + 2
> c2 − d = 2.
4c
This implies that c1 is an upper bound of S that is smaller than c, which
contradicts to c is the least upper bound of S.
Since we obtain a contradiction if c2 ̸= 2, we must have c2 = 2.
In fact, the completeness axiom can be used to show that for any positive real
number a, there is a positive real number c such that
c2 = a.
√
We denote this number c as a, called the positive square root of a. The number
√
b = − a is another real number such that b2 = a.
More generally, if n is a positive integer, a is a positive real number, then there
is a positive real number c such that cn = a. We denote this number c by
√
n
c= a,
called the positive nth -root of a.

Using the interplay between a set and its negative, we can define the greatest
lower bound of a set that is bounded below.
Definition 1.27 Greatest Lower Bound

Let S be a nonempty subset of real numbers that is bounded below, and
let LS be the set of lower bounds of S. Then LS is a nonempty set that is
bounded above. If LS has a largest element ℓ, we say that ℓ is the greatest
lower bound or infimum of S, and denote it by
ℓ = inf S.
From the completeness axiom, we have the following.
Theorem 1.13
If S is a nonempty subset of real numbers that is bounded below, then S
has a greatest lower bound.
For a nonempty set S that is bounded, it has a least upper bound sup S and a
greatest lower bound inf S. The following is quite obvious.
Proposition 1.14
If S is a bounded nonempty subset of real numbers, it has a least upper
bound sup S and a greatest lower bound inf S. Moreover,
inf S ≤ sup S,
and inf S = sup S if and only if S contains exactly one element.
Let us emphasize again the characterization of the least upper bound and
greatest lower bound of a set.
Characterization of Supremum and Infimum

Let S be a nonempty subset of real numbers, and let a be a real number.
1. a = sup S if and only if the following two conditions are satisfied.
(i) For all x ∈ S, x ≤ a.

(ii) If b is a real number such that x ≤ b for all x ∈ S, then a ≤ b.
2. a = inf S if and only if the following two conditions are satisfied.
(i) For all x ∈ S, x ≥ a.

(ii) If b is a real number such that x ≥ b for all x ∈ S, then a ≥ b.
Example 1.8
For each of the following set of real numbers, determine whether it has a
least upper bound, and whether it has a greatest lower bound.
(a) A = {x ∈ R | x3 < 2}
(b) B = {x ∈ R | x2 < 10}.
Solution
(a) The set A is bounded above, since if x ∈ A, then x3 < 2 < 23 , and so
x < 2. The set A is not bounded below since it contains all negative
numbers. Hence, A has a least upper bound, but it does not have a
greatest lower bound.
(b) If x2 < 10, then x2 < 16, and so −4 < x < 4. This shows that B
is bounded. Hence, B has a least upper bound, and a greatest lower
bound.
Finally, we want to highlight again Proposition 1.12 together with its lower
bound versus infimum counterpart.
Existence of Maximum and Minimum

Let S be a nonempty subset of real numbers.
1. S has a maximum if and only if S is bounded above and sup S is in S.
2. S has a minimum if and only if S is bounded below and inf S is in S.

Exercises 1.3
Question 1
For each of the following sets of real numbers, find its least upper bound,
greatest lower bound, maximum, and minimum if any of these exists. If
any of these does not exist, explain why.
(a) A = (−∞, 20)
(b) B = [−3, ∞)
(c) C = [−10, −2) ∪ (1, 12]
(d) D = [−2, 5] ∩ (−1, 7]
Question 2
Use completeness axiom to show that there is a positive real number c such
that
c2 = 5.
Question 3
For each of the following set of real numbers, determine whether it has a
least upper bound, and whether it has a greatest lower bound.
(a) A = {x ∈ R | x3 > 10}
(b) B = {x ∈ R | x2 < 2020}.

1.4 Distributions of Numbers
In this section, we consider additional properties of the set of integers, rational

numbers and real numbers.
We start by a proposition about distribution of integers.
Proposition 1.15
1. If n is an integer, there is no integer in the interval (n, n + 1).
2. For any real number c, there is exactly one integer in the interval [c, c +
1), and there is exactly one integer in the interval (c, c + 1].
These statements are quite obvious. For any real number c, the integer in the
interval [c, c + 1) is ⌈c⌉, called the ceiling of c. It is the smallest integer larger than
or equal to c. For example ⌈−2.5⌉ = −2, ⌈−3⌉ = −3. The integer in the interval
(c, c + 1] is ⌊c⌋ + 1, where ⌊c⌋ is the floor of c. It is the largest integer that is less
than or equal to c. For example, ⌊−2.5⌋ = −3, ⌊−3⌋ = −3.
In Section 1.3, we have seen that a nonempty subset of real numbers that
is bounded above does not necessary have a maximum. Example 1.6 shows
that a nonempty subset of rational numbers that is bounded above also does not
necessary have a maximum. However, for nonempty subsets of integers, the same
is not true.
Proposition 1.16
Let S be a nonempty subset of integers.
1. If S is bounded above, it has a maximum.
2. If S is bounded below, it has a minimum.
The two statements are equivalent, and the second statement is a generalization
of the well-ordered principle for the set of positive integers. It can be proved using
mathematical induction.
Next we discuss another important property called the Archimedean property.
First let us show that the set of positive integers Z+ is not bounded above.
Theorem 1.17
The set of positive integers Z+ is not bounded above.
Proof
Assume to the contrary that the set of positive integers Z+ is bounded
above. By completeness axiom, it has a least upper bound u. Since
u − 1 < u, u − 1 is not an upper bound of Z+ . Hence, there is a positive
integer n such that
n > u − 1.
It follows that
n + 1 > u.
Since n + 1 is also a positive integer, this says that there is an element of
Z+ that is larger than the least upper bound of Z+ . This contradicts to the
definition of least upper bound. Hence, Z+ cannot be bounded above.
The proof uses the key fact that any number that is smaller than the least upper
bound of a set is not an upper bound of the set. This is a standard technique in
proofs.
Theorem 1.18 The Archimedean Property
1. For any positive number M , there is a positive integer n such that n >
M.
2. For any positive number ε, there is a positive integer n such that 1/n <
ε.
These two statements are equivalent, and the first statement is equivalent to
the fact that the set of positive integers is not bounded above.
In the following, we consider another property called denseness.
Definition 1.28 Denseness

Let S be a subset of real numbers. We say that S is dense in R if every
open interval (a, b) contains an element of S.
A key fact we want to prove is that the set of rational numbers Q is dense in
the set of real numbers.
Theorem 1.19 Denseness of the Set of Rational Numbers

The set of rational numbers Q is dense in the set of real numbers R.
Proof
Let (a, b) be an open interval. Then ε = b − a > 0. By the Archimedean
property, there is a positive integer n such that 1/n < ε. Hence,
nb − na = nε > 1,
and so
na + 1 < nb.
Consider the interval (na, na + 1]. There is an integer m that lies in this
interval. In other words,
na < m ≤ na + 1 < nb.
Dividing by n, we have
m
a< < b.
n
This proves that the open interval (a, b) contains the rational number m/n,
and thus completes the proof that the set of rational numbers is dense in the
set of real numbers.
Recall that a set A is said to be countably infinite if there is a bijection f :

+
Z → A. A set that is either finite or countably infinite is said to be countable.
We assume that students have seen the proofs of the following.
Proposition 1.20
The set of integers Z and the set of rational numbers Q are countable, while
the set of real numbers R is not countable.
Since the union of countable sets is countable, this proposition implies that the
set of irrational numbers is uncountable. Therefore, there are far more irrational
numbers than rational numbers. Hence, it should not be surprising that the set of
irrational numbers is also dense in the set of real numbers. To prove this, let us
recall the following facts.
Rational Numbers and Irrational Numbers

1. If a and b are rational numbers, then a + b and ab are rational numbers.
2. If a is a nonzero rational number, b is an irrational number, then ab is an

irrational number.
Theorem 1.21 Denseness of the Set of Irrational Numbers

The set of irrational numbers R \ Q is dense in the set of real numbers R.
Proof
Let (a, b) be an open interval. Define
a b
c= √ , d= √ .
2 2
Then c < d. By the denseness of rational numbers, there is a rational
number u that lies in the interval (c, d). Hence,
a b
√ =c<u<d= √ .
2 2
√
Let v = 2u. Then v is an irrational number satisfying
a < v < b.
This proves that the open interval (a, b) contains the irrational number v,
and thus completes the proof that the set of irrational numbers is dense in
the set of real numbers.
Example 1.9
Is the set of integers Z dense in R? Justify your answer.
Solution
(0, 1) is an open interval that does not contain any integers. Hence, the set
of integers is not dense in R.
Exercises 1.4
Question 1
Let S = Q \ Z. Is the set S dense in R? Justify your answer.
1.5 The Convergence of Sequences
Infinite sequences play important roles in analysis. We will consider infinite

sequences that are indexed by the set of positive integers
a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . .
This can be considered as a function f : Z+ → R, where an = f (n). The general

term in the sequence is denoted by an . In some occasions, we may also want to
consider sequences that start with a0 .
In the sequel, when we say a sequence, we always mean an infinite sequence
that is indexed by the set of positive integers, unless otherwise specified. A
sequence can be denoted by {an } or {an }∞ n=1 . This should not be confused with
the set {an | n ∈ Z+ } that contains all terms in the sequence.
There are various ways to specify a sequence. One of the ways is to give an
explicit formula for the general term an . For example {1/n} is the sequence with
an = 1/n. More precisely, it is the sequence with first five terms given by
1 1 1 1
1, , , , , . . . .
2 3 4 5
A sequence can also be defined recursively, such as the following example.
Example 1.10
Let {an } be the sequence defined by a1 = 2, and for n ≥ 2,
an = an−1 + 3.
Find the first 5 terms of the sequence.
Solution
We compute recursively.
a1 = 2
a2 = a1 + 3 = 5
a3 = a2 + 3 = 8
a4 = a3 + 3 = 11
a5 = a4 + 3 = 14
The sequence {an } in Example 1.10 is an example of an arithmetic sequence.

One can prove by induction that
an = 3n − 1.
Example 1.11
Let {sn } be the sequence defined by s1 = 12 , and for n ≥ 2,
1
sn = sn−1 + .
2n
Find the first 5 terms of the sequence.
Solution
1
s1 =
2
1 3
s2 = s1 + =
22 4
1 7
s3 = s2 + 3 =
2 8
1 15
s4 = s3 + 4 =
2 16
1 31
s5 = s4 + 5 =
2 32
sequence {sn } in Example 1.11 is the partial sum of the geometric sequence
The
1
. One can prove by induction that
2n
1
sn = 1 − .
2n
Example 1.12
Let {sn } be the sequence defined by

1 1
sn = 1 + + ··· + .
2 n
This sequence can also be defined recursively by s1 = 1, and for n ≥ 2,
1
sn = sn−1 + .
n
For the sequence {sn } defined in Example 1.12, the general term sn cannot be
expressed as an explicit elementary function of n.
Example 1.13
Let {an } be the sequence defined by a1 = 2, and for n ≥ 1,


a + 1 if an < 3,
n n
an+1 =
an − 1 if an ≥ 3.
n
Find the first six terms of the sequence.
Solution
a1 = 2 < 3
a2 = a1 + 1 = 3 ≥ 3
1 5
a3 = a2 − = < 3
2 2
1 17
a4 = a3 + = <3
3 6
1 37
a5 = a4 + = ≥3
4 12
1 173
a6 = a5 − =
5 60
From the examples above, we observe that some sequences are monotone.
Definition 1.29 Increasing and Decreasing Sequences
1. We say that a sequence {an } is increasing if
an ≤ an+1 for all n ∈ Z+ .
2. We say that a sequence is decreasing if
an ≥ an+1 for all n ∈ Z+ .
3. We say that a sequence {an } is monotone if it is an increasing sequence

or it is a decreasing sequence.
Example 1.14
1. The sequence {an } defined in Example 1.10 is increasing.

1
2. The sequence is decreasing.
n
3. The sequence {an } defined in Example 1.13 is neither increasing nor
decreasing.
In analysis, we are often led to consider the behavior of a sequence {an } when
n gets larger than larger. We are interested to know whether the sequence would
approach a fixed value. This leads to the idea of convergence.
Definition 1.30 Convergence of Sequences
A sequence {an } is said to converge to the number a if for every positive

number ε, there is a positive integer N such that for all n ≥ N ,
|an − a| < ε.
Here the positive number ε is used to measure the distance from the term an
to the number a. Since ε can be any positive number, the distance can get as small
as possible.
One question that is natural to ask is whether a sequence {an } can converge to
Figure 1.3: |an − a| < ε.
two different numbers. This is impossible.
Theorem 1.22
A sequence cannot converge to two different numbers.
Proof
This is proved by contradiction. Assume that there is a sequence {an }
which converges to two different numbers b and c. Let
|b − c|
ε= .
2
Since b and c are distinct, |b − c| > 0 and so ε > 0. By definition of
convergence, there is a positive integer N1 such that for all n ≥ N1 ,
|an − b| < ε.
Similarly, there is a positive integer N2 such that for all n ≥ N2 ,
|an − c| < ε.
If N = max{N1 , N2 }, then N ≥ N1 and N ≥ N2 . It follows that
|b − c| = |(aN − c) − (aN − b)| ≤ |aN − c| + |aN − b| < ε + ε = |b − c|.
This gives |b − c| < |b − c|, which is a contradiction. Hence, we conclude

that a sequence cannot converge to two different numbers.
Figure 1.4: A sequence {an } cannot converge to two different numbers b and c.
Limit of a Sequence
If a sequence {an } converges to a number a, we say that the sequence is
convergent. Otherwise, we say that it is divergent. Theorem 1.22 says
that for a convergent sequence {an }, the number a that it converges to is
unique. We call this unique number a the limit of the convergent sequence
{an }, and express the convergence of {an } to a as
lim an = a.
n→∞
Using logical expression,
lim an = a ⇐⇒ ∀ε > 0, ∃N ∈ Z+ , ∀n ≥ N, |an − a| < ε.

n→∞
Let us look at a simple example of a constant sequence.
Example 1.15
Let c be a real number and let {an } be the sequence with an = c for all
n ∈ Z+ . Then for any ε > 0, we take N = 1. For all n ≥ N = 1, we have
|an − c| = |c − c| = 0 < ε,
which shows that the limit of the constant sequence {an } is c. Namely,
lim c = c.
n→∞
1
Another simple example is the sequence {an } with an = .
n
Example 1.16
Use the definition of convergence to show that
1
lim = 0.
n→∞ n
Solution
Given ε > 0, the Archimedean property asserts that there is a positive
integer N such that 1/N < ε. If n ≥ N , we have
1 1
0< ≤ < ε.
n N
This gives
1
−0 <ε for all n ≥ N.
n
By definition, we conclude that
1
lim = 0.
n→∞ n
Let f : Z+ → Z+ be a function satisfying
f (k) < f (k + 1) for all k ∈ Z+ .
Then f (Z+ ) is an infinite set of positive integers. If we let nk = f (k), then
n1 < n2 < n3 < · · · .
Namely, n1 , n2 , n3 , . . . is a strictly increasing sequence of positive integers.
Definition 1.31 Subsequence
Let {an } be a sequence. A subsequence of {an } is a sequence {ank }

indexed by k ∈ Z+ , where nk = f (k) is defined by a function f : Z+ → Z+
satisfying
f (k) < f (k + 1) for all k ∈ Z+ .
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GEDER Joshua xii. Not identified — Named with Debir
13 and Hormah, in
the south
somewhere, (?)
the Gedor of
Simeon (1 Chr.
iv. 39), or Gedor
(1).
GEDERAH, of Josh. xv. 36 Kh. Jedîreh* 14 The Gedor of the
Judah Onomasticon, 10
miles from
Eleutheropolis
(Beit Jibrin), on
the road to
Diospolis, now
the ruin Jedîreh,
9 miles south of
Ludd. (Mem. III.
43; Sh. XVII.)—
Conder.
GEDERAH, of 1 Chr. xii. 4 Jedîreh* 14 The village

Benjamin Jedîreh, north of
Jerusalem.
(Mem. III. 9; Sh.
XVII.)—Conder.
GEDEROTH Josh. xv. Katrah (?) 13 Apparently the
41; 2 Chr. present village
xxviii. 18 Katrah, also
called Cedron (1
Macc. xv. 39).
(Mem. III.; Sh.
XVI.)—Warren.
GEDEROTHAIM Josh. xv. 36 — According to LXX.
was part of
Gederah.
GEDOR (1) Josh. xv. 58 Kh. Jedûr 14 The present
village Jedûr, in
the Hebron
mountains, 4
miles north of
Hŭlhûl. (Mem.
III. 313; Sh.
XXI.)
GEDOR (2) 1 Chr. iv. 39 Not identified — Apparently not
the same as (1);
but somewhere
in the south of
Judah in
Simeon.
GEDOR (3) 1 Chr. xii. 7 Not identified — If belonging to
Benjamin,
probably
Jedîreh. See
Gederah of
Benjamin.
GEHENNA See Hinnom—
Valley of.
GELILOTH Josh. xviii. Not identified — On the south
17 boundary of
Benjamin,
thought to be a
corruption of
Gilgal.
GENNESAR, Josh. xiii. Bahr Tŭbarîya 6 Now called Bahr
Water of Ant. 5, 7; Tŭbarîya. See
1 Macc. xi. Chinnereth, Sea
67 of.
GEON Eccles. — One of the four
xxiv. 27 rivers of Eden,
Gihon.
GERAR Gen. x. 19; Kh. Umm 13 Now the ruin
xx. 1; xxvi. Jerrâr ‘Umm Jerrâr,’ 6
6, 17, 20, miles south of
26; 2 Chr. Gaza. ‘A very
xiv. 13, 14 ancient city
south of Gaza.’
Jos. i. Ant. 12, 1.
(Mem. III. 389;
Sh. XXIII.)
GERIZIM, Deut. xi. Jebel et Tôr 10 Now called et Tôr,
Mount 29; xxvii. on the south
12; Josh. side of the
viii. 33; valley, in which
Judg. ix. 7 Nablus
(Shechem) is
situated. (Mem.
II. 148, 149; Sh.
XI.)
GESEM, The Judith i. 9 Goshen — The Greek form

Land of of the name
Goshen.
GESHUR Deut. iii. 14; — Part of Bashan,
Josh. xii. north-east
5; xiii. 2, corner of.
13; 1
Sam.
xxvii. 8; 2
Sam. iii. 3;
xiii. 37, 38;
xiv. 23, 32;
xv. 8; 1
Chr. ii. 23;
iii. 2
GEZER, or Josh. x. 33; Tell Jezar 13 Now the

GAZER xii. 12; xvi. important site
(R.V. GEZER) 3, 10; xxi. Tell Jezar, 4
21; 1 Chr. miles west of
vi. 67; vii. Emmaus
28; xx. 4; (Nicopolis).
Judg. i. (Mem. II. 428–
29; 1 432; Sh. XVI.)—
Kings ix. Clermont-
15, 16, 17; Ganneau.
2 Sam. v.
25; 1 Chr.
xiv. 16;
(Gazer)
GIAH 2 Sam. ii. Not identified — ‘The Ravine’ near
24 the hill Ammah,
by the way of the
wilderness of
Gibeon.
GIBBETHON Josh. xix. Kibbieh* 10 Probably the
44; xxi. present village
23; 1 ‘Kibbieh,’ west of
Kings xv. Timnathah
27; xvi. (Tibneh). (Mem.
15, 17 II. 297; Sh. XIV.)
—Conder.
GIBEAH, of Josh. xv. 57 Jebʾa* 14 Named with Cain
Judah (1) and Timnah.
Now the village
‘Jeba,’ 8 miles
west of
Bethlehem.
(Mem. III. 25;
Sh. XVII.)—
Conder.
GIBEAH (2) Josh. xviii. Jebîʾa (?)* 14 A town of

(R.V. GIBEATH) 28 Benjamin. Now
the ruin Jebîa,
between
Jerusalem and
Emmaus and
north of Kirjath.
(Mem. III. 43;
Sh. XVII.)—
Conder.
GIBEAH, of Judg. xix. Not identified — Apparently
Benjamin or of 12–16; xx. Gibeah lay
Saul 4–43; 1 somewhere
Sam. x. between Geba
26; xi. 4; and Jerusalem.
xiii. 2, 15; Mentioned as a
xiv. 2, 16; separate place
xv. 34; from Geba in
xxii. 6; Isa. x. 29.
xxiii. 19; Placed by
xxvi. 1; 2 Robinson at Tell
Sam. xxi. el Fûl, 2½ miles
6; xxiii. 29; north of
1 Chr. xi. Jerusalem. Capt.
31; 2 Chr. Conder regards
xiii. 2; Isa. it as a district
x. 29; Hos. name.
v. 8; ix. 9;
x. 9
GIBEAH in the Judg. xx. Either Geba (1),
Field 31 or Gibeah.
GIBEAH, of Josh. xxiv. ʾAwertah (?)* 10 The burial-place
Phinehas 33 of Eleazar. The
traditional site is
the village
ʾAwertah, south
of Shechem
(Nâblus), in
which are shown
the tombs of
Eleazar,
Phinehas, and
Ithamar. Jîbia, 7
miles west of Tell
Asûr, has been
suggested.
(Mem. II. 288;
Sh. XIV.)
GIBEAH-HA- 1 Sam. x. — A garrison of the
ELOHIM 5; xiii. 3 Philistines =
Geba, also a
Philistine
garrison.—
Conder’s
Handbook to the
Bible.
GIBEON Josh. ix. 3, el Jîb — Now the village of

17; x. 1– ‘el Jîb,’ north of
12, 41; xi. Jerusalem.
19; xviii. (Mem. III. 94;
25; xxi. Sh. XVII.)
17; 2
Sam. ii.
12, 13, 16,
24; iii. 30;
xx. 8; 1
Kings iii.
4, 5; ix. 2;
1 Chr. viii.
29; ix. 35;
xiv. 16;
xvi. 39;
xxi. 29; 2
Chr. i. 3,
13; Neh.
iii. 7; vii.
25; Is.
xxviii. 21;
Jer. xxviii.
1; xli. 12,
16
GIDOM Judg. xx. Not identified — Somewhere on
45 the outskirts of
Gibeah.
GIHON, River Gen. ii. 13 — The second river
of Paradise—
Geon.
GIHON 1 Kings i. — = Siloam? The
33, 38; 45; Upper spring of
2 Chr. the waters of
xxxii. 30; Gihon (2 Chr.
xxxiii. 14 xxxii. 30). ‘ʾAin
Umm ed Dêraj,’
‘the Virgin’s
fountain.’ See
En Rogel.—
Conder’s
Handbook to the
Bible, p. 335.
‘Gihon, from the

fourteenth
century, has
been supposed
to be the Birket
Mamilla, and the
Lower Gihon to
be the Birket es
Sultan; but the
latter reservoir
was only
constructed in
the twelfth
century.’—See
Jerusalem vol.,
p. 94.
GILBOA, Mount 1 Sam. Jelbôn 10 The name
xxviii. 4; survives in
xxxi. 1, 8; ‘Jelbôn,’ a
2 Sam. i. village on the
6, 21; xxi. high range east
12; 1 Chr. of the plain of
x. 1, 8 Esdraelon.
(Mem. II. 84; Sh.
IX.)
GILEAD, Mount Gen. xxxi. — The mountainous

(1) 21, 25; region east of
xxxvii. 25; the Jordan;
Num. bounded on the
xxxii. 1, north by Bashan,
26, 29, 39, on the east by
40; iii. 10, the Arabian
16; iv. desert, and on
Deut. ii. the south by
36; 43; Moab and
xxxiv. 1; Ammon = The
Josh. xii. land of Gilead.
2, 5; xiii.
11, 25, 31;
xvii. 5, 6;
xx. 8; xxi.
38; xxii. 9,
13, 15, 32;
Judg. v.
17; x. 4, 8,
17, 18; xi.
5–11, 29;
xii. 4–7;
xx. 1;
Sam. xiii.
7; 2 Sam.
ii. 9; xvii.
26; xxiv. 6;
1 Kings iv.
13, 19;
xvii. 1;
xxii. 3; 2
Kings x.
33; xv. 29;
1 Chr. ii.
22; v. 9,
10, 16; vi.
80; xxvi.
31; xxvii.
21; Ps. lx.
7; cviii. 8;
Cant. iv. 1;
vi. 5; Jer.
viii. 22;
xxii. 6;
xlvi. 11; l.
19; Ezek.
xlvii. 18;
Hos. vi. 8;
xii. 11;
Amos i. 3,
13; Obad.
19; Micah
vii. 14;
Zech. x.
10
GILEAD, Mount Judg. vii. 3 — Probably Gilboa
(2)
GILGAL (1) Deut. xi. Jiljûlia 14 Now the ruin
30; Josh. Jiljûlia, 3 miles
iv. 19; v. 9, east of Jericho.
10; ix. 6; (Mem. III. 173,
x. 6, 15, 191; Sh. XVIII.)
43; xiv. 6;
xv. 7;
Judg. ii. 1;
iii. 19; 1
Sam. vii.
16; x. 8;
xi. 14, 15;
xiii. 4–15;
xv. 12, 21,
33; 2
Sam. xix.
15, 40;
Neh. xii.
29; Hos.
iv. 15; ix.
15; xii. 11;
Am. iv. 4;
v. 5; Micah
vi. 5
GILGAL (2) 2 Kings ii. Jîljîlia 10 Now the village
1; iv. 38 Jîljîlia, north of
Bethel. (Mem. II.
290; Sh. XIV.)
GILGAL of The Josh. xii. 23 Jiljûlieh 10 Probably Jiljûlieh,
Goim in the plain of
(R.V. Goiim) Sharon, north of
Antipatris. (Mem.
II. 288; Sh. XIV.)
GILOH Josh. xv. Kh. Jâla (?)* 14 Probably the ruin
51; 2 Jâla, in the
Sam. xv. Hebron
12; xxiii. mountains, 3
34 miles north of
Hŭlhûl. (Mem.
III. 313; XXI.)—
Conder.
GIMZO 2 Chr. Jîmzu 10 Now the village

xxviii. 18 Jîmzu, east of
Lydda. (Mem. II.
297; Sh. XIV.)
GITTAH- Josh. xix. el Mesh-hed — See Gath-hepher.
HEPHER 13
(R.V. GATH-
HEPHER)
GITTAIM 2 Sam. iv. Not identified — In the
3; Neh. xi. neighbourhood
33 of Beeroth.
GOATH Jer. xxxi. 39 Not identified — A place in the
(R.V. GOAH) neighbourhood
of Jerusalem.
GOB 2 Sam. xxi. Not identified —
18, 19
GOLAN Josh. xx. 8; Sahem el 7 One of the three
xxi. 27; Jaulân (?) cities of refuge
Deut. iv. east of the
43; 1 Chr. Jordan, in
vi. 71 Manasseh. The
name has been
recovered by G.
Schumacher, in
the Jaulân. A
village exists
called Sahem el
Jaulân,
occupying part
of an extensive
area of ruins.
GOMORRAH (or Gen. x. 19; Not identified — At the north end

Amorah), xiii. 10; of the Dead Sea
GOMORRHA (2 xiv. 2–11; there is a valley
Esd. ii. 2) xviii. 20; called ‘Wâdy
xix. 24– ʾAmr,’ a word
28; Deut. containing the
xxix. 23; radicals of the
xxxii. 32; name Gomorrah.
Isa. i. 9,
10; xiii. 19;
Jer. xxiii.
14; xlix.
18; l. 40;
Am. iv. 11;
Zeph. ii. 9;
Matt. x.
15; Mark
vi. 11;
Rom. ix.
29; 2
Peter ii. 6;
Jude 7
GORTYNA 1 Macc. xv. — A city of Crete
23
GOSHEN (1) Gen. xlv. Near the eastern
GESEM (Judith 10; xlvi. side of the
i. 9) 28, 29, 34; ancient Delta.
xlvii. 1, 4,
6, 27; l. 8;
Exod. viii.
22; ix. 26
GOSHEN, The Josh. x. 41; Not identified — In Southern
land of xi. 16 Palestine.
GOSHEN (3) Josh. xv. 51 Not identified — A town of Judah
in the
mountains.
GOZAN 2 Kings A district in
xvii. 6; Mesopotamia,
xviii. 11; watered by the
xix. 12; 1 River Khabour.
Chr. v. 26;
Is. xxxvii.
12
GREECE Zech. ix. —
13; 1
Macc. i. 1;
Acts xx. 2
GRECIA Dan. viii. —
21; x. 20;
xi. 2
GUDGODAH Deut. x. 7 Not identified — A variation of the
name Hor-
hagidgad.
GUR, The going 2 Kings ix. Not identified — ‘By Ibleam.’
up to 27; Jos. 9 Perhaps Kh.
(R.V. The Ant. vi. 4 Kâra, west of
ascent of) Yebla.—Conder.
See Ibleam.
GUR-BAAL 2 Chr. xxvi. Not identified — A place or district
7 lying between
Palestine and
the Arabian
Peninsula.
HABOR 2 Kings Khabour — Called ‘Aborrhas’
xvii. 6; by Strabo (XVI.
xviii. 11; 1 1, 27); ‘Aburas’
Chr. v. 26 by Isidore of
Charax (p. 4);
‘Abora’ by
Zosimus (III. 12),
and ‘Charboras’
by Pliny and
Ptolemy (v. 18).
Now called the
river Khabour,
an affluent of the
Euphrates.
HACHILAH, Hill 1 Sam. Dhahret el 14 Apparently the

of xxiii. 19; Kolah (?)* ridge called ‘el
xxvi. 1, 3 Kolah,’ in the
wilderness east
of ‘Ziph.’ (Mem.
III. 313; Sh.
XXI.)—Conder.
HADAD- Zech. xii. Rummâneh 10 A place in the
RIMMON 11 valley of
Megiddo.
Jerome (Comm.
in Zach.) makes
this =
Maximianopolis,
or the present
village
Rummâneh,
west of the plain
of ‘Esdraelon.’
(Mem. II. 68; Sh.
VIII.)
HADASHAH Josh. xv. 37 Ebdis, ʾEddis* 13 Mentioned

between ‘Zenan’
and ‘Migdal-
gad.’ Probably
the village
‘Ebdis,’ or
‘ʾEddis,’ 6½
miles to the east
of Migdal-gad. It
is spoken of by
Eusebius as
lying near
Taphna. (Mem.
II. 409; Sh. XVI.)
HADATTAH Josh. xv. 25 Not identified — One of the towns

(R.V. HAZOR- of Judah in the
HADATTAH) south. Should
read ‘Hazor-
hadattah.’ See
Hazor-hadattah.
HADID Ezra ii. 33; Hadîtheh 10 Named with ‘Lod’
Neh. vii. and ‘Ono.’ In the
37; xi. 34 time of Eusebius
(Onom.
‘Adithaim’), a
town called
‘Aditha,’ or
‘Adatha,’ existed
to the east of
Lydda
(Diospolis).
‘Adida in
Sephela’ (1
Macc. xii. 38) is
probably the
same place.
Now the present
village
‘Hadîtheh,’ 3
miles to the east
of Lydda = the
Adithaim of
Joshua xv. 36.
(Mem. II. 322;
Sh. XIV.)
HADRACH, The Zech. ix. 1 Not identified — Somewhere in
land of Syria.
HAI Gen. xii. 8; — See ‘Ai.’
(R.V. AI) xiii. 3
HALAH 2 Kings Not identified — A different place
xviii. 11; 1 to that of Gen. x.
Chr. v. 26 11; thought to be
the ‘Chalcitis’ of
Ptolemy (v. 18).
The modern
name, ‘Gla,’
applies to a
huge mound on
the Upper
Khabour, above
its junction with
the Jerujer.
(Layard, Nin. &
Bab. 312.)
HALAK, Mount Josh. xi. Not identified — In the
17; xii. 7 neighbourhood
of ‘Mount Seir,’
signifying ‘the
bare mountain’
(margin R.V.).
HALHUL Josh. xv. 58 Hŭlhûl 14 The present
village still called
‘Hŭlhûl,’ north of
Hebron and near
to Beth-zur, with
which it is
named. (Mem.
III. 305; Sh.
XXI.)
HALI Josh. xix. Kh. ʾAlia (?)* 6 A town on the

25 boundary of
Asher, named
between
‘Helkath’ and
‘Beten.’ The
name Kh. ʾAlia,
some 13 miles
south-east of
Akka is
suggestive of
this site, and
may probably be
in the district of
‘Aloth,’ which
see. (Mem. I.
170; Sh. III.)
HALICAR- 1 Macc. xv. Budrûm — A city in ‘Caria,’
NASSUS 23; Jo. celebrated for its
Ant. xiv. harbour and the
10, 23 strength of its
fortifications, the
birth-place of
Herodotus and
of the later
historian,
Dionysius. A
plan of the site is
given in Ross,
Reisen auf den
Griech Inseln
(vol. iv., p. 30).
The modern
name is
‘Budrûm.’
HAM Gen. xiv. 5 Not identified — Thought to be
another form of
Ammon. The
Targums of
Onkelos and
Pseudo
Jonathan have
Hemta.
Schwartz (217)
suggests
‘Humeitat,’ or
‘Hammet
Animah,’ 1 mile
north of ‘Rabba.’
HAMATH Num. xiii. Hama — The present city
21; xxxiv. Hama, in the
8; Josh. valley of the
xiii. 5; Orontes, north of
Judg. iii. 3; Damascus.
2 Sam. Hemath (Amos
viii. 9; 1 vi. 14).
Kings viii.
65; 2
Kings xiv.
25, 28;
xvii. 24,
30; xviii.
34; xix.
13; xxiii.
33; xxv.
21; 1 Chr.
xiii. 5; xviii.
3, 9; 2
Chr. vii. 8;
viii. 4; Isa.
x. 9; xi. 11;
xxxvi. 19;
xxxvii. 13;
Jer. xxxix.
5; xlix. 23;
lii. 9, 27;
Ezek. xlvii.
16, 17, 20;
xlviii. 1;
Amos vi.
2, 14;
Zech. ix. 2
HAMATH 2 Chr. viii. 3 Not identified — Perhaps same as
ZOBAH last. North of
Damascus.
HAMMATH Josh. xix. Hŭmmâm 6 One of the
35 Ibrahim fortified cities of
Basha Naphtali. The
site was
probably at the
Emmaus of
Josephus, so
famed for its hot
springs and
baths (xviii. Ant.
2, 3; 4 Wars i. 3).
Now Hammâm
Tabariya. (Mem.
I. 379; Sh. VI.)
HAMMON Josh. xix. ʾAin Hamûl 6 The present ruin
28 Hima, 11 miles
south-east of
Tyre, ‘Kh. Umm
el ʾAmud,’ on the
coast 10 miles
south of Tyre,
and ‘ʾAin Hamûl’
(Schwartz), a
little farther
south, have
each been
proposed. (Mem.
I. 51 & 176; Sh.
III., and
Conder’s
Handbook to the
Bible.)
HAMMON 1 Chr. vi. — Allotted out of the
76 tribe of Naphtali
to the Levites.
Possibly the
same as
Hammath.
HAMMOTH- Josh. xxi. — Same as
DOR 32 Hammon (1 Chr.
vi. 76), and
Hammath of
Josh. xix. 35.
HAMON-GOG, Ezek. xxxix. —
The Valley of 11, 15
HAMONAH Ezek. xxxix. Not identified —
16
HANANEEL, Neh. iii. 1; Not identified — A tower which
The Tower of xii. 39; Jer. formed part of
(R.V. xxxi. 38; the wall of
HANANEL) Zech. xiv. Jerusalem,
10 between the
Sheepgate and
the Fishgate.
HANES Isa. xxx. 4 Tell Defenneh — A place in Egypt,
(?) Tahpanes,
which see.
HANNATHON Josh. xix. Kefr ʾAnân* 6 The present
14 village ‘Kefr
ʾAnân’ of
Zebulon. (Mem.
I. 205; Sh. IV.)—
Conder.
HAPHRAIM Josh. xix. Kh. Farrîyeh* 10 Probably the
(R.V. 19 present ruin
HAPHARA-IM) Farrîyeh, west of
the plain of
Esdraelon. The
site of Affarea, 6
miles north of
Legio—‘Lejjun.’
Onomasticon,
s.v. Haphraim. A
city of Issachar.

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Mathematical Analysis: Volume I 1,

January 1 2024 Edition Teo Lee Peng

Mathematical Analysis: Volume II 1, January 1 2024

Introduction to Mathematical Analysis I 3rd Edition

SCHWESERNOTES™ 2024 FRM® PART I BOOK 1: FOUNDATIONS O

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eTextbook 978-0849319259 American Beetles, Volume I:

Southern Shifters Books 1-4: Volume 1 Gayle

SCHWESERNOTES™ 2024 FRM® PART I BOOK 2: QUANTITATIVE

Regional Geology and Tectonics: Principles of Geologic

Teo Lee Peng

Teo Lee Peng

Chapter 1 The Real Numbers 1

Chapter 2 Limits of Functions and Continuity 82

Chapter 3 Differentiating Functions of a Single Variable 146

3.5.3 The Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

Chapter 4 Integrating Functions of a Single Variable 251

Chapter 5 Infinite Series of Numbers and Infinite Products 354

Chapter 6 Sequences and Series of Functions 452

Mathematical analysis is a standard course which introduces students to rigorous

Teo Lee Peng

The Real Numbers

1.1 Logic, Sets and Functions

Definition 1.1 Proposition

Definition 1.2 Negation of a Proposition

Definition 1.3 Conjunction of Propositions

Definition 1.4 Disjunction of Propositions

Definition 1.5 Implication of Propositions

p → q can also be read as "if p then q or "p only if q". In mathematics, we

Definition 1.6 Double Implication

The stament “p if and only if q” is often expressed as p ⇐⇒ q.

Theorem 1.1 Logical Equivalences

A very important equivalence is the equivalence of an implication with its

Theorem 1.2 Contraposition

In mathematics, we are often dealing with statements that depend on variables.

Theorem 1.3 Generalized De Morgan’s Law

1. ¬ (∀x P (x)) ≡ ∃x ¬P (x)

2. ¬ (∃x P (x)) ≡ ∀x ¬P (x)

For nested quantifiers, the ordering is important if different types of quantifiers

is not equivalent to the statement

Definition 1.7 Equal Sets

Definition 1.8 Subset

When A is a subset of B, we will also say that A is contained in B, or B

Definition 1.9 Union of Sets

Definition 1.10 Intersection of Sets

Definition 1.11 Difference of Sets

Definition 1.12 Complement of a Set

Proposition 1.4 De Morgan’s Law for Sets

If A and B are sets in a universal set U , and AC and B C are their

Definition 1.13 Functions

Definition 1.14 Image of a Set

Definition 1.15 Preimage of a Set

Definition 1.16 Injection

Using contrapositive, a function is injective provided that

Definition 1.17 Surjection

Equivalently, f : A → B is surjective if the range of f is B. Namely,

Definition 1.18 Bijection

Finally, we would like to make a remark about some notations. If f : A → B

1.2 The Set of Real Numbers and Its Subsets