ANTENNA REVIEWER (COMMUNICATIONS 3)
ANTENNA
 Sometimes called Aerial (Frenzel)
 Design for sending or receiving electromagnetic
waves
 Size and shape of an antenna is a function of
its purpose.
 Passive device, thus, the power radiated by the
transmitting antenna cannot be greater than the
power entering from the transmitter
 For best practice, we use some antenna for both
transmission and reception
 Interface between transmission line and free
space.
 Metallic conductor system capable of radiating
and capturing electromagnetic energy (Tomasi)
 It is used to interface transmission line to the
atmosphere.
 Used to interface transmission lines to the
atmosphere, the atmosphere to the
transmission lines, or both.
 When transmitting, antenna converts
electrical energy to electromagnetic waves.
 When receiving, antenna converts
electromagnetic waves into electrical
energy.
Waveguide
 Special type of transmission line that consists of a
conducting metallic tube through which high-
frequency electromagnetic energy is propagated.
Radio waves
 Generally called an electromagnetic wave
because it made up of a combination of both
electric and magnetic fields. (Frenzel)
 Escaped radio waves trave at approximately the
velocity of light and are comprised of magnetic
and electric fields that are at right angles to each
other and at righ angles to the direction of travel.
(Tomasi)
 Electrical energy that has escaped into free space
in the form of transverse electromagnetic waves.
 Wavefront a plane parallel to the mutually
perpendicular lines of the electric and magnetic
fields.
Wavefront
- plane parallel to the mutually perpendicular lines
of the electric and magnetic fields.
- The size of an antenna is inversely proportional
to frequency.
Phase Reversal
- abrupt discontinuity to the incident voltage wave.
- The radiated energy propagates away from the
antenna in the form of transverse electromagnetic
waves.
Radiation Efficiency
- in open transmission line, RE is extremely low.
- Ratio of radiated to reflected energy.
- To radiate more energy, spread the conductors
farther apart.
Dipole – meaning two poles.
Quarter-wave Antenna – also called Vertical Antenna or
Marconi Antenna.
- Conductors are spread out in a straight line to a total
length of one-quarter wavelength.
Half-wave Dipole – also called Hertz Antenna.
ANTENNA RECIPROCITY
- A basic antenna is a passive reciprocal device –
passive in that it cannot actually amplify a signal.
Reciprocal device, in context, in that the transmit and
receive characteristics and performance are identical.
- Transmit antenna must be made from materials that
can withstand high voltages and currents. Receive
antenna produces very small voltages and currents and
can be constructed from small-diameter wire. If
antenna is used as both, should be made from heavy-
duty materials.
Active Antenna - standard antennas have no active
components.
- In practice, active antenna does not exist. What is
commonly called an active antenna is a
combination of a passive antenna and a low-noise amplifier
(LNA}.
- Active antennas are nonreciprocal.
 The direction of the electric field specifies the
polarization of the antenna (Frenzel)
 The most common lengths are one-half and one-
quarter wavelengths (Frenzel)
 One of the most widely use antenna types is the
half-wave dipole, also called doublet. It is simply
a piece of wire, rod or tubing that is one-half
wavelength long at the operating frequency.
(Frenzel)
ANTENNA COORDINATE SYSTEM AND
RADIATION PATTERNS
The directional characteristics of an electromagnetic wave
radiated or received by an antenna are generally described
in terms of spherical coordinates.
Radiation Pattern – polar diagram or graph representing
field strengths or power densities at various
angular positions relative to an antenna.
Absolute Radiation Pattern – if the radiation pattern is
plotted in terms of electric field strength or power
density.
- Variable Distance, Fixed Power
Relative Radiation Pattern – if radiation pattern is plotted
in field strength o power density with respect
to the value at a reference point.
- Variable Power, Fixed Distance
 Major Lobe is the primary beam 90-degree
direction. There caann be more than one major
lobe.
ANTENNA REVIEWER (COMMUNICATIONS 3)
 Minor lobes represent undesired radiation or
reception
 Major lobe propagates and receives the most
Where:
energy, that lobe is called the front lobe
Rr = Radiation resistance (ohms)
 Lobes adjacent to the front lobe are called side
Prad = power radiated by the antenna (watts)
lobes (the minor 180degree is a side lobe)
i = antenna current at the feedpoint (ampere)
 Lobes in a direction exactly opposite the front
 When referenced to the current maximum point,
lobe are called back lobes.
radiation resistance is sometimes called loop radiation
 The ratio of the front love power to the back-lobe
resistance because a current maximum is also called
power is simply called the front-to-back ratio.
current loop
 The ratio of the front lobe to a side lobe is called
 Antenna efficiency is the ratio of the power radiated
the front-to-side ratio.
by an antenna to the sum of the power radiated and the
 The line bisecting the major lobe, or pointing power dissipated or the ratio of the power radiated by
from the center of the antenna in the direction of the antenna to the total input power.
maximum radiation, is called the line of shoot, or
sometimes point of shoot.

Where:
n = antenna efficiency (percentage)
Prad = radiated power (watts)
Pin = input power (watts)
where; E = volt per meter
Pin = Prad + Pd
where; P = power in watts
Or
 Omnidirectional antenna radiates energy
equally in all direction; therefore, the radiation
pattern is simply a circle (actually, a sphere)
 Also, there is no front, back, or side lobes in
Where:
omnidirectional antenna because radiation is
Pd = power dissipated in antenna (watts)
equal in all directions.
 Radiation from actual antenna is three
In terms of resistance and current, antenna
dimensional
efficiency is;
 Isotopic radiator radiates power at a constant
rate uniformly in all direction
 An Ideal isotropic antenna also radiates all the
power supplied to it.
 Isotropic radiators do not exist, however, and Equal to,
they are used only for analytical descriptions and Rr / (Rr + Re)
comparison. Where:
 Near fields refers to the field pattern that is close i = antenna efficienct
to the antenna. Sometimes called induction field Rr = radiation resistance, Ω
 Far field refers to the field pattern that is at great Re = effective antenna resistance, Ω
distance. Sometimes called radiation field.
 Radiated power is more important, therefore ANTENNNA GAIN
antenna radiation patterns are generally given  Directive gain is the ratio of the power density
for the far field. radiated in a particular direction to the power density
radiated to the same point by a reference antenna.
RADIATION RESISTANCE AND  The maximum directive gain is called directivity
ANTENNA EFFICIENCY
 All the power supplies to an antenna is not
radiated. Some are converted to heat and
Where:
dissipated. D = Directive gain (unitless)
 Radiation resistance is somewhat “unreal” in P = power density at some point with a given
that it cannot be measured directly. It is an ac antenna (watts per meter squared)
antenna resistance and is equal to the ratio of the Pref = power density at the same point with a
power radiated by the antenna to the square of the reference antenna (watts per meter squared)
current of its field point.
ANTENNA REVIEWER (COMMUNICATIONS 3)
 Power gain is the same as directive gain except
that the total power fed to the antenna is used.
 It is assuming that the given antenna and the
reference antenna have the same input power
and that the reference antenna is lossless (η =
100%).
 Natural parameter for describing the increased
power density of a transmitted signal due to the
directional properties of the transmitting antenna.
 If reference is made to an isotropic radiator, the
decibel figure is stated as dBi, or dB/isotropic
radiator.
 For an isotropic reference, the power gain (dB) of
a half-wave dipole is approximately 1.64
(2.15dB).
EFFECTIVE ISOTROPICS POWER
 Effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is
defined as an equivalent transmit power and is
expressed mathematically as:
Other form:
Where:
Prad = total radiated power (watts)
Dt = transmit antenna directive gain (unitless)
At = transmit antenna power gain (unitless)
Pin = total antenna input power (watts)
 An isotropic antenna would have to radiate 10
times as much power to achieve the same power
density as the given antenna.
 EIRP or simply ERP (effective radiated
power) is the equivalent power that an isotropic
antenna would have to radiate to achieve the
same power density in the chosen direction at a
given point as another antenna.
Power Density- the amount of power per unit area.
In terms of directive gain,
Where:
P = power density (watts per meter squared)
Pin = transmit antenna input power (watts)
Prad = power radiated from transmit antenna (watts)
At = transmit antenna power gain (unitless)
Dt = transmit antenna directive power gain (unitless)
R = Distance from transmit antenna
 Captured power density is the power density in
space and a somewhat misleading quantity.
- A more natural parameter for describing the reception
property of the antenna.
- The power available at the antenna’s output terminal.
Where:
C = captured power density (wats per meter squared
Pin = transmit antenna input power (watts)
At = transmit antenna power gain (unitless)
Ar = receive antenna power gain (unitless)
R = Distance from transmit antenna
 Capture area is a more natural parameter for
describing the reception properties of an antenna.
 Captured power is the power available at the
antenna’s output terminals (in watts)
 Captured power is directly proportional to the received
power density and the effective capture area of the
receive antenna
 Connection between antenna gain and the antenna’s
receiving cross-sectional area
Where:
Ac = effective capture are (meters squared)
Ar = receive antenna power gain (unitless)
Rearranging equation and solving for antenna gain give
us;
Ar = Ac4 π / λ 2
Capture power,
Pcap = PAc
Where:
Pcap = captured power (watts)
P = power density (watts per meter squared)
Ac = capture area (square meters)
Pin = power input to transmit antenna (watts)
At = transmit antenna power gain (unitless)
R = Distance between transmit and receive antennas
(meters)
ANTENNA REVIEWER (COMMUNICATIONS 3)
Or,  Antenna input impedance is simply the ratio of
the antenna’s input voltage to input current.
Pcap = P(Ar λ / 4 π )
2

Or,
Where:
Pcap = (PinAt / 4 π R2 )(Ar λ 2/ 4 π )
Zin = antenna input impedance (ohms)
Ei = antenna input voltage (volts)
Therefore,
Ii = antenna input current (ampere)
(PinxAtxAr)( λ 2/16 π 2R2)
BASIC ANTENNA
 Elementary doublet simplest type of antenna
Since PinAt = EIRP and ( λ 2/ 16 π 2R2) is path loss (Lp), it - Elementary doublet is an electrically short dipole
can be written as; and is often referred to simply as a short dipole,
Pcap = EIRP(Ar)(Lp) elementary dipole, or Hertzian dipole
- Electrically short means short compared with
one-half wavelength but not necessarily one with
a uniform current
Ac = Ar λ 2/ 4 π
- Elementary doublet cannot be achieved; however,
the concept of a short dipole is useful in
Converted to decibel units, becomes understanding more practical antennas.
- Elementary doublet has uniform current
Pcap(dBm) =10 log (PinxAtxAr/ 0.001)
throughout its length. However, the current is
- 10 log ( λ 2/16 π 2R2) assumed to vary sinusoidally in time and at any
instant is
 Polarization of an antenna refers simply to the
orientation of the electric field radiated from it. It i(t) = Isin(2 π ft + θ)
can be linearly, elliptically, or circularly
polarized.
Where:
- Antenna may be linearly (vertical or horizontal),
i(t) = instantaneous current (amperes)
elliptically, or circularly polarized.
I = peak amplitude of the RF current (amperes)
 Beamwidth is the angular separation between the f = frequency (hertz)
two half-power points on the major lobe of an t = instantaneous time (seconds)
antenna’s plane radiation pattern. θ = phase angle (radians)
- Antenna beamwidth is sometimes called -3dB Parabolic Antenna Yagi-Uda Antenna
beamwidth or half-power beamwidth.
- Antenna gain is inversely proportional to
beamwidth.
 Bandwidth is vaguely defined as the frequency
range over which antenna operation is
“satisfactory”. Normally taken as the difference
between the half power frequencies but sometime
refers to variations in the antenna’s input Dipole Antenna
impedance.
 The point on the antenna where the transmission
line is connected is called the antenna input
terminal or the feedpoint.
 The feedpoint presents an ac load to the
transmission line called the antenna input  Antenna is inversely proportional to frequency.
impedance (Tomasi)
 If the transmitter’s output impedance and the  The radiation efficiency of an open transmission
antenna’s input impedance are equal to the line is extremely low. It is the ratio of radiated to
characteristic impedance of the transmission line, reflected energy. (Tomasi)
there will be no standing waves on the line, and
maximum power is transferred to the antenna and
radiated.
ANTENNA REVIEWER (COMMUNICATIONS 3)
 Isotopic 2.14 dBi – the gain of a dipole in its direction of
 No physical size antenna that radiates its power maximum radiation with respect to an
uniformly in all direction isotropicradiator.
 Half-wave Dipole
- Simplest antenna which is common use today
- Also known as “Hertz Antenna”
- Most half-wave dipole antennas are mounted where,
horizontally to the earth. (Frenzel) G(dBd) = gain of antenna in decibels with respect
- The radiation pattern of a half-wave dipole has to a half-wave dipole.
the shape of a doughnut. (Frenzel) G(dBi) = gain of antenna in decibels with respect
- For the optimum transmission and reception of to an isotropic radiator.
dipole, the antenna should be aligned broadside
to the signal destination (Frenzel). Gain and Directivity
- Halfwave dipole is 96 % of ½ wavelength - Gain – It describes how well the antenna
measured in the free space. converts input power into radio waves headed in
a specified direction.
GROUNDED ANTENNA - Directivity – the ability of the antenna to
 Monopole – (single pole) one quarter wavelength transmit and receive signals frome one direction
long, mounted vertically with the lower end while rejecting interfering signals coming from a
either connected directly through the antenna different direction
coupling network.
- Also called Marconi Antenna.
- Characteristics similar to Hertz Antenna because of where,
ground-reflected waves. D = directivity, as a ratio (in dB)
 Counterpoise – a wire structure placed below the G = gain, as a ratio (not in dB)
antenna and erected above the ground to improve η = efficiency in Power
the conductivity of the ground area below the Beamwidth
antenna.  It is the aperture angle from where most of the
power is radiated.
ANTENNA CHARACTERISTICS  the angle between the points on the major lobe of
1. Radiation Pattern an antenna at which the radiated power density is
2. Gain and Directivity one-half of its maximum value.
3. Beamwidth Front to Back Ratio
4. Front to Back Ratio  The ratio between the gains to the front and back.
5. Major and Minor Lobes The ratio between the radiation intensity in an
6. EIRP and ERP antenna’s direction of maximum radiation and the
7. Impedance intensity at an angle of 180 degree to this
8. Polarization direction.
9. Ground Effect  The direction of maximum radiation in the
Radiation Pattern horizontal plane is the front of the antenna.
 Every antenna has its own unique radiation.  The direction 180 degree from the front is the
 Angle of Elevation – angle measured upward the back of the antenna.
horizon. Used to describe antenna patterns and Major and Minor Lobes
directions.  Most of the energy is radiated in a narrow range
 Phi (Φ) – angle in the horizontal plane, from x to called the main lobe. In addition, pattern exhibits
y axis. several other lobes called minor lobes. The minor
 Theta (ϴ) – angle from the horizontal (x/y) plane lobes adjacent to the main lobe are called side
toward the zenith (z-axis). lobes, while the minor lobes diametrically
opposite of the major lobes are called back lobes.
 Zenith – direction straight up from the horizontal
plane.
 Far-field region – distance far away enough
from the antenna that any local
capacitive/inductive coupling is negligible.
 Near-field region – space close to antenna where
local inductive and capacitive effects
predominate.
ANTENNA REVIEWER (COMMUNICATIONS 3)
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power and Effective
Radiated Power
 Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) –
The product of the power supplied to a
transmitting antenna and the gain of the antenna
with respect to an isotropic radiator.
▪ Wider bandwidth
▪ Four times the feedpoint impedance
 Twin-Lead – 300 Ω balance line
where,
P = power of folded dipole
I = current, only one-half of the total current
V = voltage, doubled for power to remain the
same

 Effective Radiated Power (ERP) – the product

of the power supplied to a transmitting antenna
and the gain of the antenna with respect to a derived from power formula of folded dipole
lossless half-wave dipole.

Impedance
 If frequency is higher than resonance, the
feedpoint impedance has an inductive
component.  Monopole Antenna- used at low and medium
 If frequency is lower than resonance, the antenna frequency transmission. Sometimes called
impedance is capacitive. “Marconi Antenna”.
-For LF and MF transmission, it is necessary to
 Simply put, antenna that is too short appears
use vertical polarization for ground-wave
capacitive while one that is too long is inductive.
propagation.
 The greater the separation between the
Monopole – antenna with a current null at one
connections to the antenna, the higher the
end and a maximum at the other, with no other
impedance.
nulls in
Polarization
between.
- direction of the electrical field vector of an
Radial – conductors buried in the ground and
electromagnetic wave.
extending outward from the antenna.
- The polarization of the radiation from a half-
- A set of radials is used to improve the effective
wave dipole is the same as the axis of the wire. conductivity of the ground.
- Meaning, a horizontal antenna produces
horizontally polarized waves, and similar in
vertical antennas = vertical polarization.

Ground Effects
- When antenna is installed within a few
wavelengths of the ground, the earth acts as a
reflector and has an influence to the radiation
pattern of the antenna.
- Ground effects are important up to High
Frequency (HF) range. At VHF and above,
antenna is usually far enough above the earth that
reflections from the ground near the antenna are
insignificant.  Ground Plane Antenna- used at VHF and
above. Often used at Citizens Bound base
SIMPLE ANTENNAS stations.
 Folded Dipole – same length as a standard half- - an artificial ground consisting of a conducting
wave dipole but made with two parallel surface or an equivalent (such as wire
conductors joined at both ends and separated by a mesh or a group of wires) at the base of a vertical
shorter distance than the length of the antenna. antenna.
 Difference of folded dipole to half-wave dipole: - Mobile antennas are ground plane antennas.
ANTENNA REVIEWER (COMMUNICATIONS 3)
-When a quarter-wave monopole antenna is
shortened and wound into a helix, it is commonly
called a rubber ducky antenna or helical antenna
used with many handheld transceivers.
- Helical antenna can be used to receive circular
polarized waves or plane-polarized waves
polarized in any direction.
-FM broadcasting transmitting media also acts
like helical, which is a half-wave dipole, but the
ends are bent.
 Loop Antenna- usually used at AM and FM
receivers. Also used for marine radio direction
finders.
where,
G = gain (as a ratio, not in dB), with respect to an
isotropic radiator
N = number of turns in the helix, N > 3
S = turns spacing in metes, S ≈ λ/4
D = diameter of the helix in metes, D ≈ λ/π
Λ = wavelength in meters

 Discone Antenna-popular antenna for VHF and

UHF reception.
-Characterized by very wide bandwidth,
covering approximately a 10 : 1
frequency range, and an
omnidirectional pattern in the horizontal  Slot Antenna- a narrow slit is made on the
plane. conducting sheet. This slot antenna can be
formed by simply making a cut on the surface
-Signal is vertically polarized.
where they are mounted on.
- Gain is comparable to that of a dipole.
-Feedpoint impedance is approximately
50Ω.
-Use in scanners, which are receivers
that can tune automatically to a large
number of channels
in succession and are often used for
monitoring emergency services.  Horn Antenna- it is an antenna that consists of a
flaring metal waveguide shaped like a horn to
direct radio waves in a beam.

where,
G = gain as a power ratio, with respect to an
isotropic radiator
dE = E-plane aperture
dH = H-plane aperture
λ = wavelength
θH = H-plane beamwidth in degrees
 Helical Antenna (Helix-spiral)- often used with θE = E-plane beamwidth in degrees
VHF Satellite Transmissions.
ANTENNA REVIEWER (COMMUNICATIONS 3)
 Patch Antenna- is a wafer-like directional
antenna suitable for covering single-floor small
offices, small stores and other indoor locations
where access points cannot be placed centrally.
 patch antennas produce hemispherical average,
spreading away from the mount point at a width
of 30 to 180 degrees.
 Patch antennas are also known as ‘Panel, flat
pane, or Microstrip’ antennas.
ANTENNA LOADING
Loading – technique to increase the electrical
length of an antenna. When an antenna is loaded,
its physical length remains unchanged, although
its effective electrical strength is increased.
a) Loading Coils – effectively cancels out the
capacitance component of the antenna input
impedance, thus the antenna locks as if it were a
resonant circuit, is resistive, and can now absorb
100% of the incident power.
- Generally placed at the bottom of the antenna,
allowing the antenna to be easily tuned to
resonance.
b) Top Loading – a metallic array that resembles
a spoked wheel that is placed on top of the
antenna. The wheel increases the shunt
capacitance to ground, reducing the overall
antenna capacitance.
- Results in a considerable increase in the
radiation resistance and radiation efficiency. Also
reduces the volage of the standing wave at the
antenna base.
ANTENNA MATCHING
Antenna-matching network is separate from the
transmitter output (or receiver output. Latter
matches the transmitter to the transmission line;
the former matches the line to antenna.
➢ The longer the wire, the more lobes and the
closer the radiation maximum us to the axis of the
antenna.
➢ A simple technique for matching a short
antenna to a feedline is to increase its electrical
length.
Loading Coil – inductance added to the antenna
which cancels the capacitive effect of the too-
short
antenna which can result in an antenna that looks
electrically like a quarter-wave monopole.
Rubber-ducky Antenna – inductive loading
using antenna forming a coil or helix.
ANTENNA ARRAY
 The radiation from the individual elements will
combine, resulting in reinforcement in some
directions and cancellation in others to give
greater gain and better directional characteristics.
 Arrays – can be classified as broadside or end-
fire.
- formed when two or more antenna elements
are combined to form a single antenna.
- The purpose of an array is to increase the
directivity of an antenna systema and
concentrate the radiated power within a
smaller geographic area.
a) End-fire – if the maximum radiation is along
the main axis of the antenna.
b) Broadside – if the maximum radiation is at
right angles to the axis.
 Arrays can also be classified according to how
the elements are connected;
a) Phase Array – all the elements are connected
to the feedline.
b) Driven Array – the transmitter drives each
element by supplying power. Driven elements are
directly connected to the transmission line and
receive power from or are driven by the source.
c) Parasitic Array – only one element is
connected to the feedline, while others work by
absorbing the reradiating power radiated from the
driven element. They receive energy through
mutual induction with a driven element or
another parasitic element.
 Yagi Array – is a parasitic end-fire array. Has
one driven element, one reflector behind the
driven
element, and one or more directors in front of the
driven element. The driven element is a half-
wave
dipole or folded dipole.
- The reflector is slightly longer than the driven
element, and the directors are slightly
ANTENNA REVIEWER (COMMUNICATIONS 3)
shorter. Distance between each element is
typically about 0.2 wavelength.
- Unidirectional, with a single main lobe and
several minor lobes.
- Relatively narrow-band antenna.
 Log-Periodic Dipole Antenna – the feedpoint
impedance is a periodic function of the operating
frequency, hence its name.
- Log-Periodic Dipole Array (LPDA) most
common antenna for television reception and
simplest form of log-periodic array.
 Turnstile Array – simple combination of two
dipoles designed to give omnidirectional
performance in the horizontal plane.
- Often used for FM broadcast reception, but
some variations are also used for TV and FM
broadcasting.
 Monopole Phased Array – two or more
monopole antennas can be arranged in an array.
Antennas can be fed in phase or out of phase.
When in phase, broadside, when out of phase,
radiation is maximum off the ends.
 Collinear Array – axes of the elements are all
along the same line.
-If the elements are in phase, the signals will add.
-Often mounted with the main axis vertical, thus
makes a good base-station antennas for mobile
radio systems.
 Broadside Array – one of the simplest types of
antenna arrays. Made by simply placing a several
resonant dipoles of equal size in parallel with
each other and in a straight line.
-Crisscrossing the transmission line produces an
addition 180 degrees phase shift, therefore the
currents in all the elements are in phase, and the
radiated signals are in phase and additive in a
plane at right angles to the plane of the array.
 End-fire Array – essentially the same element
configuration as the broadside array except that
the transmission line is not crisscrossed between
the elements.
 Rhombic Array – a nonresonant array that is
capable of operating satisfactorily over a
relatively wide bandwidth, making it ideally
suited for HF transmission. Has a maximum
efficiency of 67% and gain achieved over 40
(16dB).
REFLECTORS
Reflector – a parasitic element that is longer than the
driven element from which it receives energy. It effectively
reduces the signal strength in its direction and increases it
in the opposite direction. Acts as a concave mirror.
– 5% longer than the driven dipole; when the signal
radiated from the dipole reaches the reflector, it will induce
a voltage into the reflector.
- Minimizes the radiation to the rear of the driven element
and reinforces the radiation to the front of the driven
element.
Director – a parasitic element that is shorter than its
associated driven element. Increases field strength in its
direction and reduces it in the opposite direction. Acts as a
convergent convex lens.
– 4% shorter than the half-wave driven element and is
mounted in front of the driven element.
- The signal from the driven element will be induced into
the director. The signal radiated by the
director will then add in phase to that from the driven
element.
Driven Element – the antenna itself.
Yagi antenna – antenna made up of a driven element, a
reflector and one or more directors.
 Plane Reflector – acts similar way to an ordinary
mirror; it reflects can be predicted by supposing
that there is an image of the antenna on the
opposite side of the reflecting surface at the same
distance from it as the source.
- Possible to use with almost any antenna.
 Corner Reflector – creates two images; often
combined with yagi arrays in UHF television
antennas.
 Parabolic Reflector – has a focus that any signal
that strikes the reflecting surface will be reflected
parallel to the axis of the parabola.
where;
G = gain as a power ratio (not in dB)
D = diameter of dish
Lambda = free-space wavelength
n = efficiency
 Hog-horn – combination of horn and parabolic
antenna and is often used for terrestrial
microwave links.
WAVEGUIDES
Waveguide – a hollow conductive tube, usually rectangular
in cross section but sometimes circular or elliptical. The
dimensions of the cross section are selected such that EM
waves can propagate within the interior of the guide.
Rectangular Waveguide – most common form of
waveguide.
Group Velocity – velocity at which the wave propagates.
ANTENNA REVIEWER (COMMUNICATIONS 3)
Phase Velocity – the velocity at which the wave changes
phase.
Cutoff Frequency – minimum frequency of operation.
Absolute limiting frequency; frequencies above the cutoff
frequency will not be propagated by the waveguide.
Cutoff Wavelength – maximum wavelength that they can
propagate. Smallest free-space wavelength that is just
unable to propagate in the waveguide. Only frequencies
with wavelengths less than the cutoff wavelength can
propagate down the waveguide.
Propagation Modes – EM waves travel down a waveguide
in different configurations.
Characteristic Impedance- Waveguides have a
characteristic impedance that is analogous to the
characteristic impedance of parallel-wire transmission line
and closely related to the characteristic impedance of free
space.
Impedance Matching- Reactive Stubs are used in
waveguides for impedance transforming and impedance
matching just as they are in parallel-wire transmission lines.
Circular Waveguide – used in radar and microwave
applications when it is necessary or advantageous to
propagate both vertically or horizontally polarized waves in
the same waveguide.
Ridged Waveguide – more expensive to manufacture than
standard rectangular, however it allows operation at lower
frequencies for a given size. Has more loss per unit length
than rectangular.
Flexible Waveguide – consists of spiral-wound ribbons of
brass or copper. Short pieces of flexible waveguide are
used in microwave systems when several transmitters and
receivers are interconnected to a complex combining or
separating unit. Used extensively in microwave test
equipment’s.
OTHER TERMS
Dual-polarization Antenna – a recent development that
can reduce the number of antennas required for diversity;
can reduce the number of visible structures needed at a cell
site.
Antenna Range – an open field for test the gain and
directivity of an antenna.
Anechoic Chamber – used in higher frequencies which
meets all the requirements to test antenna gain and
directivity.
Field-strength Meter – calibrated antenna-receiver
combination uses to measure the field strength in a number
of directions at a distance from the antenna that is great
enough to ensure that the far-field performance is being
measured.
Counterpoise or Ground Plane – collection of radials.
Drooping – a way to adjust antenna’s impedance.
-AM broadcast stations use vertical antennas because they
are shorter, less expensive and not visually obtrusive.
Directivity – ability of an antenna to send or receive
signals over a narrow horizontal directional range.
-A highly directional antenna acts as a type of filter to
provide selectivity based on the direction of the signal.
Bidirectional Antenna – receives signals best in two
directions.
Unidirectional Antenna – sends or receive signals in only
one direction.
Antenna Tuning or Antenna Matching – use to ensure
maximum power output.
Matching Stub or Q Section – a quarter wavelength
of coax or balanced transmission line of a specific
impedance that is connected between a load and a
source for the purpose of matching impedance.
Balun – impedance matching technique; a type of
transformer used to match impedances.
- Most baluns are made of a ferrite core, either a
toroid or rod, and windings of copper wire.
- Has a very wide bandwidth and are essentially
independent of frequency.
Antenna Tuners – when baluns and matching
sections can’t do the job.
- A variable inductor, one or more variable
capacitors, or a combination of these components
connected in various configurations. These are
adjusted to achieve minimum SWR.