Plants (HL)

Reminder: These answers are detailed to aid with understanding.
You will not be required to

answer IB questions in this much detail.
9.1 Transport (Xylem)

Transpiration
1. Outline the process of transpiration
Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from the stems and leaves of plants. Light
energy converts water in the leaves to vapour, which evaporates from the leaf via
stomata. New water is absorbed from the soil by the roots, creating a difference in
pressure between the leaves (low) and roots (high). Water will flow, via the xylem,
along the pressure gradient to replace the water lost from leaves (transpiration
stream). Stomata are pores on the underside of the leaf which facilitate gas exchange
(needed for photosynthesis). As photosynthetic gas exchange requires stomata to be
open, transpiration will be affected by the level of photosynthesis. Hence, transpiration
is an inevitable consequence of gas exchange in the leaf.
2. Explain how the properties of water and the structure of the xylem vessels are
essential for transpiration
Water is lost from the leaves of the plant when it is converted into vapour
(evaporation) and diffuses from the stomata. Some of the light energy absorbed by
leaves is converted into heat, which evaporates water within the spongy mesophyll.
This vapour diffuses out of the leaf via stomata, creating a negative pressure gradient
within the leaf. This negative pressure creates a tension force in leaf cell walls which
draws water from the xylem (transpiration pull). The water is pulled from the xylem
under tension due to the adhesive attraction between water and the leaf cell walls.
Reminder: These answers are detailed to aid with understanding. You will not be required to
Regulating Water Loss
The amount of water lost from the leaves (transpiration rate) is regulated by the
opening and closing of stomata
- Guard cells flank the stomata and can occlude the opening by becoming
increasingly flaccid in response to cellular signals
- When a plant begins to wilt from water stress, dehydrated mesophyll cells
release the plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA)
- Abscisic acid triggers the efflux of potassium from guard cells, decreasing
water pressure within the cells (lose turgor)
- A loss of turgor makes the stomatal pore close, as the guard cells become
flaccid and block the opening
Transpiration rates will be higher when stomatal pores are open than when they are
closed. Stomatal pores are responsible for gas exchange in the leaf and hence levels
of photosynthesis will affect transpiration. Other factors that will affect transpiration
rates include humidity, temperature, light intensity and wind.
The flow of water through the xylem from the roots to the leaf, against gravity, is called
the transpiration stream. Water rises through xylem vessels due to two key properties
of water – cohesion and adhesion
- Cohesion
- Cohesion is the force of attraction between two particles of the same
substance (e.g. between two water molecules)
- Water molecules are polar and can form a type of intermolecular association
called a hydrogen bond
- This cohesive property causes water molecules to be dragged up the xylem
towards the leaves in a continuous stream
- Adhesion:
- Adhesion is the force of attraction between two particles of different
substances (e.g. water molecule and xylem wall)
- The xylem wall is also polar and hence can form intermolecular associations
with water molecules
- As water molecules move up the xylem via capillary action, they pull inward on
the xylem walls to generate further tension
Structure of the Xylem
The xylem is a specialised structure that functions to facilitate the movement of water
throughout the plant. It is a tube composed of dead cells that are hollow (no
protoplasm) to allow for the free movement of water. Because the cells are dead, the
movement of water is an entirely passive process and occurs in one direction only.
The cell wall contains numerous pores (called pits), which enables water to be
transferred between cells. Walls have thickened cellulose and are reinforced by lignin,
so as to provide strength as water is transported under tension.
Xylems can be composed of tracheids (all vascular plants) and vessel elements
(certain vascular plants only). Tracheids are tapered cells that exchange water solely
via pits, leading to a slower rate of water transfer. In vessel elements, the end walls
have become fused to form a continuous tube, resulting in a faster rate of water
transfer.
All xylem vessels are reinforced by lignin, which may be deposited in different ways:
- In annular vessels, the lignin forms a pattern of circular rings at equal distances
from each other
- In spiral vessels, the lignin is present in the form of a helix or coil
3. Explain how the uptake of mineral ions by roots causes absorption of water by
osmosis
Plants take up water and mineral ions from the soil via their roots and thus need a
maximal surface area to optimise this uptake. Some plants have a fibrous, highly
branching root system which increases the surface area available for absorption.
Other plants have a main tap root with lateral branches, which can penetrate the soil
to access deeper reservoirs of water.
The epidermis of roots may have cellular extensions called root hairs, which further
increases the surface area for absorption. Materials absorbed by the root epidermis
diffuse across the cortex towards a central stele, where the xylem is located. The stele
is surrounded by an endodermis layer that is impermeable to the passive flow of water
and ions (Casparian strip). Water and minerals are pumped across this barrier by
specialised cells, allowing the rate of uptake to be controlled.
Mineral Uptake
Fertile soil typically contains negatively charged clay particles to which positively
charged mineral ions (cations) may attach. Minerals that need to be taken up from the
soil include Mg2+ (for chlorophyll), nitrates (for amino acids), Na+, K+ and PO43–
Mineral ions may passively diffuse into the roots, but will more commonly be actively
uploaded by indirect active transport. Root cells contain proton pumps that actively
expel H+ions (stored in the vacuole of root cells) into the surrounding soil. The H+ ions
displace the positively charged mineral ions from the clay, allowing them to diffuse
into the root along a gradient. Negatively charged mineral ions (anions) may bind to
the H+ ions and be reabsorbed along with the proton.
Water Uptake
Water will follow the mineral ions into the root via osmosis – moving towards the
region with a higher solute concentration. The rate of water uptake will be regulated
by specialised water channels (aquaporins) on the root cell membrane
Once inside the root, water will move towards the xylem either via the cytoplasm
(symplastic) or via the cell wall (apoplastic). In the symplastic pathway, water moves
continuously through the cytoplasm of cells (connected via plasmodesmata). In the
apoplastic pathway, water cannot cross the Casparian strip and is transferred to the
cytoplasm of the endodermis
4. Draw the structure of primary xylem vessels in sections of stems based on

microscope images
When drawing the structure of primary xylem vessels, it is important to remember the
following features:
- Vessel elements should be drawn as a continuous tube (tracheids will consist
of interlinking tapered cells)
- The remnants of the fused end wall can be represented as indents (these
forms perforated end plates)
- The xylem wall should contain gaps (pits), which enable the exchange of water
molecules
- Lignin can be represented by either a spiral (coiled) or annular (rings)
arrangement
5. Explain how plants in deserts and in saline soils are adapted for water
conservation
Desert plants (xerophytes) and plants that grow in high salinity (halophytes) possess
various adaptations for water conservation. Xerophytes will have high rates of
transpiration due to the high temperatures and low humidity of desert environments.
Halophytes will lose water as the high intake of salt from the surrounding soils will
draw water from plant tissue via osmosis.
Xerophytes
Xerophytes are plants that can tolerate dry conditions (such as deserts) due to the
presence of a number of adaptations:
- Reduced leaves – reducing the total number and size of leaves will reduce the
surface area available for water loss
- Rolled leaves – rolling up leaves reduces the exposure of stomata to the air
and hence reduces evaporative water loss
- Thick, waxy cuticle – having leaves covered by a thickened cuticle prevents
water loss from the leaf surface
- Stomata in pits – having stomata in pits, surrounded by hairs, traps water
vapour and hence reduces transpiration
- Low growth – low growing plants are less exposed to wind and more likely to
be shaded, reducing water loss
- CAM physiology – plants with CAM physiology open their stomata at night,
reducing water loss via evaporation
Halophytes
Halophytes are plants that can tolerate salty conditions (such as marshlands) due to
the presence of a number of adaptations:
- Cellular sequestration – halophytes can sequester toxic ions and salts within
the cell wall or vacuoles
- Tissue partitioning – plants may concentrate salts in particular leaves, which
then drop off (abscission)
- Root level exclusion – plant roots may be structured to exclude ~95% of the
salt in soil solutions
- Salt excretion – certain parts of the plant (e.g. stem) may contain salt glands
which actively eliminate salt
- Altered flowering schedule – halophytes may flower at specific times (e.g. rainy
seasons) to minimise salt exposure
Potometer
6. Model water transport in xylem using simple apparatus including blotting or filter
paper, porous pots and capillary tubing
The movement of water up the length of the xylem can be modelled using a number
of simple apparatus. These include capillary tubing, filter or blotting paper and porous
pots.
Capillary Tubing:
- Water has the capacity to flow along narrow spaces in opposition to external
forces like gravity (capillary action)
- This is due to a combination of surface tension (cohesive forces) and adhesion
with the walls of the tube surface
- The thinner the tube or the less dense the fluid, the higher the liquid will rise
(xylem vessels are thin: 20 – 200 µm)
Filter Paper:
- Filter paper (or blotting paper) will absorb water due to both adhesive and
cohesive properties
- When placed perpendicular to a water source, the water will hence rise up
along the length of the paper
- This is comparable to the movement of water up a xylem (the paper and the
xylem wall are both composed of cellulose)
Porous Pots:
- Porous pots are semi-permeable containers that allow for the free passage of
certain small materials through pores
- The loss of water from the pot is similar to the evaporative water loss that
occurs in the leaves of plants
- If the porous pot is attached by an airtight seal to a tube, the water loss creates
a negative pressure that draws more liquid
7. Outline the use of a potometer in measuring transpiration rates (Practical 7)

A potometer is a device that is used to estimate transpiration rates by measuring the
rate of water loss / uptake. When a plant is affixed to the potometer, transpiration can
be indirectly identified by the movement of water towards the plant. This water
movement can be assessed as a change in meniscus level or by the movement of an
air bubble towards the plant. The initial starting position of the meniscus or air bubble
can be adjusted by introducing additional water from a reservoir.
When measuring transpiration rates with a potometer, it is important to remember that
not all water is lost to transpiration. A small amount of water (~2%) is used in
photosynthesis and to maintain the viable turgidity of plant cells.
8. Design an experiment to test hypotheses about the effect of temperature or

humidity on transpiration rates
Potometers can be used to test a number of variables that may affect the rate of
transpiration in plants. These variables include temperature, humidity, light intensity
and wind exposure
Temperature:
Increasing the ambient temperature is predicted to cause an increase in the rate of
transpiration. Higher temperatures lead to an increase in the rate of water vaporisation
within the mesophyll, leading to more evaporation. The effect of temperature variation
can be tested experimentally by using heaters or submerging in heated water baths.
Humidity:
Increasing the humidity is predicted to cause a decrease in the rate of transpiration.
Humidity is the amount of water vapour in the air – less vapour will diffuse from the
leaf if there is more vapour in the air. The effect of humidity can be tested
experimentally by encasing the plant in a plastic bag with variable levels of vapour.
Light Intensity:
Increasing the light intensity to which a plant is exposed is predicted to cause an
increase in the rate of transpiration. Increasing light exposure will cause more stomata
to open in order to facilitate photosynthetic gas exchange. The effect of light intensity
can be tested experimentally by placing the plant at variable distances from a lamp.
Wind Exposure:
Increasing the level of wind exposure is predicted to cause an increase in the rate of
transpiration. Wind / air circulation will function to remove water vapour from near the
leaf, effectively reducing proximal humidity. The effect of wind can be tested
experimentally by using fans to circulate the air around a plant.
9.2 Transport (Phloem)

Translocation
1. Outline how plants transport organic compounds from sources to sinks
Translocation is the movement of organic compounds (e.g. sugars, amino acids) from
sources to sinks. The source is where the organic compounds are synthesised – this is
the photosynthetic tissues (leaves). The sink is where the compounds are delivered to
for use or storage – this includes roots, fruits and seeds.
Organic compounds are transported from sources to sinks via a vascular tube system
called the phloem. Sugars are principally transported as sucrose (disaccharide),
because it is soluble but metabolically inert. The nutrient-rich, viscous fluid of the
phloem is called plant sap.
2. Outline the mechanism by which plants transport sugars by translocation

SEE QUESTION 1
Also note:
Plants transport these organic compounds through active transport by transporting the
compounds into the phloem sieve tubes at the source. High concentrations of solutes
in the phloem at the source lead to water uptake by osmosis. Along with that, the
incompressibility of water allows transport along hydrostatic pressure gradients. Lastly,
raised hydrostatic pressure causes the contents of the phloem to flow towards the
sinks.
3. Explain how the structure of a phloem sieve tube relates to its function
Phloem sieve tubes are primarily composed of two main types of cells – sieve element
cells and companion cells. The phloem also contains sclerenchyma and parenchyma
cells which fill additional spaces and provide support.
Sieve Element Cells

Sieve elements are long and narrow cells that are connected together to form the
sieve tube. Sieve elements are connected by sieve plates at their transverse ends,
which are porous to enable flow between cells. Sieve elements have no nuclei and
reduced numbers of organelles to maximise space for the translocation of materials.
The sieve elements also have thick and rigid cell walls to withstand the hydrostatic
pressures which facilitate flow.
Companion Cells
Provide metabolic support for sieve element cells and facilitate the loading and
unloading of materials at source and sink. Possess an infolding plasma membrane
which increases SA:Vol ratio to allow for more material exchange. Have many
mitochondria to fuel the active transport of materials between the sieve tube and the
source or sink. Contain appropriate transport proteins within the plasma membrane to
move materials into or out of the sieve tube.
Sieve elements are unable to sustain independent metabolic activity without the
support of a companion cell. This is because the sieve element cells have no nuclei
and fewer organelles (to maximise flow rate). Plasmodesmata exist between sieve
elements and companion cells in relatively large numbers. These connect the
cytoplasm of the two cells and mediate the symplastic exchange of metabolites.
4. Identify xylem and phloem in microscope images of root

Xylem and phloem vessels are grouped into bundles that extend from the roots to the
shoots in vascular plants. Differences in distribution and arrangement exist between
plant types (e.g. monocotyledons vs dicotyledons). Xylem and phloem vessels can
usually be differentiated by the diameter of their cavity (xylem have larger cavities).
Roots
In monocotyledons, the stele is large and vessels will form a radiating circle around
the central pith. Xylem vessels will be located more internally and phloem vessels will
be located more externally. In dicotyledons, the stele is very small and the xylem is
located centrally with the phloem surrounding it. Xylem vessels may form a cross-like
shape (‘X’ for xylem), while the phloem is situated in the surrounding gaps.
Stem
In monocotyledons, the vascular bundles are found in a scattered arrangement
throughout the stem. Phloem vessels will be positioned externally (towards outside of
stem) – remember: phloem =outside. In dicotyledons, the vascular bundles are
arranged in a circle around the centre of the stem (pith). Phloem and xylem vessels will
be separated by the cambium (xylem on inside ; phloem on outside).
5. Explain how active transport is used to load organic compounds into phloem sieve
tubes
Organic compounds produced at the source are actively loaded into phloem sieve
tubes by companion cells. Materials can pass into the sieve tube via interconnecting
plasmodesmata (symplastic loading). Alternatively, materials can be pumped across
the intervening cell wall by membrane proteins (apoplastic).
Apoplastic loading of sucrose into the phloem sieve tubes is an active transport
process that requires ATP expenditure. Hydrogen ions (H+) are actively transported out
of phloem cells by proton pumps (involves the hydrolysis of ATP). The concentration of
hydrogen ions consequently builds up outside of the cell, creating a proton gradient.
Hydrogen ions passively diffuse back into the phloem cell via a co-transport protein,
which requires sucrose movement. This results in a build up of sucrose within the
phloem sieve tube for subsequent transport from the source.
Experimental data
6. Know how aphid stylets can be used to collect samples of phloem sap
Aphids are a group of insects, belonging to the order Hemiptera, which feed primarily
on sap extracted from phloem. Aphids possess a protruding mouthpiece (called a
stylet), which pierces the plant’s sieve tube to allow sap to be extracted. The
penetration of the stylet into the sieve tube is aided by digestive enzymes that soften
the intervening tissue layers. If the stylet is severed, sap will continue to flow from the
plant due to the hydrostatic pressure within the sieve tube.
Measuring Phloem Transport
Aphids can be used to collect sap at various sites along a plant's length and thus
provide a measure of phloem transport rates. A plant is grown within a lab with the
leaves sealed within a glass chamber containing radioactively-labelled carbon dioxide.
The leaves will convert the CO2 into radioactively-labelled sugars (via photosynthesis),
which are transported by the phloem. Aphids are positioned along the plant’s length
and encouraged to feed on the phloem sap. Once feeding has commenced, the aphid
stylet is severed and sap continues to flow from the plant at the selected positions.
The sap is then analysed for the presence of radioactively-labelled sugars. The rate of
phloem transport (translocation rate) can be calculated based on the time taken for the
radioisotope to be detected at different positions along the plant’s length.
Factors Affecting Translocation Rate

The rate of phloem transport will principally be determined by the concentration of
dissolved sugars in the phloem. The concentration of dissolved sugars in the phloem
sap will be affected by:
- The rate of photosynthesis (which is affected by light intensity, CO2
concentration, temperature, etc.)
- The rate of cellular respiration (this may be affected by any factor which
physically stresses the plant)
- The rate of transpiration (this will potentially determine how much water enters
the phloem)
- The diameter of the sieve tubes (will affect the hydrostatic pressure and may
differ between plant species)
EXTRA INFORMATION
1. Xylem vs Phloem
Xylem
- Moves materials via the process of transpiration
- Transports water and minerals from the roots to aerial parts of the plant
(unidirectional transport)
- Xylem occupy the inner portion or centre of the vascular bundle and is
composed of vessel elements and tracheids
- Vessel wall consists of fused cells that create a continuous tube for the
unimpeded flow of materials
- Vessels are composed of dead tissue at maturity, such that vessels are hollow
with no cell contents
Phloem
- Moves materials via the process of active translocation
- Transports food and nutrients to storage organs and growing parts of the plant
(bidirectional transport)
- Phloem occupy the outer portion of the vascular bundle and are composed of
sieve tube elements and companion cells
- Vessel wall consists of cells that are connected at their transverse ends to form
porous sieve plates (function as cross walls)
- Vessels are composed of living tissue, however sieve tube elements lack
nuclei and have few organelles
2. Storage Organs
A storage organ is a part of a plant specifically modified to store energy (e.g.
carbohydrates) or water. They are usually found underground (for protection from
herbivores) and result from changes to roots, leaves or stems.
Examples of storage organs include:
- Bulbs – Modified leaf bases (found as underground vertical shoots) that contain layers
called scales (e.g. onions)
- Storage Roots – Modified roots that store water or food in an enlarged central stele
(e.g. carrots)
- Tubers – Horizontal underground stems that store carbohydrates (e.g. potatoes)
-
3. Fungal Hyphae
Hyphae are the tubular projections of multicellular fungi that form a filamentous
network (mycelium). Fungal hyphae release digestive enzymes in order to absorb
nutrients from food sources.
Certain species of fungi may form a symbiotic relationship with plants whereby both
species benefit (mutualism). The hyphae penetrate into the plant’s root tissue in
response to chemical exudates produced by both plant and fungus. Within the cortical
cells of the root, the hyphae form arbuscular projections which absorb nutrients from
the plant cells. In return, the fungus transfers minerals absorbed from the soil into the
plant, so both species benefit from the interaction.
9.3 Growth
Plant growth
1. Outline how undifferentiated cells in the meristems of plants allow indeterminate
growth
Meristems are tissues in a plant consisting of undifferentiated cells capable of
indeterminate growth. They are analogous to totipotent stem cells in animals, except
that they have specific regions of growth and development. Meristematic tissue can
allow plants to regrow structures or even form entirely new plants (vegetative
propagation).
Meristematic tissue can be divided into apical meristems and lateral meristems:
- Apical meristems occur at shoot and root tips and are responsible for primary growth
(i.e. plant lengthening)
- Lateral meristems occur at the cambium and are responsible for secondary growth (i.e.
plant widening / thickening)
- Apical meristems give rise to new leaves and flowers, while lateral meristems are
responsible for the production of bark
2. Explain how mitosis and cell division in the shoot apex provide cells needed for
extension of the stem and development of the leaves
The apical meristems give rise to primary growth (lengthening) and occurs at the tips
of the roots and shoots. Growth at these regions is due to a combination of cell
enlargement and repeated cell division (mitosis and cytokinesis). Differentiation of the
dividing meristem gives rise to a variety of stem tissues and structures – including
leaves and flowers.
In the stem, growth occurs in sections called nodes – with the remaining meristem
tissue forming an inactive axillary bud. These axillary (lateral) buds have the potential
to form new branching shoots, complete with leaves and flowers.
3. Describe how plant hormones control growth in the shoot apex

The growth of the stem and the formation of new nodes is controlled by plant
hormones released from the shoot apex. One of the main groups of plant hormones
involved in shoot and root growth are auxins (e.g. indole-3-acetic acid / IAA).
When auxins are produced by the shoot apical meristem, it promotes growth in the
shoot apex via cell elongation and division. The production of auxins additionally
prevents growth in lateral (axillary) buds, a condition known as apical dominance.
Apical dominance ensures that a plant will use its energy to grow up towards the light
in order to outcompete other plants. As the distance between the terminal bud and
axillary bud increases, the inhibition of the axillary bud by auxin diminishes. Different
species of plants will show different levels of apical dominance.
Auxin
4. Outline how auxin efflux pumps can set up concentration gradients of auxin in
plant tissue
Auxins are a group of hormones produced by the tip of a shoot or root (i.e. apical
meristems) that regulate plant growth. Auxin efflux pumps can set up concentration
gradients within tissues – changing the distribution of auxin within the plant. These
pumps can control the direction of plant growth by determining which regions of plant
tissue have high auxin levels. Auxin efflux pumps can change position within the
membrane (due to fluidity) and be activated by various factors
Auxin has different mechanism of action in the roots of plants versus the shoots of
plants:
- In the shoots, auxin stimulates cell elongation and thus high concentrations of
auxin promote growth (cells become larger)
- In the roots, auxin inhibits cell elongation and thus high concentrations of auxin
limit growth (cells become relatively smaller)
5. Explain the role of auxin in phototropism as an example of the control of plant

growth
Auxin is a plant hormone and influences cell growth rates by changing the pattern of
gene expression with a plant’s cells. Auxin’s mechanism of action is different in shoots
and roots as different gene pathways are activated in each tissue.
In shoots, auxin increases the flexibility of the cell wall to promote plant growth via cell
elongation. Auxin activates a proton pump in the plasma membrane which causes the
secretion of H+ ions into the cell wall. The resultant decrease in pH causes cellulose
fibres within the cell wall to loosen (by breaking the bonds between them).
Additionally, auxin upregulates expression of expansins, which similarly increases the
elasticity of the cell wall. With the cell wall now more flexible, an influx of water (to be
stored in the vacuole) causes the cell to increase in size.
Micropropagation
6. Distinguish between phototropism and gravitropism and outline how plant shoots
respond to the environment by tropisms
Tropisms describe the growth or turning movement of an plant in response to a
directional external stimulus. Phototropism is a growth movement in response to a
unidirectional light source. Geotropism (or gravitropism) is a growth movement in
response to gravitational forces. Other tropisms include hydrotropism (responding to a
water gradient) and thigmotropism (responding to a tactile stimulus)
Both phototropism and geotropism are controlled by the distribution of auxin within
the plant cells:
- In geotropism, auxin will accumulate on the lower side of the plant in response
to the force of gravity
- In phototropism, light receptors (phototropins) trigger the redistribution of
auxin to the dark side of the plant
In shoots, high auxin concentrations promote cell elongation, meaning that:

- The dark side of the shoot elongates and shoots grow towards the light
(positive phototropism)
- The lower side of the shoot elongates and roots grow away from the ground
In roots, high auxin concentrations inhibit cell elongation, meaning that:

- The dark side of the root becomes shorter and the roots grow away from the
light (negative phototropism)
- The lower side of the root becomes shorter and the roots turn downwards into
the earth
7. Outline the micropropagation of plants using tissue from the shoot apex, nutrient
agar gels and growth hormones
Micropropagation is a technique used to produce large numbers of identical plants
(clones) from a selected stock plant. Plants can reproduce asexually from meristems
because they are undifferentiated cells capable of indeterminate growth. When a plant
cutting is used to reproduce asexually in the native environment it is called vegetative
propagation. When plant tissues are cultured in the laboratory (in vitro) in order to
reproduce asexually it is called micropropagation
The process of micropropagation involves a number of key steps:
- Specific plant tissue (typically the undifferentiated shoot apex) is selected from
a stock plant and sterilised
- The tissue sample (called the explant) is grown on a sterile nutrient agar ge
- The explant is treated with growth hormones (e.g. auxins) to stimulate shoot
and root development
- The growing shoots can be continuously divided and separated to form new
samples (multiplication phase)
- Once the root and shoot are developed, the cloned plant can be transferred to
soil
8. Outline the uses of micropropagation including the rapid bulking up of new

varieties, production of virus-free strains of existing varieties and propagation of
orchids and other rare species
Micropropagation is used to rapidly produce large numbers of cloned plants under
controlled conditions:
Rapid Bulking
Desirable stock plants can be cloned via micropropagation to conserve the fidelity of
the selected characteristic. This process is more reliable that selective breeding
because new plants are genetically identical to the stock plant. This technique is also
used to rapidly produce large quantities of plants created via genetic modification.
Virus-Free Strains
Plant viruses have the potential to decimate crops, crippling economies and leading to
famine. Viruses typically spread through infected plants via the vascular tissue – which
meristems do not contain. Propagating plants from the non-infected meristems allows
for the rapid reproduction of virus-free plant strains.
Propagation of Rare Species

Micropropagation is commonly used to increase numbers of rare or endangered plant
species. It is also used to increase numbers of species that are difficult to breed
sexually (e.g. orchids). It may also be used to increase numbers of plant species that
are commercially in demand.
9.4 Reproduction
Strategies
1. Distinguish between pollination, fertilization and seed dispersal
Plants can reproduce in a number of different ways:
- Vegetative propagation (asexual reproduction from a plant cutting)
- Spore formations (e.g. moulds, ferns)
- Pollen transfer (flowering plants – angiospermophytes)
Sexual reproduction in flowering plants involves the transfer of pollen (male gamete)
to an ova (female gamete). This involves three distinct phases – pollination, fertilization
and seed dispersal
Pollination:
The transfer of pollen grains from an anther (male plant structure) to a stigma (female
plant structure). Many plants possess both male and female structures (monoecious)
and can potentially self-pollinate. From an evolutionary perspective, cross-pollination
is preferable as it improves genetic diversity.
Fertilisation:
Fusion of a male gamete nuclei with a female gamete nuclei to form a zygote. In
plants, the male gamete is stored in the pollen grain and the female gamete is found
in the ovule.
Seed dispersal:
Fertilisation of gametes results in the formation of a seed, which moves away from the
parental plant. This seed dispersal reduces competition for resources between the
germinating seed and the parental plant. There are a variety of seed dispersal
mechanisms, including wind, water, fruits and animals; seed structure will vary
depending on the mechanism of dispersal employed by the plant.
2. Outline how most flowering plants use mutualistic relationships with pollinators in
sexual reproduction
Cross-pollination involves transferring pollen grains from one plant to the ovule of a
different plant. Pollen can be transferred by wind or water, but is commonly transferred
by animals (called pollinators)
Pollinators are involved in a mutualistic relationship with the flowering plant – whereby
both species benefit from the interaction. The flowering plant gains a means of sexual
reproduction (via the transference of pollen between plants). The animal gains a
source of nutrition (plants secrete a sugar-rich substance called nectar to attract
pollinators
Common examples of pollinators include birds, bats and insects (including bees and
butterflies). Flowers may be structured to optimise access for certain pollinators (e.g.
tube-shaped flowers for birds with long beaks)
Flowering
3. Know that flowering involves a change in gene expression in the shoot apex
Flowers are the reproductive organs of angiospermophytes (flowering plants) and
develop from the shoot apex. Changes in gene expression trigger the enlargement of
the shoot apical meristem. This tissue then differentiates to form the different flower
structures – sepals, petals, stamen and pistil.
The activation of genes responsible for flowering is influenced by abiotic factors –

typically linked to the seasons. Flowering plants will typically come into bloom when a
suitable pollinator is most abundant. The most common trigger for a change in gene
expression is day/night length (photoperiodism).
4. Know that the switch to flowering is a response to the length of light and dark
periods in many plants
The purpose of flowering is to enable the plant to sexually reproduce via pollination,
fertilisation and seed dispersal. Consequently, flowers need to bloom when pollinators
are most active and abundant – this is dependent on seasons. Some plants bloom in
long day conditions (summer), whereas other plants bloom in short day conditions
(autumn / winter)
The critical factor responsible for flowering is the length of light and dark periods,
which is detected by phytochromes
Phytochromes
Phytochromes are leaf pigments which are used by the plant to detect periods of light
and darkness. The response of the plant to the relative lengths of light and darkness is
called photoperiodism
Phytochromes exist in two forms – an active form and an inactive form:

- The inactive form of phytochrome (Pr) is converted into the active form when it
absorbs red light (~660 nm)
- The active form of phytochrome (Pfr) is broken down into the inactive form
when it absorbs far red light (~725 nm). Additionally, the active form will
gradually revert to the inactive form in the absence of light (darkness

reversion)
Because sunlight contains more red light than moonlight, the active form is
predominant during the day. Similarly, as the active form is reverted in darkness, the
inactive form is predominant during the night.
Photoperiodism
Only the active form of phytochrome (Pfr) is capable of causing flowering, however its
action differs in certain types of plants. Plants can be classed as short-day or long-day
plants, however the critical factor in determining their activity is night length.
Short-day plants flower when the days are short – hence require the night period to
exceed a critical length. In short-day plants, Pfr inhibits flowering and hence flowering
requires low levels of Pfr (i.e. resulting from long nights)
Long-day plants flower when the days are long – hence require the night period to be
less than a critical length. In long-day plants, Pfr activates flowering and hence
flowering requires high levels of Pfr (i.e. resulting from short nights)
5. Explain how flowering is induced in short-day plants, such as chrysanthemums

Horticulturalists can manipulate the flowering of short-day and long-day plants by
controlling the exposure of light. The critical night length required for a flowering
response must be uninterrupted in order to be effective.
Long-day plants require periods of darkness to be less than an uninterrupted critical
length. These plants will traditionally not flower during the winter and autumn months
when night lengths are long. Horticulturalists can trigger flowering in these plants by
exposing the plant to a light source during the night. Carnations are an example of a
long-day plant
Short-day plants require periods of darkness to be greater than an uninterrupted

critical length. These plants will traditionally not flower during the summer months
when night lengths are short. Horticulturalists can trigger flowering in these plants by
covering the plant with an opaque black cloth for ~12 hours a day. Crysanthemums are
an example of a short-day plant
Seeds & flowers

6. Draw the internal structure of a seed, including embryo shoot (plumule), embryo
root (radical), seed coat, cotyledon
When fertilisation occurs, the ovule will develop into a seed (which may be contained
within a fruit). The seed will be dispersed from the parental plant and will then
germinate, giving rise to a new plant
A typical seed will possess the following features:

- Testa: An outer seed coat that protects the embryonic plant
- Micropyle: A small pore in the outer covering of the seed, that allows for the passage
of water
- Cotyledon: Contains the food stores for the seed and forms the embryonic leaves
- Plumule: The embryonic shoot (also called the epicotyl)
- Radicle: The embryonic root
7. Draw the structure of an animal-pollinated flower, including sepal, petal, anther,

filament, stigma, style, ovary
Flowers are the reproductive organs of angiospermophytes (flowering plants) and
contain male and female structures. Most flowers possess both male and female
structures (monoecious), but some may only possess one structure (dioecious)
Germination
8. Outline the conditions needed for the germination of a typical seed
Germination is the process by which a seed emerges from a period of dormancy and
begins to sprout. For germination to occur, a seed requires a combination of:
- Oxygen: For aerobic respiration (the seed requires large amounts of ATP in
order to develop)
- Water: To metabolically activate the seed (triggers the synthesis of gibberellin)
- Temperature: Seeds require certain temperature conditions in order to sprout
(for optimal function of enzymes)
- pH: Seeds require a suitable soil pH in order to sprout (for optimal function of
enzymes)
Additionally, certain plant species may require additional conditions for germination:
- Fire: Some seeds will only sprout after exposure to intense heat (e.g. after
bushfires remove established flora)
- Freezing: Some seeds will only sprout after periods of intense cold (e.g. in
spring, following the winter snows)
- Digestion: Some seeds require prior animal digestion to erode the seed coat
before the seed will sprout
- Washing: Some seeds may be covered with inhibitors and will only sprout after
being washed to remove the inhibitors
- Scarification: Seeds are more likely to germinate if the seed coat is weakened
from physical damage
Experiments can be developed using any of these factors as an independent variable.

Germination can be measured by the rate of seed growth over a set period of time
9. Outline the germination stages

The first step in the germination process is the metabolic activation of a dormant seed.
Germination begins with the absorption of water, which causes gibberellin to be
produced. Gibberellin triggers the synthesis of amylase, which breaks down starch
into maltose. Maltose is either hydrolysed (to glucose) for energy, or polymerised (to
cellulose) for cell wall formation. This energy and cellular building blocks is used to
promote cell division and the growth of a nascent shoot
Once the seed is metabolically activated, germination proceeds according to the

following stages:
- The seed coat (testa) ruptures and the embryonic root (radicle) grows into the
ground to extract key nutrients and minerals
- The cotyledon emerges and produces the growing shoots first leaves
- The growing plant can be divided into the epicotyl (embryonic shoot),
hypocotyl (embryonic stem) and developing roots
10. Design an experiment to test hypotheses about factors affecting germination

SEE QUESTION 8

Plants (HL)

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Reminder: These answers are detailed to aid with understanding.

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9.1 Transport (Xylem)

Regulating Water Loss

Structure of the Xylem

4. Draw the structure of primary xylem vessels in sections of stems based on

7. Outline the use of a potometer in measuring transpiration rates (Practical 7)

8. Design an experiment to test hypotheses about the effect of temperature or

9.2 Transport (Phloem)

2. Outline the mechanism by which plants transport sugars by translocation

Sieve Element Cells

4. Identify xylem and phloem in microscope images of root

Measuring Phloem Transport

Factors Affecting Translocation Rate

Examples of storage organs include:

3. Describe how plant hormones control growth in the shoot apex

5. Explain the role of auxin in phototropism as an example of the control of plant

In shoots, high auxin concentrations promote cell elongation, meaning that:

In roots, high auxin concentrations inhibit cell elongation, meaning that:

The process of micropropagation involves a number of key steps:

8. Outline the uses of micropropagation including the rapid bulking up of new

Propagation of Rare Species

The activation of genes responsible for flowering is influenced by abiotic factors –

Phytochromes exist in two forms – an active form and an inactive form:

gradually revert to the inactive form in the absence of light (darkness

5. Explain how flowering is induced in short-day plants, such as chrysanthemums

Short-day plants require periods of darkness to be greater than an uninterrupted

Seeds & flowers

A typical seed will possess the following features:

7. Draw the structure of an animal-pollinated flower, including sepal, petal, anther,

Experiments can be developed using any of these factors as an independent variable.

9. Outline the germination stages

Once the seed is metabolically activated, germination proceeds according to the

10. Design an experiment to test hypotheses about factors affecting germination

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