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Soils and Foundations 63 (2023) 101374
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Technical Paper

Effect of the particle’s shape on the dynamic shear modulus

and compressibility of diatomaceous soils
Laura Ibagón a,b, Bernardo Caicedo b,⇑, Juan P. Villacreses a,b, Fabricio Yepez a
a
Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Diego de Robles y Via Interoceanica, College of Science and Engineering, Quito, Ecuador
b
Universidad de los Andes, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Bogotá, Colombia

Received 10 February 2023; received in revised form 28 June 2023; accepted 30 August 2023
Available online 14 September 2023

Abstract

Diatomites are unicellular algae fossils that can be found worldwide. This paper studies the diatom’s shape effect on diatomaceous soil
mixtures’ dynamic and compressibility properties. Physical characteristics of six diatomite samples with variable shapes and taxonomies
are presented. Among these six samples, three diatomites of similar grain size distribution were mixed with kaolin, and the mechanical
properties (i.e., shear modulus and damping ratio from small to large strains) were analysed. The results showed that diatom frustules
increased the mixtures’ compressibility and reduced the maximum shear modulus compared with pure kaolin samples. Moreover, the
diatom’s shape influenced the normalised shear modulus degradation curve and the damping ratio. Overall, the presence of diatomites
reduces the energy dissipation capacity in soils. This research evidenced the importance of distinguishing the shape of diatom in soil mix-
tures when mechanical properties are analysed, a situation that has yet to be explored.
Ó 2023 Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of The Japanese Geotechnical Society. This is an open access article under the CC BY-
NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Keywords: Dynamic shear modulus; Diatom shape; Diatomaceous soils; Damping; Dynamic shear rheometer

1. Introduction modulus that undergoes the high plasticity soils of the

Dynamic shear modulus and damping ratio are critical
parameters for analysing seismic wave amplification in hor-
izontal geological layers during earthquakes, generally
known as the site effect. Seismic site effects were evidenced
during the 1985 Mexico City Michoacan earthquake (Singh
et al., 1988). The earthquake epicentre was located along
the Pacific Coast (several hundred kilometres from Mexico
City) and arrived in Mexico City highly attenuated. How-
ever, the seismic shaking was significantly amplified when
the shear waves crossed the soil deposit, leading to exten-
sive damage.
The high amplification of the Mexico City basin was
explained because of the reduced degradation of the shear
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: bcaicedo@uniandes.edu.co (B. Caicedo).
deposit when applying shear strains (Vucetic & Dobry,
1991). It was identified that one of the reasons for the
low degradation of the shear modulus and the strong
amplification that undergoes the Mexico City basin is the
presence of diatoms that also increases the compressibility
(Dı́az-Rodrı́guez, 2003).
Diatoms are unicellular algae, specifically phytoplank-
ton, that grow in aquatic ecosystems like lakes and coastal
zones. Diatoms have a strong silica shell (frustules) which
acts as a mechanical protector for the cell against predators
(Hamm et al., 2003). Several diatomite microfossil deposits
have been found worldwide, frequently in countries with
high volcanic activities like Mexico, Chile, Colombia, and
Japan (Dı́az-Rodrı́guez, 2003; Shiwakoti et al., 2002;
Caniupan et al., 2009; Caicedo et al., 2018, Mendoza
et al., 2019). Those diatomaceous soil deposits comprise

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2023.101374
0038-0806/Ó 2023 Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of The Japanese Geotechnical Society.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 L. Ibagón et al.
diatomite frustules and natural soil such as sand or clays
(Arenaldi-Perisic et al., 2019).
Diatomaceous soil mixture is a topic that has been cur-
rently investigated by several authors (Dı́az-Rodrı́guez,
2003; Shiwakoti et al., 2002; Caicedo et al., 2018;
Arenaldi-Perisic et al., 2019; Dı́az-Rodrı́guez, 2013;
Caicedo et al., 2019a; Caicedo et al., 2019b; Sonyok &
Bandini, 2019; Ovalle & Arenaldi-Perisic, 2020, Mendoza
et al. 2022). These studies showed that diatomite soil mix-
tures do not behave as standard soil materials. Diatomite
particles can be classified as silty soils according to the par-
ticle size distribution. Even though they present high-water
carrying capacity, they act as non-plastic according to
Casagrande test methods. Diatomite interaction is influ-
enced by the water content, which depends on the frustule
shape (Caicedo et al., 2019a). Although there are more
than 200,000 different diatomite species with different frus-
tules’ shapes Guiry (2012), few studies focus on the particle
shape’s effect on soils’ mechanical behaviour.
This research uses mixtures of kaolin and six different
diatomaceous materials to analyse particle shape’s effect
on their dynamical and compressibility properties. Accord-
ing to the particle shape, three groups of diatomaceous
soils were defined. These groups have similar grain size dis-
tributions but different shapes. Afterwards, the selected
diatomaceous materials were mixed with kaolin clay.
Finally, soil mixtures were consolidated and tested in a tor-
sional shear rheometer to assess the shear modulus degra-
dation and the damping curve.
This study shows that curves of degradation of the shear
modulus can be affected by the presence of diatoms in soil
deposits, and they seem to influence seismic wave amplifi-
cation during earthquakes.
This paper is divided as follows: Section 2 characterises
diatomites and kaolin individually as pure materials; from
this characterisation, three diatomites with similar grain
sizes and different shapes were selected for kaolin–di-
atomite mixtures; Section 3 characterises the compressibil-
ity of kaolin–diatomite mixtures; finally, Section 4
describes the response of the mixtures under dynamic
loading.
2. Diatom’s physical and mechanical characteristics
This research uses six diatomites samples. Those sam-
ples were classified according to their taxonomy and shape
based on Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) images.
Samples were characterised by their physical characteris-
tics, such as grain size distribution, density, grain-specific
area, maximum and minimum void ratio, water-carrying
capacity, and compressibility.
2.1. Taxonomy
Fig. 1 shows the SEM images of the six diatoms’ sam-
ples. According to their taxonomy, they are classified and
denoted as follows: Cyclotella Distinguenda (D1),
2
Soils and Foundations 63 (2023) 101374
Discotella Pseudostelligera (D2), Aulacoseira Ambigua (C1
and C2), Epithemia denticulate (P1), and Pseudostaurosira
elliptical (P2). The main taxonomic characteristics of such
diatoms are:

The Cyclotella Distinguenda (D1) has a circular centre
and an external striae ring. The central area presents
undulations that range from slight to distinct. This
taxon is commonly found in lakes and rivers, predomi-
nantly alkaline waters (Hustedt, 1927).

The Discotella Pseudostelligera (D2) presents a convex
centre. The central area is surrounded by a marginal
ring of radiate striae bifurcated by ribs. This specie
can be found in freshwater environments
(Hustedt,1939).

Aulacoseira Ambigua (C1 and C2) frustule looks like a
cylinder joined by small linking spines. This species is
commonly found in freshwater (Tremarin et al., 2013)

Epithemia denticulate (P1) are elliptic, with thick internal
bars of silica (fibulae) parallel to the striae. This species
is part of the genus denticulate, and the fibulae form a
‘‘tooth-like” appearance. This genus can be found in
habitats such as carbonate-rich waters, oligotrophic
lakes, and warm springs (Geitler, 1977).

Pseudostaurosira elliptical (P2) presents elliptic valves
with a flat shape and no perforations. This specie can
be found in marine environments (Schumann, 1867).
According to Zhang et al. (2012), samples can be subdi-
vided into three shape families, as shown in Fig. 1. The first
family corresponds to flake diatoms with disc shapes (D1,
D2). The second family corresponds to rod diatomites,
specifically cylinder-shaped diatoms (C1, C2). Finally, the
last family corresponds to rod diatoms with a pennate
shape (P1, P2). However, it is essential to remark that sam-
ples are not uniform in shape since they can contain small
amounts of diatomites of other shapes.
2.2. Particle size distribution
Fig. 2 presents the particle size distribution of the six
diatom samples. They were measured using a laser granu-
lometry CILAS according to ASTM D4464-15 (2020).
The particle size of the six samples ranges from 0.04 mm
to 100 mm, with a median particle size (d50) between
8 mm and 35 mm. Hence, diatomaceous particles are classi-
fied as silty soils according to ASTM D2487-17e1 (2017).
Moreover, diatom samples have a uniformity coefficient
between 3.69 and 7.75, corresponding to well-graded soils,
except for sample D2, which is poorly graded.
The shaded band in Fig. 2 grouped four samples of dia-
tomites with similar grain size distribution. Among them,
three diatomites were chosen to study the effects of the dia-
tom shape on the mechanical properties of kaolin–diatom
mixtures. Those results are described in sections 3 and 4
of this paper.
 L. Ibagón et al. Soils and Foundations 63 (2023) 101374

Fig. 1. Diatomite shapes: D1, D2, flake shape; C1, C2, P1, P2, rod shape.

Fig. 2. Grain size distribution of the diatomite samples and kaolin.

2.3. Grain’s density and specific area (S) can be determined using the adsorbed mass and Eq. (1)
(Sivapullaiah et al., 2008).
Grain’s density was measured according to ASTM w Av
D854-14 (2014), and the results for the six diatomaceous S¼ A 1016 ð1Þ
M 104
ranged between 1.93 and 2.46 g/cm3.
The specific surface area was determined using the Where w is the ratio of the adsorbed substance by the
adsorption method. This methodology is based on the prin- soil´s (g adsorbed/ g of soil), M is the molecular weight
ciple that solid materials absorb a molecular mass of polar of the methylene blue (319.9 g/mol), Av is the Avogadro´s
solutions, such as methylene blue. The specific surface area number, and A is the area in square Armstrong per
3
 L. Ibagón et al.
molecule of the methylene blue (130 Å2). The specific area,
measured using the methylene blue method, is 4 m2/g to
151 m2/g.
2.4. Bulk density, maximum and minimum void ratio
The bulk density of the six diatomaceous samples was
measured according to ASTM D4254-16 (2016). The max-
imum density ranged from 0.34 to 0.44 g/cm3, while the
minimum density oscillated from 0.19 to 0.42 g/cm3, lead-
ing to maximum void ratios between 4.83 and 9.19 and
minimum void ratios from 2.55 to 5.48.
2.5. Water carrying capacity
The vesicular shape of diatom grains produces materials
with high water-carrying capacity. Compared with clays,
their water-carrying capacity can also be evaluated using
the Atterberg limits despite the large size of diatom grains.
However, due to the thixotropic properties of diatomites,
the water-carrying capacity of the six diatomite samples
was measured using the falling cone penetration test
(Houlsby, 1982; Wasti, 1987) instead of the Casagrande
method.
Results showed that the water content for a penetration
of 20 mm of the six diatomite samples ranged from 76% to
209%. On the other hand, the plastic limit could not be
assessed due to the non-plastic behaviour of the diatomite
samples.
2.6. Compressibility of the diatomite samples
Constant Rate of Strain oedometer tests (CRS) was per-
formed on the six diatomite samples according to ASTM
D4186 (2012) to establish a relationship between the frus-
tule’s shape and the material’s compressibility.
In detail, samples were prepared at their minimum void
ratio and tested under dry conditions (i.e., oven-dried for
24 h at a temperature of 110°). The maximum density
was achieved through a vibro-compaction process. The
material was poured into five layers and vibrated for five
minutes with a mass of 200 g placed at the top of the sam-
ple according to ASTM D4253-16e1 (2016). Afterwards,
samples were loaded and unloaded to three megapascals
of vertical stress. Both load and unload were carried out
at a 0.05 mm/min displacement rate.
Fig. 3 shows the oedometric test results for the six dia-
tomite samples according to shape. From this figure, the
compressibility coefficient (Cc), swelling coefficient (Cs),
and over-consolidation stress (r’p) were computed to anal-
yse the samples’ compressibility behaviour. Since samples
were prepared at their minimum void ratio, it is reasonable
to assume that the over-consolidation stress gives informa-
tion about the particles’ crushing stress within the granular
arrangement.
Fig. 3a shows the CRS results of the disc’s shape dia-
toms. The CRS curves for samples D1 and D2 presented
4
Soils and Foundations 63 (2023) 101374
similar volume reductions during the compression process.
Regarding the compressibility coefficients for sample D1,
the computed parameters Cc and Cs were 1.71 and 0.19,
respectively, while sample D2 presented Cc of 1.95 and Cs
of 0.25. Hence, the D2 sample’s Cc was 1.14 times the D1
sample’s Cc, which seems to be a slight difference consider-
ing the different sources of the samples.
Fig. 3b shows a different compressibility behaviour of
the cylindrical-shaped diatomites. For the C1 sample, com-
puted parameters Cc and Cs were 2.33 and 0.23, respec-
tively, while for the C2 sample, the compressibility
parameters Cc and Cs were 1.04 and 0.20. Hence, the C1
sample’s Cc is 2.24 times the C2 sample’s Cc. Moreover,
the C1 sample has 1.9 times the volume reduction of the
C2 sample. These differences can be attributed to the parti-
cle size distribution of the samples. Indeed, sample C2 pre-
sented a finer particle size distribution than the C1 sample,
as seen in the SEM images (Fig. 4). Moreover, regarding
the uniformity of the particles, Fig. 4 shows that sample
C2, in its initial state, has more crushed particles than the
C1 sample, which agrees with the granulometric curve that
shows a larger amount of finer particles in sample C2 than
in C1. The same situation occurs with sample P2, which
shows more crushed particles than P1. For this reason,
for the compressibility and dynamic tests described in sec-
tions 3 and 4, samples C1, D1 and P1 were selected.
Fig. 3c presents the last CRS test results for the pennate
shape particles. Although the consolidation curves for
these samples show similar behaviour, the computed
parameters Cc and Cs are different. Sample P1 presented
Cc and Cs values of 1.13 and 0.21, respectively, while
parameters Cc and Cs for sample P2 were 0.70 and 0.18.
In other words, the P1 sample’s Cc was 1.61 times the P2
sample’s Cc. Moreover, the P1 sample presented 1.4 times
the volume reduction of the sample P2. This variation
can also be attributed to a finer particle size distribution
of the P2 sample due to crushed frustules (Fig. 4).
2.7. Relationships between the physical and mechanical
characteristics of diatomites
Table 1 summarises the six diatomite samples’ main
physical and mechanical characteristics. These characteris-
tics suggest relationships between them that allow the anal-
ysis of diatomite samples using relationships suggested for
clay or granular materials.
Fig. 5 allows analysing diatomite samples as fine-
grained soils. From this framework, the plasticity index
of such soils, and therefore their liquid limit, depends on
the amount of clayey material (i.e., particles with sizes finer
than 2 lm). Indeed, as shown in Fig. 5a, soils with clayey
particles such as kaolinite, illite, or smectite follow a
straight line representing a constant activity index. In
Fig. 5a, the liquid limit wL was computed from the plastic-
ity index, and the relationship proposed by Biarez & Favre
relating liquid limit and plasticity index PI = 0.073(wL-13)
(Favre & Hattab, 2008).
 L. Ibagón et al.
Fig. 3. Results of the CRS oedometric tests (a) disc shape, (b) cylinder shape, and (c) pennate shape.
In Fig. 5a, it is essential to note that the results for the
different diatomite samples show a very high liquid limit
for low amounts of particles finer than 2 lm. Indeed, in
Fig. 5a, diatomite samples are located above the upper
limit of smectites. This result concludes that diatomite
materials have a high capacity for retaining water mainly
in their pores or cavities, and in a reduced proportion, as
an adsorption phenomenon on their surface, in contrast
with clays. Such a conclusion is confirmed in Fig. 5b, show-
ing that, despite the high liquid limit of diatomite samples,
the specific surface of D1 and D2 samples are in the range
of kaolinites, while samples C1, C2, P1, and P2 are in the
field of illites. As a matching relationship, Fig. 5c relates
the proportions of grains finer than 2 lm and the specific
surface leading to the same conclusions as Fig. 5a and 5b.
Fig. 6a shows the comparative values of compressibility
coefficient Cc of the different diatomites. Values of Cc sug-
gest that the compressibility is related to the vesicular char-
acteristics of the different diatom shapes. Indeed, the
5
Soils and Foundations 63 (2023) 101374
amount of vesicular voids determines the water-carrying
capacity of the diatomite and, consequently, its compress-
ibility. For instance, Fig. 6a shows that the C1 sample pre-
sents the highest water-carrying capacity and, therefore,
the highest compressibility. This sample corresponds to a
rod–cylinder particle with a high content of vesicular voids
and presents non-crushed frustules. In contrast, the P2
sample, which corresponds to a rod-pennate sample with
low content of vesicular voids and highly crushed particles,
has the lowest water carrying capacity and consequently
the lowest compressibility.
The compressibility coefficient (Cc) of soil particles is
commonly related to the water-carrying capacity (Favre
& Hattab, 2008). Fig. 6a shows different linear relation-
ships between the liquid limit, also termed as water carry-
ing capacity, and the compressibility coefficient. Three
relationships are depicted in Fig. 6a: the relationship pro-
posed by Burland (1990), which depends on the void ratio
at a water content corresponding to the liquid limit, eL; the
 L. Ibagón et al. Soils and Foundations 63 (2023) 101374

Fig. 4. Crushed diatomite particles.

Table 1
Physical properties of diatomite samples.
ID Shape emin emax Gs S d 50 Cu Fc Cc Cs r0c wL
m2/g lm d60/d10 %<2lm kPa %
D1 Disc 4.68 8.02 2.34 4.1 25.5 4.80 3.0 1.71 0.19 92 144
D2 Disc 5.21 9.19 2.13 8.2 19.8 3.69 2.2 1.95 0.25 280 184
C1 Cylinder 5.48 8.48 2.34 118.3 15.3 4.50 4.0 2.33 0.23 690 209
C2 Cylinder 4.17 7.32 2.20 130.5 10.4 4.82 7.5 1.04 0.20 420 123
P1 Pennate 3.61 8.05 2.02 150.9 16.0 6.90 6.6 1.13 0.21 305 120
P2 Pennate 2.55 4.83 2.46 126.4 7.5 7.75 15.9 0.70 0.18 205 76
emin, emax, minimum and maximum void ratios; Gs, specific gravity (relative density of grain particles); S, specific area; d50 particle’s size for 50% passing;
Cu uniformity coefficient. Fc percentage of particles with a size less than 2 lm; Cc, coefficient of compressibility; Cs, swelling coefficient; r’c over
consolidation stress (crushing stress); wL, water carrying capacity (liquid limit).

relationship proposed by Biarez & Favre for clayey soils
(Favre & Hattab, 2008)., and the one proposed in
(Caicedo et al., 2019a) for natural Bogota’s diatomaceous
soils. As this last relationship was proposed for diatoma-
ceous soils, it seems to be the best relationship to relate
the compressibility of diatomites and the liquid limit.
Fig. 6b suggests that the compressibility coefficient is
also related to the maximum void ratio, emax, leading to
the relationship shown in Fig. 6c between the water carry-
ing capacity (or the liquid limit) and the maximum void
ratio. These relationships suggest that the behaviour of dia-
tomite samples can also be described using the framework
of granular materials. Indeed, the maximum and minimum
void ratios are critical parameters for describing their
mechanical behaviour for such materials. On the other
hand, as Youd (1973) and Caicedo (2018) suggested, the

6
 L. Ibagón et al. Soils and Foundations 63 (2023) 101374

Fig. 5. Relationships between (a) liquid limit and the percentage of particles with a size finer than 2 lm, (b) liquid limit and specific surface, and (c)
percentage of particles with a size finer than 2 lm and specific surface.

Fig. 6. Relationships between (a) liquid limit and compressibility coefficient, (b) compressibility coefficient and maximum void ratio, and (c) liquid limit
and maximum void ratio.

7
 L. Ibagón et al.
maximum and minimum void ratios of granular materials
are related to the coefficient of uniformity of the grain size
distribution, Cu. Fig. 7a suggests that such dependency
could also be valid for diatomite samples, except for sam-
ple P2, which, as remarked previously, has a considerable
amount of crushed particles.
Fig. 7b shows another interesting relationship between
the maximum void ratio and the mean size of the particles
d50. In fact, in contrast to the theoretical relationship on
arrangements of spherical particles that suggests that the
void ratio for different arrangements does not depend on
the size of the spheres, in the case of diatomite particles,
due to their intricate shapes, it appears that the larger par-
ticles, which probably have internal cavities, increase the
volume of voids.
2.8. Physical properties of the kaolin
Kaolin was used for this study as clay material to be
mixed with diatomites D1, C1, and P1. Considering their
similarities in particle size distribution, they were selected
to evaluate the compressibility and shear modulus of the
kaolin–diatomite mixtures. The grain size distribution of
kaolin was measured using the hydrometer test according
to ASTM D7928-17 (2017), shown in Fig. 2. Kaolin’s liq-
uid limit is 86%, and the compressibility coefficient
obtained from oedometric compression tests is Cc = 0.697.
Fig. 7. Relationships between (a) maximum and minimum void ratios
emax emin and the coefficient of uniformity of the grain size distribution Cu,
and (b) maximum void ratio and d50.
8
Soils and Foundations 63 (2023) 101374
3. Compressibility of diatomaceous soil mixtures
The selected diatomites (D1, C1, P1) were used to pre-
pare six specimens with different proportions of clay. The
first set of three samples was made with 28.6% diatomites,
while the second set had a proportion of 50% diatomites.
These proportions correspond to the dry mass of the com-
ponents. However, as the density of the solid particles of
kaolin and diatomites are different, the volumetric propor-
tions differ from the mass proportions. Table 2 shows the
volumetric and mass proportions of the mixtures.
The specific gravities of the mixtures in Table 2, Gmix
s ,
were calculated based on the specific gravity of the compo-
nents, Gds and Gks for diatomites and kaolin respectively,
and their volumetric proportion as follows:
Gmix
s ¼ f d Gds þ ð1  f d ÞGks ð2Þ
Where fd is the volumetric fraction of diatoms.
Specimens were constructed using a slurry with water
content between 1.5 and 2.0 times the water carrying capac-
ity. Once the slurry was prepared, it was poured into a con-
ventional consolidation mould. A pre-load was applied
until a vertical stress of 1.13 kPa was achieved. After that,
the sample was placed in an oedometric press, and load
stages of 1, 6, 12, 24, 49, 98, 196, 392, and 784 kPa were
applied.
3.1. Compressibility of the mixture’s diatomite kaolin
Fig. 8 shows the results of consolidation tests on the dif-
ferent diatomite and kaolin mixtures described in Table 2
using the standard described in ASTM D2435-04 (2017).
Those results suggest that the initial void ratio of the mix-
tures increases as the proportions of diatomite increase.
Such increment occurs for diatomites D1 and C1 for all
the stress ranges. However, for the mixtures with diatomite
P1, there is a slight reduction in the initial void ratio, prob-
ably due to the low specific gravity of such diatomites,
which increases the volume of solids and, in turn, reduces
the void ratio. The compressibility curves of the six mix-
tures suggest that the amount of diatomite influences the
void ratio moving the curves towards higher void ratios.
Furthermore, the magnitude of the shifting up of the curves
depends on the diatom’s shape. Still, it is essential to
remark that the change in the initial void ratio does not
necessarily imply an increase in compressibility.
Results of the compressibility tests allow computing the
coefficient of compressibility Cc of the mixtures as the slope
of the compression line in the normally consolidated
region. However, compressibility curves of the mixtures
do not show a clear breaking point separating the overcon-
solidated and normally consolidated ranges because of the
low stresses achieved during the oedometric tests. There-
fore, another possibility for analysing compressibility is
using the constrained elastic modulus, also known as the
oedometric modulus Eoed. Such modulus is defined as the
 L. Ibagón et al. Soils and Foundations 63 (2023) 101374

Table 2
Mass and volumetric proportions of the diatomite – kaolin mixtures.
Mixture A Mixture B
Mass prop. % Vol. prop. % Gmix
s Mass prop. % Vol. prop. % Gmix
s

Diat. Kaolin Diat. Kaolin Diat. Kaolin Diat. Kaolin

D1 + K 28.6 71.4 32 68 2.49 50 50 54 46 2.44
C1 + K 28.6 71.4 32 68 2.46 50 50 54 46 2.39
P1 + K 28.6 71.4 35 65 2.41 50 50 57 43 2.31

Fig. 8. Oedometric compression tests of the mixtures of diatomites D1, C1, and P1 mixed with different mass proportions of kaolin prepared from a slurry
state.

ratio between stresses and strains measured during the
oedometric compression test for a given stress. Fig. 9a
shows the oedometric moduli of the pure diatomite materi-
als and kaolin, while Fig. 9b shows the oedometric modu-
lus of the mixtures.
The oedometric modulus suggests the possibility of com-
puting the oedometric modulus of the mixtures using the
9
upper and lower bounds presented by Hill (1967), which
is based on the modulus of the components. Indeed, Hill
demonstrated that the bounds of the elastic constants of
polycrystals are bounded by a model that assumes homo-
geneity of stresses throughout the sample (a model which
is not necessarily cinematically admissible) and a model
that assumes homogeneity of strains throughout the
 L. Ibagón et al. Soils and Foundations 63 (2023) 101374

Fig. 9. Oedometric moduli depending on the vertical stress computed for (a) pure diatomites and kaolin and (b) mixtures of diatomites and kaolin at
different mass proportions.

sample (a model which is not necessarily statically admissi- 4. Dynamic shear modulus of diatomaceous soil mixtures
ble). Regarding soils, such bounds were applied for mix-
tures of clay by Pua et al. (2021). Therefore, for mixtures The dynamic properties of the diatomite mixtures were
of clay diatoms, the upper and lower bounds of the oedo- studied using a dynamic shear rheometer, as shown in
metric modulus are given by, Fig. 11a. The methodology is similar to the classical torsion
shear tests on solid cylindrical specimens. Still, the precision
oed ¼ f d E oedd þ ð1  f d ÞE oedk
Upper bound Emix ð3Þ
 1 of the apparatus allows measures into a wide range of oper-
fd 1  fd ational shear strains (i.e., from 5  10-6 to 1  10-2)
Lower bound Eoed ¼
mix
þ ð4Þ
Eoedd Eoedk (Villacreses et al., 2020). Thus, it will enable measuring the
complete degradation curve of the material using a single
Where Eoed-d is the oedometric modulus of the diatoms,
equipment in a single sample.
and Eoed-k is the oedometric modulus of the kaolin. Those
A mould was constructed for the specimen elaboration
bounds are calculated for the oedometric modulus corre-
(Fig. 11b). The mould has an internal steel cylinder with
sponding to each stress level. Fig. 10 shows the good agree-
a Teflon coating to reduce friction between the mould
ment of the oedometric modulus computed using Eqs. (3)
and the soil. The soil is placed into the mould as a slurry
and (4) and the experimental measures. Those encouraging
made of soil and a water content of 2.0 times the water car-
results suggest a new possibility in analysing clay and dia-
rying capacity and then pressed using two pistons provided
tom mixtures.
with porous stones, which allow water drainage. The sam-

Fig. 10. Comparison between the upper and lower bounds of the oedometric moduli of the mixtures computed for each stress level and the measured
oedometric moduli.

10
 L. Ibagón et al.
Fig. 11. (a) the layout of a soil sample placed into the dynamic shear rheometer, and (b) details of the consolidation mould.
ples were consolidated until the final vertical stress of
100 kPa. The final size of the samples was 12.95 mm in
diameter with variable height according to the compress-
ibility of each sample. Samples were placed and glued in
the AR 2000 rheometer metallic holders and coated with
Vaseline and a plastic wrap sheet to prevent changes in
water content. Tests were carried out without applying
confinement stress and harmonic strains with a frequency
of 1 Hz and variable strain growing from 5.10  10-6 to
2.15  10-2, resulting in nineteen strain amplitudes. During
testing, torque was recorded, and the shear stress was com-
puted. The following sections show the results of the sam-
ples’ shear modulus having the mixtures described in
Table 2.
4.1. Maximum shear modulus of the mixture’s diatomite
kaolin
The maximum shear modulus (Gmax), which corre-
sponds to the shear modulus measured at the lowest shear
strain, decreases as the diatom content increases, as shown
in Fig. 12a. For example, for the 28.6% C1 + 71.4% k
blend using mass ratios, the maximum shear modulus
decreases to 47% of the kaolin shear modulus. The mixture
of 50% C1 + 50% k decreases to 81% of the modulus
(28.6% C1 + 71.4% k).
Likewise, the samples of pennate diatoms also presented
a decreasing behaviour. For a mixture of 28.6%
P1 + 71.4% k, the maximum shear modulus is 66% of
the modulus of the kaolin sample. Furthermore, the maxi-
11
Soils and Foundations 63 (2023) 101374
mum shear modulus of 50% P1 + 50% kaolin is 94% of the
modulus of the mixture 28.6% P1 + 71.4% k.
The disc shape maximum shear modulus decreases at a
constant rate as the diatomite content grows. Therefore,
the kaolin maximum shear modulus reduction is approxi-
mately 1.65 times the 28.6% D1 + 71.4% k mixture and
presents the same reduction factor for the 50%
D1 + 50% k.
Numerous authors (Hardin & and Richart, 1963;
Iwasaki & Tatsuoka, 1977; Biarez & Hicher, 1994; Lo
Presti et al., 1997) proposed equations relating the maxi-
mum shear modulus with the void ratio, e, and effective
stress r’. Such relationships have the following form,
 0 n
r
Gmax ¼ KG f ðeÞ ð5Þ
rref
where KG and n are material constants, f(e) is a function
of the void ratio, and r ref is a reference stress, usually
assumed as 100 kPa. On the other hand, as shown in
Table 3, the expression of the function f(e) differs accord-
ing to the author.
These mixtures of diatoms – kaolin were consolidated to
100 kPa, equal to the reference stress. Therefore, in Eq. (5),
measures of the mixtures’ shear modulus are directly
related to the effect of the void ratio on the reduction of
the maximum shear modulus.
Fig. 12b shows that the relationship f(e) = 1/e allows
describing the effect of the void ratio on the reduction of
the maximum shear modulus. This fitting curve suggests
that the main effect of the diatoms in soils is reducing the
 L. Ibagón et al. Soils and Foundations 63 (2023) 101374

Fig. 12. Maximum shear modulus depending on (a) diatomite content and (b) void ratio.

Table 3
Different authors proposed relationships between Young’s and shear moduli and void ratio.
Reference Modulus n Ff(e) Comments
2
Hardin & Richart (1963) G 0.5 (2.17-e) /(1 + e) Rounded grains
Iwasaki & Tatsuoka (1977) G 0.4 Cu < 1.8
Biarez & Hicher (1994) G, E 0.5 1/e All soils
Lo Presti et al. (1997) G 0.45 1/e1.3 Sands

void ratio for the same consolidation stress. Under this cir-
cumstance, a unique curve can describe the reduction of the
maximum shear modulus for elongated diatom species (C1
and P1). However, the maximum shear modulus reduction
for the disc-shaped diatoms D1 decreases significantly as
the void ratio increases. Moreover, the maximum shear
modulus of the pure kaolin does not fit into the trend curve
of the mixtures.
4.2. Degradation of the shear modulus of the mixture’s
diatomite kaolin
Fig. 13a and 13b show the mixtures’ normalised shear
modulus degradation curves. The results suggest that add-
ing diatom particles to kaolin increases the range of strains
where shear moduli do not decrease (generally interpreted
as the domain of elastic behaviour). As a piece of evidence,
the normalised diatomite + kaolin curves are shifted to
higher shear strains compared with the kaolin curve. For
example, a 0.5 reduction of the normalised shear modulus
implies a strain of 3.8  10-4 in the kaolin sample. For the
mixtures of C1diatomites, the same reduction in shear
modulus is achieved for a strain of 7  10-4 in the 28.6%
sample of diatomite and a strain of 1.5  10-3 for the sam-
ple with 50% of diatomites (both in mass proportions). In
other words, when the kaolin is mixed with 28.6% of diato-
mites C1, the strain is 1.84 times the kaolin strain for the
same modulus reduction and 3.15 times the kaolin samples’
strain for the mixture having 50% of diatomites C1.
The same trend is observed for the mixtures made with
diatomites P1, which have rod-shaped particles. Indeed, for
this mixture, 0.5 reductions of the normalised shear curve
12
are achieved for 5  10-4 and 1.3  10-3 on mixed samples
with 28.6% and 50% diatomites, respectively. In other
words, the sample with 28.6% of P1 increases 1.31 times
the shear strain corresponding to a reduction of 0.5 times
the shear modulus, and 3.28 on mixed samples with 50%
of diatoms.
The flake disc shape material (diatomite D1) also shifts
the shear modulus degradation curve towards higher
strains. In this case, the 0.5 times reduction of the shear
modulus was achieved for shear strains of 4.8  10-4 and
7  10-4 for mixtures of 28.6% and 50% mass diatom con-
tent. Such values correspond to increases in the shear strain
of 1.31 and 1.84 times concerning the shear strain corre-
sponding to the kaolin sample. However, it is essential to
note in Fig. 13b that the mixture with 50% of flake shape
particles exhibits higher G/Gmax ratio degradation for low
shear strains than the kaolin.
The rheometer test also evaluates the shape and diato-
mite content influence on phase angle related to the damp-
ing ratio. The results suggest that increasing diatomite
content produces a phase angle reduction and damping
reduction. Indeed, as shown in Fig. 13c and 13d, the
diatomite + kaolin sample’s phase angle curves are below
the kaolin sample’s curve.
In consequence, for a shear strain of 1  10-3, the kaolin
sample’s phase angle is 18°, while for the same strain, the
28.6% C1 mixture has a phase angle of 14° and 11° for
the 50% C1 mixture. Similar results are achieved for pen-
nate rod diatomite (P1 diatomite); in this case, the phase
angles are 14.8° and 10.5° for the mixtures with 28.6%
and 50% in mass proportions, respectively. Finally, flake
disc particles (diatomites D1) also influence the damping
 L. Ibagón et al. Soils and Foundations 63 (2023) 101374

Fig. 13. Normalized shear modulus degradation curves for (a) 28.6% diatomite + 71.4% kaolin, (b) 50% diatomite + 50% kaolin, (c) relationship between
phase angle and shear strain for 28.6% diatomite + 71.4% kaolin, and (d) 50% diatomite + 50% kaolin, all in mass proportions.

resulting in phase angles of 15.5° and 12.5° for mixtures
with 28.6% and 50% in mass proportions, respectively.
As a general comment, the results show a strong relation
between mechanical behaviour and particle shapes of soil
and diatomite mixtures. The presence of diatoms in soil
reduces the capacity of the material to dissipate energy.
This fact is present in the shift of the normalised shear
modulus degradation curve towards higher shear strains
and the reduction of the phase angle. Furthermore, this
effect seems more pronounced in mixtures with particles
with an elongated shape. The displacement of the shear
modulus degradation curve and the reduction of the damp-
ing ratio could be explained, at the microscopic level, by
the increase in the friction angle and by the geometric cohe-
sion that arises in the contact between the diatom particles.
The increase in friction angle on diatom between particles
was shown by Caicedo et al. (2019b), while the emergence
of geometric cohesion at the contact of non-convex parti-
cles was demonstrated using DEM by Estrada et al.
(2019). Moreover, in natural undisturbed diatomaceous
13
soils, cohesion at low stresses and high friction angles
was evidenced in Ovalle & Arenaldi-Perisic (2020). The
growth of friction and geometrical cohesion increases the
range of strains where the soil behaves in the elastic
domain, shifting the degradation curve towards larger
strains and reducing the damping ratio.
The shift of the shear modulus degradation curves
towards higher strains was analysed by Vucetic & Dobry
(1991) based on the behaviour of the Mexico City soil.
They concluded that the amplification of the movement
of the earthquake due to the site effect grows as the degra-
dation curves of the shear modulus shift, a phenomenon
associated with a reduction in the damping ratio. Vucetic
& Dobry (1991) attributed the shift of the shear modulus
degradation curve and the consequent reduction in the
damping ratio to the increase in the plasticity index of
the soil, which could be related to the presence of a high
proportion of active clays. However, the presence of clays
in the soil of Mexico was controverted by Dı́az-
Rodrı́guez (2003), who argued that, in the soil of Mexico
 L. Ibagón et al.
City, the percentage of silt-sized particles oscillates between
40 and 70, while the percentage of clay-sized particles var-
ies between 20 and 55. Therefore, the soils of Mexico City
could be better classified as clayey silt sediments than as
highly plasticity clays. Dı́az-Rodrı́guez (2003) explains this
discrepancy by the presence of diatoms in the soil of Mex-
ico City, which, from the point of view of particle size, cor-
respond better to the size of silt than to that of clay. The
shift of the shear modulus degradation curve and the
reduction of the damping ratio because of the presence of
diatoms were also reported on the Bogotá soil deposit in
Caicedo et al. (2018 and 2019a) and Ovalle & Arenaldi-
Perisic (2020) for the Mejillones Bay soil in northern Chile.
The previous considerations allow us to conclude that the
increase in the Atterberg limits, and therefore the changes
in the shear modulus and the damping ratio, could be
related to the presence of diatom frustules and not to the
presence of high plasticity clays. In summary, the results
of this work allow concluding that the presence of diatoms
in soils can substantially affect the site effect during earth-
quakes, increasing the amplification of the seismic
movement.
5. Conclusion
In this work, diatomite samples from different origins
were mixed with kaolin clay at different proportions, and
the mixtures were analysed from the point of view of com-
pressibility and dynamic properties such as shear modulus
and damping ratio.
Regarding the compressibility of the mixtures of diato-
mites and clay, one encouraging result of this study is the
possibility of analysing the mechanical behaviour of the
mixtures using the maximum and minimum bounds pro-
posed for polycrystals or composite materials.
On the other hand, the results showed that the nor-
malised shear modulus degradation curve is shifted
towards larger strains for kaolin + diatomite mixtures.
This behaviour is similar to an increasing plasticity index
in fine-grained materials. This effect is more notorious for
high diatomite content. Nevertheless, the shape of the par-
ticles influences the normalised shear modulus degradation
curves. For example, the rod shape particles (i.e., cylinder
and pennate shape) presented similar normalised degrada-
tion curves markedly different from the flake – disc shape
curves.
The damping presented the same behaviour as the nor-
malised shear modulus degradation. Indeed, the phase
angle curve is also shifted towards larger strains for
kaolin-diatomite mixtures, and this behaviour is more
notorious for high diatomite content. Also, the phase angle
curves for rod shape mixtures presented smaller increments
in the phase angle for larger strains than the flake shape
mixtures curves.
Regarding the maximum shear modulus, it decreased as
the diatomite content increased. The decreasing ratio
14
Soils and Foundations 63 (2023) 101374
varied for the rod shape mixtures for different kaolin-
diatomite proportions. However, for the flake shape mix-
tures, the decreasing ratio was approximately constant
for different kaolin-diatomite proportions. Such reductions
can be described using the ordinary equation relating max-
imum shear modulus and void ratio. In this case, the reduc-
tion of the shear modulus of the mixtures can be described
with a single curve for the elongated diatom particles but
not for the disc-shaped diatoms.
This research showed the diatom shape’s influence on
the different soil mixtures’ dynamical properties. Conse-
quently, the presence of diatomites in soils and their shape
can generate different seismic site responses according to
the diatom frustule in the specific site. Finally, an essential
conclusion of this work is that the presence of diatoms in
soils strongly affects the site effect during earthquakes,
increasing the seismic movement’s amplification.
Acknowledgement
We gratefully acknowledge Dr Miriam Steinitz-
Kannan from Northern Kentucky University for his sup-
port in the taxonomy identification of diatoms specimens,
Centro de Microscopia l-core of Los Andes Unversity,
and Prof. Lorena Bejarano from Universidad San Fran-
cisco for their support with the SEM images.
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