4.

Automatic Level – Self-leveling features are

incorporated in automatic levels. This type of
FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING level has become popular for conventional
levelling work because of the ease and speed
of their operation.
Leveling – the process of directly or indirectly 5. Tilting Levels – an optical surveying
measuring vertical distances to determine the instrument used for leveling. It is
elevation of points or their differences in elevation. characterized by having a tilting telescope on
a pivot.
Level Surface – is a curved surface which is at any 6. Geodetic Leveling – Leveling of a high order of
point perpendicular to the direction of gravity or accuracy, usually extended over large areas,
plumb line. to furnish accurate vertical control for
surveying and mapping operations.
Level Line – is a curved line in a level surface all points 7. Transit as a Level – a transit level is an optical
of which are normal to the direction of gravity and instrument, or a telescope, complete with a
equidistant from the centre of the Earth. built-in spirit level that is mounted on a
tripod.
Horizontal Surface – is a plane that is tangent to a 8. Laser Level – is a control tool consisting of a
level surface at a particular point. The horizontal rotating laser beam projector that can be
surface is also perpendicular to the plumb line at the affixed to a tripod.
same point. 9. Hand Level – consists of a brass tube about 15
cm long having a plain glass objective and a
Horizontal Line – a straight line in a horizontal plane peep sight eyepiece.
which is tangent to a level line at one point. This line is  Abney Level – used to measure slope,
perpendicular to the direction of gravity at the point vertical angles, and stadia distances.
of tangency.
SOURCES OF ERRORS IN LEVELING:
Vertical Line – is a line parallel to the direction of 1. Instrumental Errors
gravity. a. Instrument out of adjustment
b. Rod not standard length
Mean Sea Level – an imaginary surface of the sea c. Defective tripod
which is midway between high and low tides. Taken as 2. Personal Errors
the reference surface to which most ground elevations a. Bubble not centred
are referred. b. Parallax
c. Faulty rod reading
Datum – any convenient level surface coincident or d. Rod not held plumb
parallel with the mean sea level to which elevations or e. Incorrect setting of target
a particular area are referred. f. Unequal back sight and fore sight distance
3. Natural Errors
Elevation – is the vertical distance above or below a. Curvature of the Earth
mean sea level or any of the selected data. b. Atmospheric refraction
c. Temperature variation
Difference in Elevation – is the vertical distance d. Wind
between the two-level surfaces in which the points lie. e. Settlement of the instrument
f. Faulty turning points
TYPES OF LEVELS:
1. Dumpy Level – the most widely used direct COMMON MISTAKES IN LEVELING:
levelling instrument. It has a long telescope 1. Misreading the rod
which is rigidly attached to the level bar. 2. Incorrect recording
2. Wye Level – is very identical to the dumpy 3. Erroneous computation
level. The wye level has a detachable 4. Rod not fully extended
telescope which rests in supports called wyes. 5. Moving turning points
3. Builder’s Level – is often called a construction
level or an architect’s level. It has a horizontal ADJUSTMENT OF THE DUMPY LEVEL:
circle that is used when measuring or laying 1. Adjustment of the Cross Hairs
out horizontal angles. 2. Adjustment of the Level Vial
3. Adjustment of the Line of Sight

0.675 – coefficient of refraction.
LEVELING METHODS:
1. Differential Leveling – is the process of
determining the difference in elevation
between two or more points some distance
apart.
 Rodman – carries and holds the rod.
 Instrument man – sets up the level
and determines the required rod
readings.
HI = Elev BMa + BS
Elev TP1 = HI – FS
2. Double-Rodded Leveling – is a method of
determining differences between points by
employing two level routes simultaneously.
3. Three-Wire Leveling – is a method of
determining differences in elevation wherein
three horizontal hairs are read and recorded
rather than from a single horizontal hair.
Equation for Three-Wire Leveling:
S=a–b
m = (a + b + c) / 3
HD = Ks + C
Elev of P = HI – m
The stadia intercept, s, provides an indirect measure
of the distance from the centre of the leveling
instrument to the rod sighted. In determining the
horizontal distance, the stadia interval factor, K, and
the instrument constant, C, must first be known or
given. For most leveling instruments, K is usually equal
to 100 and C is zero.
MERIDIANS:
1. True Meridian – sometimes known as
geographic or astronomic meridian. It is
generally adapted reference line of surveying
practice.
2. Magnetic Meridian – a fixed line of reference
which lies parallel with the magnetic lines of
force to the Earth.
3. Assumed Meridian – is an arbitrary chosen
fixed line of reference which his taken for
convenience.
DESIGNATION OF NORTH POINTS:
1. True North is the north point of the true
meridian.
2. Magnetic North is the north point of the
magnetic meridian.
3. Assumed north is the north point of the
assumed meridian.
EXPEDIENT METHODS OF ESTABLISHING MERIDIANS:
1. Establishing magnetic meridian by compass.
The magnetic meridian can be established by
setting up the magnetic compass over any
convenient point and then sighting a distance
object the marks another point on the
meridian.
A – Sighting vanes
B – Magnetic needle
C – Angle divisions
2. Determining the true north by the aid of the
sun and a plumb.
3. Determining true North by Polaris (Northern
Hemisphere). The Polaris or the North star,
pole star or cynosure lies almost directly
above the Earth’s north pole.
Finding South with the Southern Cross
(Southern Hemisphere).
UNITS OF ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS:
A. Sexagesimal System – the circumference of
circle is divided into 360 parts (degrees); each
degree is further divided into minutes and
seconds.
 The degree – 1/360 of complete
revolution
 Minutes – 1/60 of a degree
 Seconds – 1/60 of a minute
B. Centesimal System – the circumference of
circles is divided into 400 parts called gon
(previously called grads).
 The Grad – 1/400 of a complete
revolution
 Centesimal minutes – 1/100 of a grad
 Centesimal seconds – 1/100 of a
centesimal minute
C. The Mil – 1/6400 of a complete revolution
D. The Radian - 2𝝅 is equivalent to a complete
revolution.
DIRECTION OF LINES:
Interior Angles – the angle between adjacent lines
inside a close polygon.
Exterior Angles – the angle between adjacent lines
outside a close polygon.
Deflection Angle – the angle between a line and the
prolongation of the preceding line.
Angles to the right – angles that are measured
clockwise from the preceding line to the succeeding
line.
Bearing – the acute horizontal angle between the
reference meridian and the line.
 A quadrantal system is used to specify
bearings such that a line may fall under one of
the following quadrants: NE, NW, SE, SW.
Forward and Back Bearing – using quadrantal system,
any line on surface of the earth may be defined by two
directions which differ from each other by exactly 180
degrees.
Azimuths – is the direction of line given by an angle
between the meridian and the line measured in a
clockwise direction from either north or south branch
of the meridian.
Forward and Back Azimuth – (Rule 1) forward azimuth
> 180 degree, subtract 180 degrees to obtain back
azimuth. (Rule 2) forward azimuth < 180 degrees, add
180 degrees to obtain back azimuth.

Compass – is an instrument used for navigation and

orientation that shows direction relative to the
geographic cardinal directions.

Magnetic Declination – is the direction and amount of

variation between the Magnetic Pole and True North.

Agonic Line – the line of zero declination.

Isogonic Line – are like magnetic contour lines – they

trace a path of constant magnetic declination.