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The Fabrication,
Testing and
Application of Fibre
Cement Boards
The Fabrication,
Testing and
Application of Fibre
Cement Boards
Edited by

Zbigniew Ranachowski
and Krzysztof Schabowicz
The Fabrication, Testing and Application of Fibre Cement Boards

Edited by Zbigniew Ranachowski and Krzysztof Schabowicz

This book first published 2018

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Copyright © 2018 by Zbigniew Ranachowski, Krzysztof Schabowicz

and contributors

All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
the prior permission of the copyright owner.

ISBN (10): 1-5275-0576-6

ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-0576-6
 CONTENTS

Introduction ................................................................................................ 1

Chapter One ................................................................................................. 7

Fabrication of Fibre Cement Boards
By Krzysztof Schabowicz and Tomasz GorzelaĔczyk
Introduction ........................................................................................... 7
Primary raw materials ......................................................................... 11
Properties of PVA fibres ..................................................................... 11
Raw materials preparation and mixing zone ........................................ 14
Detailed operation of Hatschek machine and fibre film formation ...... 23
Details of other FCB fabrication process stages .................................. 28

Chapter Two .............................................................................................. 41

Fibre Cement Boards Testing
By Zbigniew Ranachowski
Mechanical properties of FCB ............................................................ 41
European Standard EN 12467 .............................................................. 42
Measuring board dimensions, tolerances, straightness
and squareness of edges ................................................................. 44
Measuring apparent density ................................................................. 45
Measuring mechanical resistance......................................................... 46
Testing water impermeability .............................................................. 56
Testing water vapour permeability by the determination
of the water vapour resistance value µ ........................................... 56
Testing moisture content during FCB production process ................... 58
Durability against warm water ............................................................. 65
Durability against soak–dry cycles ...................................................... 66
Moisture movement test ....................................................................... 66
Durability against freeze–thaw cycles ................................................. 68
Durability against heat–rain ................................................................. 69
Reaction to fire..................................................................................... 69
Information on parameters determined based on standard tests
and indicated on the product label .................................................. 71
FCB testing using ultrasound ............................................................... 71
Application of Lamb waves for detecting structural defects ................ 78
vi Contents

By Dariusz Jarząbek
Application of advanced optical microscopy ....................................... 89
Examples of application of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) ...... 96
X-ray microtomography (micro-CT) application in visualization
of the fibre distribution and crack detection ................................... 98

Chapter Three .......................................................................................... 107

Applications of Fibre Cement Boards
By Krzysztof Schabowicz and Tomasz GorzelaĔczyk
Introduction........................................................................................ 107
Example applications of fibre cement boards .................................... 107
Conclusions ....................................................................................... 121

References ............................................................................................... 123

 INTRODUCTION

Fibre cement board (FCB) is a versatile green building material, strong

and durable. It serves as a substitute for natural wood and wood based
products such as plywood or oriented strand boards (OSB). The properties
of FCB as a construction material make it preferable for use as a ventilated
façade cladding for both newly built and renovated buildings, interior wall
coverings, balcony balustrade panels, base course and chimney cladding,
and enclosure soffit lining. FCB can be applied to unfinished, painted, or
simply impregnated surfaces [1-3].
Fibre cement components have been used in construction for over 100
years, mainly as roofing covers in the form of corrugated plates or non-
pressurized tubes. They were invented by a Czech engineer, Ludwik
Hatschek (1856-1914) [4]. In 1900, he developed and patented a
technology for manufacturing light, tough, durable, and non-flammable
asbestos cement sheeting that he called “Eternit.”
Fibre cement composite–compared to the components of concrete–
shows improved toughness, ductility, flexural capacity, and crack
resistance. A major advantage of the fibre reinforcement is the behaviour
of the composite after cracking has started, as the fibres bridge the matrix
crack (matrix-bulk material, in which the fibres are dispersed). Then, the
stress is transferred to the high-resistance system of fibres, capable of
withstanding the load. Post-cracking toughness allows the use of FCBs in
construction. Moreover, the fibres can reduce the unwanted free plastic
shrinkage within the structure, decrease the thermal conductivity, and
improve the acoustic insulation and fire resistance.
For many years asbestos has been regarded as the most suitable
material for reinforcing FCBs. White asbestos, a silicate mineral /
Mg3(Si2O5)(OH)4 / naturally forms long and durable fibrous crystals with
each visible fibre composed of millions of thin microscopic fibrils. It is
found in many geological deposits throughout the world.
The fibres reinforce FCB components only when added in a specific
quantity (approx. 10% wt.) and are uniformly dispersed throughout the
cementitious matrix. A highly complex procedure is required to achieve
this goal under efficient industrial conditions. Ludwig Hatschek solved the
problem by inventing a machine with a rotating sieve and a vat containing
a diluted fibre slurry, Portland cement, and mineral components. A thin
2 Introducction

film of an F FCB is formed on a movin ng felt partiallly wrapped arround the

sieve, similaar to the proceedure used in paper sheet m making. Startiing in the
early 1920s, the mass prroduction of asbestos
a FCBB expanded th hroughout
the world. CCorrugated rooofing covers canc still be fouund in many buildings,
b
mostly in ruural areas (see Fig. 1).
It is wiidely known that Ludwig g Hatschek ddied from pu ulmonary
disease. Thee death of ann Englishwom man, Nellie K Kershaw, in 19 924 from
pulmonary asbestosis waas the first caase to be desscribed in thee medical
literature [5]]. In the early 1970s, a glob
bal effort to leegislate for thee removal
of asbestos ffrom industriaal products waas initiated.

Fig. 1. Corruugated roofing made of asbestos FCB, now expected to bee removed
due to health risks.

Fibre cem
ment was a major
m user of assbestos, and aas such new reeinforcing
fibres were bbeing sought asa alternativess to asbestos iin this class off building
material. Jammes Hardie and
a Coy Pty Ltd. L started m manufacturing g asbestos
cement prodducts in Austrralia in 1917. The company ny extended prroduction
to New Zeaaland, Indoneesia, Malaysia, and the U US. In the mid-1940s,
m
during the ppost-war years, when theree was a shortaage of asbesto os, James
Hardie comm menced a research on repllacing asbestoos with cellulo ose fibres
[6]. The fiibres studied included baagasse, grounndwood, wheat straw,
cement bagss, and brown paper.
p Howev ver, the work w was discontinu ued when
asbestos beccame more acccessible. Reg gardless, the iidea of using cellulose
fibres was sstill considereed by the commpany. Beginnning in the 1960s, the
company m manufactured a product called “Hardiflexx” containing 8% (wt.)
 The F
Fabrication, Teesting and Application of Fibree Cement Board
ds 3

asbestos andd 8% (wt.) woodw fibres. In those dayys, no technology was

available to maintain com mpatibility beetween the ceellulose fibress and the
matrix to create a prooduct of suffficient qualiity. The con nsiderable
shortcominggs of the orgaanic fibres aree due to their insufficient long-term
l
durability inn an alkaline environment
e compared to thhe cementitiouus matrix.
Water absorrption of the matrix
m could cause an alkaali attack on the
t fibres
resulting inn volume variation,
v fib
bre fractures , pull-out resistance
r
degradation,, and mineraliisation of the fibres.
f
An effecctive method to lower thee alkalinity oof the matrix was the
addition of ppozzolanic coomponents in the form of fiine-ground qu uartz sand
containing aamorphous siliica. Pozzolaniic silicate in thhe presence of alkaline
calcium hyddroxide produuces a hydrated calcium siliicate, a substaance with
lower alkalinnity [7]:
3Ca++ + 2H2SiO4 + 2OH
2 - + 2H2O ĺ Ca3[H2Si2 O7](OH)2 · 3H
H2O

In the laate 1980s, assbestos fibres were successsfully replaceed in the

following prroducts: flat sheet,
s corrugaated roofing, and moulded products
by the leadinng manufactuurers, including g James Harddie [6] and Cem
mbrit [2];
however, oother manufaccturers, mosttly in Easterrn Europe and a Asia,
continued thhe use of asbesstos until the first
f decade off the 2000s.
A mass pproduction off green FCB was w made posssible after the optimal
source of thhe reinforcingg fibres was determined. N Nowadays, a kraft lap
pulp derivedd from hardw wood, e.g., Pin nus radiata oor Red Cedar, is used.
Cellulose iss the main component
c off the kraft puulp (>50% wt.).
w This
polymeric suubstance has the ability to form long annd hard to breeak linear
chains madee out of alternnating pairs of dehydrated glucose / C6H10O5 / as
shown in Figg. 2.

Fig. 2. Single ppolymer molecuule–a basic comp

ponent of the linnear chain in celllulose.
4 Introducction

Multiple hydroxyl grroups in the glucose from m one chain form the
hydrogen bonds with oxxygen atoms in adjacent chains, thus forming
microfibrils with high tennsile strength. The microfibrrils have a diameter of
approx. 100 nm and, in turrn, form thickeer (30-40 μm) fibres. The microfibrils
can be positiioned at a diffeerent angle in relation
r to the longitudinal axis
a of the
fibre. At sm
mall angles, ann increase in fibre f stiffness compared to the fibres
made out off microfibrils positioned
p at laarger (40-50º) angles can be observed
[8]. The elassticity/stiffnesss of the fibress can thus be controlled by choosing
the source off cellulose or byb the mechan nical processinng of the kraftt pulp (the
most commoon industrial soource of cellulose fibres).
Coutts inn [9] has reporrted that theree is a cellulosee–cement com mpatibility
in the sense that the matrrix hardening is not affecteed by the pressence of a
certain amoount of celluloose. Optimal interfacial boond between the fibre
and the matrrix can be estaablished. Excessive bond sttrength would d result in
material emmbrittlement, while
w a weak bond would reduce the composite c
strength. Sinnce cement is an alkaline material
m it conttains metal (C
Ca, Si, Al,
Fe) hydroxxyl groups. Cellulose
C fibrres contain hydroxyl gro oups and
carboxylic groups. Theese groups form f covalennt bonds capable of
producing eefficient fibree–matrix bond ds. Thereforee, the cellulosse matrix
composite can show both high flexural strength and fracture tough hness that
should be baalanced by thee optimal amo ount of compoonents.
The meethods of innvestigation into i the meechanical (an nd other)
properties oof a variety of FCB products will be diiscussed in Chapter C 2.
Many manuufacturers alsso add 3-5% % synthetic ffibres, e.g., polyvinyl
p
alcohol (PVVA, PVOH) fibbres to FCB.
The techhnology is useed for severall reasons [10]]. The added fibres f are
non-toxic aand feature high h tensile strength andd flexibility. PVA is
hydrophilic and is capablle of forming strong bondss between the hydroxyl
group and tthe cement matrixm in the presence of w water. The material
m is
cheap and w widely availabble. It is used in FCB in thhe form of fibrres 30-50
μm in diameeter. Fig. 3 shoows the PVA polymer moleecule.

Fig. 3. Formaation of polyvinnyl alcohol (PVA

A).
 The F
Fabrication, Teesting and Application of Fibree Cement Board
ds 5

Introducing the two aforemention ned types off fibres allow ws better
control of thheir length disstribution with
hin the matrixx, while the mechanical
strength of tthe compositee is roughly proportional too the fibre asp pect ratio,
i.e., to the diameter/lenggth coefficien nt. It also eliiminates the common
problem of thin fibre “curling” togeth her when disppensed into thet slurry
[11], and at the same timee allows the fiibres to be envveloped by ceement and
filler particlles. Fig. 4 shhows two po olarized light micrographs of FCB
containing 66% (wt.) kraft cellulose fibrres and 2% (w wt.) PVA fibres.

Figures 4, 2-31, 2-32, 2-33, 2-34, 2-35, 2-36, 2-37, and 3-14 are
reproduced in the centrefo f improved readability.
fold in colour for

Fig. 4. Micrrographs of the fibre cemen nt board contaiining 6% (wt.) of kraft

cellulose fibrres and 2% (wt.) PVA fibres. Top micrograpph shows PVA fibres and
bottom microograph shows smmall strand of cellulose
c fibres.
 CHAPTER ONE

FABRICATION OF FIBRE CEMENT BOARDS

KRZYSZTOF SCHABOWICZ
AND TOMASZ GORZELAēCZYK
FACULTY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,
WROCàAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

Introduction
A modern process of FCB fabrication consists in laying thin paper-like
films on top of each other until a desired sheet thickness is obtained [13,
14]. The process distributes the reinforcing fibres in planar uniformity,
taking the best advantage of the reinforcing fibres to increase the in-plane
strength of the sheet. Thus, the strength of sheets made using this process
is approximately 50% greater than the sheets formed to full thickness in a
single action using a filter press or the extruding processes. In a process
detailed below, a thin film formed from a diluted fibre slurry is usually
0.25-0.4 mm thick and each FCB comprises a stack of these films. Thus,
the final sheet consists of approx. 20-30 or more thin films. A large
number of layers partially suppresses the imperfection of the considered
method: the films formed on a sieve are not uniform in composition but
due to sedimentation they have a fibre-rich side and a fibre-poor side.
Additionally, 2.5-3 mm long fibres bridge the sieve holes, slightly
blocking the feed of other particles and forming a fibre-rich layer. The
portions formed last can be relatively fibre-poor. On this account, an
advanced fibre orientation and distribution devices have been developed
and introduced into the actual chain of FCB fabrication.
Fig. 1-1 shows a flowchart of a sample fibre cement board production
process. The particular sub-processes named in the flowchart are detailed
below.
8 Chapter One

Preparing raw materials

PREPARATION ZONE
Batching mix components
WATER AND WASTE RECOVERY SYSTEM

Mixing until homogenous pulp is obtained

Forming boards in special forming machine

(Hatschek machine or flow-on machine)

Wet cutting and stacking

Pressing to enhance properties

Transferring

Taking boards off stacks and carrying

Natural maturing in climatic chambers and in air for 7-14 days

(maximally 28 days)

Finishing – dustless cutting with water jet

Fig. 1-1. Flowchart of sample fibre cement board production process.

Figure 1-2 shows a sample flowchart of the technological process of

fabrication of cellulose fibre cement boards, including seven zones
corresponding to the specific production stages [12]. Fig. 1-3 shows a
detailed diagram of zones no. 1 and no. 2 in order to outline their
complexity. The moisture content of the board varies at each stage and is
determined using methods described in the next chapter.
 Fabrrication of Fibree Cement Boardds 9

Fig. 1-2. Floowchart of tecchnological pro

ocess of fabriccation of cellu
ulose fibre
cement boardds.

The fabrrication of cellulose FCB starts

s in the ppreparation zo one (zone
1), where ceellulose fibress are mixed with
w water in a mixer (pulpeer) until a
uniform disppersion is prooduced. Bulk components
c (ccement with additives)
a
in specific pproportions arre added to thhe batched waater and mixeed until a
homogenouss plastic comppound is obtained. There arre two main categories
c
of cellulose fibre cement: low-temperaature cured annd high-tempeerature or
autoclave ccured. Low (air)( cured foormulations uusually contaain larger
amounts of Portland cem ment combineed with fine-gground fillerss such as
clays, silica fume, groundd limestone, oro fly ash. Auutoclaved form mulations
contain less Portland cemment and more pozzolanic coomponents an nd fillers.
The mixxture describbed above iss transferred to a board forming
machine. Thhe Hatschek or flow-on machinem is uused (zone 2) to form
boards with a fixed thickkness of 4-14 mm.m The nextt (optional) prroduction
stage involvves the pressinng of stackedd boards (zonne 3). A presssing force
suitable for the type off board fabriccated (exterioor or interior cladding
board) is appplied. Warm m (due to cem ment hydrationn heat) cellullose fibre
cement boarrds directly affter pressing or forming arre transferred to a pre-
curing tunneel (zone 4) where
w they rem
main for abouut 14 hours. Next,N the
boards can bbe taken off thhe stack and placed
p on a palllet. This musst be done
as quickly aas possible sinnce the boardss are still quitee warm and damp,
d and
so they shouuld not be alloowed to cool and
a dry too muuch or too quiickly.
10 Chapter One

Fig. 1-3. Diagram of zones no. 1 and no. 2.

The boards placed on the pallets are left to mature and are cured in
steady thermal-moisture conditions, e.g., in special airtight tarpaulin tents
(zone 5) for about 14 days. After that time, the boards obtain the proper
bending strength, and some moisture is removed naturally. After the
maturation period, the boards are transferred to a final drying oven (zone
6) where they are subjected to three-stage drying at 180qC, 160qC, and
 Fabrication of Fibre Cement Boards 11

120qC, respectively at stage 1, 2, and 3. Then, the boards are cooled

naturally for about 20-30 minutes depending on their thickness. This is a
critical stage of the fabrication process. Boards with excessive moisture
content are not fit for further treatment, such as impregnation or painting.
At the last fabrication stage, the boards are trimmed, and, if necessary,
their surface is ground at the edges (zone 7).

Primary raw materials

Table 1-1 shows the typical primary raw materials used in the fabrication
of naturally maturing fibre cement boards.

Table 1-1. Typical primary raw materials used in fabrication of fibre cement
boards.
type of raw material approximate
composition
Cement ~ 60%
Cellulose (dry) ~ 8%
PVA ~ 2%
Kaolin or lime ~ 30%
Total ~ 100%
Standard
Additives & admixtures
ratio
Hyperplasticizer ~ 0.1 l/t *)
Didecyldimethylammonium chloride ~ 0.1 l/t *)
(DDAC) or bromide (DDAB)
Perlite ~ 1 kg/t *)
Mica ~ 1 kg/t *)
Microsphere ~ 1 kg/t *)
Antifoaming agent ~ 0.26 l/t*)
*) l/t or kg/t = litres or kilograms per ton of finished product

Properties of PVA fibres

PVA (polyvinyl alcohol) fibres are a major component in the fabrication
of naturally maturing cement fibre boards. The basic specifications of
PVA fibres, based on the data for Kuralon (manufactured by Kuraray
America Inc.) [40], are shown below. Table 1-2 shows the basic
specifications of PVA fibres compared to other commercially available
fibres.
12 Chapter One

Main advantages of Kuralon fibres:

ƒ non-toxic,
ƒ long-term presence on the market,
ƒ established manufacturing process,
ƒ high quality.

Table 1-2. Specifications of PVA fibres compared to other commercially available

fibres [40].

type of fibre
Parameter
Kuralon PET Nylon PAN PP Aramid Carbon
tenacity
11-14 6-8 5 2-4 6-8 22 13-23
(cN/dtex)
Young’s 80- 30- 30- 400- 1190-
250-300 40-80
modulus 145 70 110 700 2370
alkali resistance w X X X w X w
adhesion to
w X X X X X •
cement
weather
w w • w X w w
resistance
w = good, • = normal, X = bad

Figure 1-4 shows micrographs of the cross-sections of fibre cement

boards reinforced with different fibres.
 Fabrrication of Fibree Cement Boardds 13

a)

b)

c)

Fig. 1-4. Miccrographs of cross-sections

c of
o fibre cementt boards reinfo
orced with
different fibrees [40]: a) Kuraalon fibres; b) polypropylene
p fi
fibres; c) ARG fibres.
f
14 Chapterr One

Figure 1-5 shows the relationship between fibree tenacity and d bending
strength of ffibre cement boards
b reinforcced with diffeerent fibres [40
0].

Fig. 1-5. Relaationship betweeen fibre tenacitty and bending strength of fibrre cement
boards [40].

R
Raw materiaal preparattion and miixing zone
The preparaation zone of a fibre cementt boards fabriccation usually
y includes
the followinng:

ƒ 2 cemment and addditive (e.g., limmestone powdder) silos, eacch with a

capaccity of about 100-200
1 m3,
ƒ a watter tank with a capacity of 20-30
2 m3,
ƒ 4 daiily stock silos with a capacity of 15-20 m 3,
ƒ a bellt conveyor forfo transferring cellulose annd waste pap per to the
pulpeer,
ƒ a pullper with a cappacity of 12-16 m3,
ƒ an inntermediate ceellulose tank (a
( buffer pulpp tank) with a capacity
of 200-40 m3,
ƒ up too 4 refiners (deepending on th
heir type),
ƒ 2 cellulose tanks (refined pulp storage
s tanks)) with a capacity of 40-
 Fabrrication of Fibree Cement Boardds 15

60 m3,
ƒ a mixxer (for mixinng all the compponents) with a capacity off 5-7 m3,
ƒ an inntermediate filller tank (a bu
uffer tank for the mixed liq
quid pulp)
with a capacity of 10-15 m3,
ƒ a dennsity calibratinng tank with a capacity of 22-4 m3,
ƒ chemmical agents taank (a flocculaant batching ddevice).

The prodduction of booards starts ata the two siloos located ou utside the
production building (Fiig. 1-6), from which thhe raw mateerials are
transported bby a belt convveyor (situated under the siilo (Fig. 1-7)) and then
by a pneumaatic conveyinng system to th he daily stockk silo in the prroduction
building (Figg. 1-8).

Fig. 1-6. Raw y of 200 m3 eacch, outside the shop

w material silos,, with a capacity s floor.
16 Chapterr One

Fig. 1-7. Presssure vessel andd belt conveyor under silo.

pacity of 15 m3 each.
Fig 1-8. Sampple daily stock silos, with a cap

The firstt production stage involvees preparing tthe cellulose, which is

the source ffor the fibres that reinforcee the compositte fibre cemen nt boards
in the celluulose preparaation zone. TheT cellulose (and waste paper, if
required) is fed in weigheed-out portion ns (bales) into the pulper viia the belt
conveyor (FFig. 1-9) with integrated
i scaales.
 Fabrrication of Fibree Cement Boardds 17

Fig. 1-9. Sam

mple belt conveeyor with scales (weighing ceellulose and waaste paper)
feeding weighhed-out portionns into the pulpeer.

Next, thee main water is

i supplied fro
om the tank (FFig. 1-10) to the
t pulper
in order to m
macerate and pre-defibre th The cellulose is pulped
he cellulose. T
in the pulpeer (Fig. 1-11). Water is used
u throughoout the entiree pulping
process.
18 Chapterr One

mple water tankk with a capacitty of 25 m3.

Fig. 1-10. Sam

The celluulose content in the pulp iss 4% (wt.). A biocide is battched into
the pulper tto protect thee cellulose fiibres against biodegradatio on. Also,
depending oon the type of fabricated boards, a hydropphobizing ageent can be
added at thee same time.
 Fabrrication of Fibree Cement Boardds 19

mple pulper witth a capacity off 14 m3.

Fig. 1-11. Sam

Since, ass mentioned earlier,

e some cellulose
c can be reclaimed from the
waste paperr, the cellulosse fibres shou uld undergo a special impregnation
process. Thhis can be donne in accordaance with, e.gg., US Patentt No. US
7.244.388 BB2 “Method off producing sttable cellulosee fibres with improved
i
biological sttability and prroducts made of them,” pateent date 17 Ju uly 2007.
The celllulose fibress obtained using u this mmethod featurre higher
biological rresistance and stability. Even E though the previou usly used
methods of treating celluulose with biiologically toxxic compound ds would
result in a hhigher resistannce of the celllulose to dec omposition, they
t were
not complettely satisfactory, since the fibres had to be cleaned before use
and the enerrgy demand of o the cleaninng process waas very high, while
w the
loss of fibree length was quite
q significaant. Studies shhow that the treatment
20 Chapterr One

of cellulose fibres with didecyldimeth

d hylammonium m chloride (D DDAC) or
bromide (DDAB), carried out as per the method ddisclosed in th he patent
yields the bbest results. Thanks to th hese substancces and som me copper
content, the product is chharacterized by b a very goood biological stability,
but not at thhe expense off a significant increase in ennergy demand d through
the cleaningg process orr fibre length h loss. The ttreated fibress provide
excellent reiinforcement of o the fibre ceement board pproducts and guarantee
g
high resistannce to degradaation.
The preppared pulp is transferred
t fro
om the pulperr via a system m of pipes
and pumps tto the buffer pulp
p tank (Fig
g. 1-12). Next,, the pulp is trransferred
from the tannk to the refinners, where it isi refined. Dep
epending on th he type of
refiner, up too four refinerss (Fig.1-13) caan be used in the fabrication n plant.

mple buffer pullp tank with a capacity of 30 m 3.

Fig. 1-12. Sam
 Fabrrication of Fibree Cement Boardds 21

Fig. 1-13. Vieew of four refinners.

The refinned pulp is conveyed to one of the twoo storage tank ks, with a
capacity of, e.g., 50 m3 eaach. Dependin ng on the proccess requiremeents, pulp
with fibress reclaimed from waste paper, iimpregnated with a
hydrophobizzing agent, caan be stored in one tank, while pulp with w non-
impregnatedd cellulose fibbres can be stored
s in the other tank. Fig.
F 1-14
shows sampple pulp storagge tanks.
The pulpp is transferrred from the storage tankks to a mixeer with a
capacity of 44.6 m3, wheree it is mixed with
w other raw materials, i.e.., cement,
additives (e.g., limestonee powder), an nd chemical aagents, thus giving
g the
liquid celluulose-cement mix the required rheoological (con nsistency)
properties. AAll of the com mponents (exccept for the ppulp) are batched from
the daily stoock silo and auuxiliary plantss.
The liquuid mix is trannsferred to ann 11 m3 bufferr tank (Fig. 1-16). The
liquid mix is transferred from
f the tank via a system of pipes to th
he second
zone, wheree the boards area formed in the Hatschek machine, as described
d
below.
22 Chapterr One

Fig. 1-14. Reffined pulp storaage tanks with capacity

c of 50 m 3.

Fig. 1-15. Mixer with a capaacity of 4.6 m3.

 Fabrrication of Fibree Cement Boardds 23

pacity of 11 m3 .
Fig. 1-16. Liqquid mix bufferr tank with a cap

D
Detailed op
peration off Hatschek machine
and
d fibre film
m formation
n
Fig. 1-17 shhows a diagrram of a Hattschek machiine. The main n section
includes onee (or more) vat(s)
v with a cylindrical
c sieeve rotating in contact
with a diluteed water-baseed fibre slurry
y capable of fo
forming a filteering film
and mineral materials, inccluding Portlaand cement. T The sieve is drriven by a
continuous ffelt wrapped around the to op of a rotatinng cylinder byy a couch
roller. The filtering film moves on th he felt to a foorming roller. The felt
continuouslyy travels betw
ween a drive rooller and a taill roller.
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 PLATE II.
[Photo by W. Cottrell
Hightown, Manchester.]
EXTERNAL CHIMNEY SCAFFOLD.
Erected for the Willesden Electric Lighting Works, under the supervision of E.
Willis, Esq., a.m.i.c.e., etc.
When the chimney is to be erected by external scaffolding the
ordinary mason’s or bricklayer’s scaffold is used. Owing to the small
area of the erection the outside frames of the scaffold have a quick
return. This makes it practically impossible for the scaffold to fail by
breaking away from the building under the influence of the loads it
may carry. Shoring or tying is therefore not so important. Wind
pressures have, however, a greater effect, especially when the
direction is not at right angles to one of the faces of the scaffold. If in
that direction, the tied putlogs would offer resistance. Braces are
therefore imperative, and they should be fixed at right angles to each
other, each pair thus bracing a portion of the height of the scaffold
equal to its width. (See plate 2.)
For the repair of chimney shafts without scaffolding from the
ground level, means have to be taken to bring, first the mechanic,
and afterwards his material, within reach of the work.
 Fig. 27
The preliminary process of kite-flying is now rarely seen, except
for square-topped chimneys, and even in these cases the delay that
may arise while waiting for a suitable steady wind is a drawback to
its practice. The kites used are about 10 feet long and 8 feet wide.
They are held at four points by cords which continue for a distance of
about 16 feet, and then unite into one. Near this point on the single
rope another cord is attached, which serves to manipulate the kite
into position.
Stronger ropes or chains are then pulled over the shaft, after
which a workman ascends, and the necessary pulley wheels and
timbers to form a regular means of ascent are sent up after him.
A light line carried up in the interior of the shaft by a hot-air balloon
is another means of communication.
The most certain and safest method of ascent is to raise on the
exterior of the shaft a series of light ladders, which are lashed to
each other and firmly fixed to the chimney as they ascend.
The ladders have parallel sides, and are used up to 22 feet in
length.
One method of fixing is as follows:—
A ladder is placed against the shaft on its soundest side. It rests at
its top end against a block of wood slightly longer than the width of
the ladder, and which keeps it from 7 to 9 inches away from the wall.
This space allows room for the workmen’s feet when climbing. The
ladder is then fixed by two hooks of round steel driven into the wall,
one on each side immediately under the blocks, the hooks turning in
and clipping the sides of the ladder (fig. 28). The hooks, which have
straight shanks of 7⁄8-inch diameter with wedge-shaped points, are
driven well home, as the stability of the erection depends upon their
holding firmly.
Above the top end of the ladder a steel hook is driven into the wall
on which a pulley block can be hung, or instead, a pin with a ring in
its head can be so fixed. A rope from the ground level is passed
through this block or ring, and reaches downward again for
connection to the ladder next required. The connection is made by
lashing the rope to the top rung and tying the end to the seventh or
eighth rung from the bottom; this causes the ladder to rise
perpendicularly. The steeplejack who is standing on the already fixed
ladder cuts the top lashing as the hoisted ladder reaches him, and
guides it into its place as it rises. When the rung to which the rope is
tied reaches the pulley block, the ladders should overlap about 5
feet. They are at once lashed together at the sides, not round the
rungs.
 Fig. 28
The workmen can now climb higher, driving in hooks round the
sides, and under the rungs of the ladder alternately, lashings being
made at each point. A wooden block is placed under the top end of
the last ladder and fixed as before. The hoisting rope, which has
been kept taut meanwhile, is now loosened and the process
repeated.
The ladders rise in this manner until the coping of the shaft is
reached. Here, owing to the projection of the cap which throws the
ladders out of line, it is impossible to lash the top ladder to the lower.
To overcome the difficulty, the wall is drilled in two places
immediately over the topmost fixed ladder, and expansion bolts are
fitted therein. To these bolts the lower end of the top ladder is tied.
The hoisting rope is then tightened sufficiently to hold the ladder, and
by this means the workmen are enabled to reach the top of the shaft.
A variation of this method of climbing is to replace the wooden
blocks by iron dogs with 9-inch spikes, which should be driven well
into the wall. Short ladders of about 10 feet in length are then used,
these being lashed to the dogs as they rise.
Another method of fixing the ladders is shown in fig. 29.
 Fig. 29
In this case eye-bolts are driven horizontally into the wall in pairs,
rather wider apart than the width of the ladders.
Iron rods hook into these and are fastened to the ladder sides by
thumb screws.
The ladders rise above each other and are connected by 3-inch
sockets.
When fixed, they stand about 18 inches from the wall. This is an
advantage, as it enables the workmen to climb on the inside of the
ladders, thus lessening the strain on the eye-bolts, and the ladder
can more easily pass a projecting chimney cap.
On the other hand, the whole weight of the ladders rests upon the
bottom length, so that if through any cause it gave way, for instance
under accidental concussion, the entire length would most certainly
collapse.
This danger could be avoided if the ladders were supported on
brackets as fig. 30. No reliance should be placed upon the thumb
screws, as they may work loose under vibration. Danger from this
source would be avoided if the slot in which the ladder peg moved
was made as shown in fig. 30.

Fig. 30
 The necessary repairs can be carried out by means of boats,
cradles, or scaffolding.
Cradles and boats are swung from balk timbers laid across the top
of the shaft, or from hooks where the design of the chimney permits,
as shown in fig. 31.
The common method of fixing light scaffolds round a chimney or
steeple is shown in fig. 32. They are most easily fixed to square or
other flat-sided erections. The scaffolder having by means of ladders
or boats reached the desired height, fixes a putlog by means of
holdfasts to one of the walls. Another putlog is then fixed on the
opposite side of the building at the same level. The two are next
bolted together by 1-inch iron bolts of the required length. The bolts
are kept as near to the wall as possible. The process is repeated
again about 6 feet higher on the building. The boards for the
platforms are next laid. The first are placed at right angles to the
putlogs and project sufficiently to carry the boards which are laid
parallel to the putlogs. To prevent the boards rising when weight is
applied at one side of the scaffold, iron plates bolted together (fig.
33) are fixed at the corners, and clips (fig. 34) connect them to the
putlogs.
Fig. 31

Fig. 32
 Fig. 33
The stability of these scaffolds depends upon fixing at least two
sets of putlogs, connected by means of stays as shown in fig. 32.
Bracing is unnecessary if the putlogs and bolts tightly grip the
building. When these scaffolds are used on circular chimneys,
chucks have to be fitted on the inside of the putlogs to prevent them
being drawn by the bolts to a curve. The chucks (fig. 35) can be
fastened to the putlogs before they are fixed, if the curve of the
building is accurately known. When this is not the case, the putlogs
are fixed by a holdfast at their centre. The chucks are then placed in
position, and clamped to the putlogs as shown in fig. 36.
Additional holdfasts are then driven into the wall immediately
under the chucks, so that the putlogs are kept level.
 Fig. 34

Fig. 35
The putlogs are fixed on edge, and when not exceeding 16 feet in
length are 7 in. by 3 in. Above that length they are 9 in. by 3 in. The
stays should be 4 in. by 2 in., and connected to the putlogs by 5⁄8-
inch iron bolts. The platform is usually of three boards 11 in. by 2 in.
Fig. 36
 Fig. 37
Hollow towers are erected or repaired in the same manner as
chimney shafts, except that climbing ladders are not often required.
External or internal scaffolds may be erected. Towers being usually
of larger area than chimney shafts, the putlogs for internal
scaffolding are often of short poles from 6 to 8 inches diameter. Even
these may require extra support. This is gained by carrying
standards from the ground level or other solid foundation and tying to
the putlogs. If of great height the standards may be unable to carry
their own weight. For the cases where danger might be apprehended
from this cause, fig. 37 shows a system of framing, which, being
supported by the set-back in the thickness of the wall, will carry the
upper standards.
Steeples are generally built by the aid of external scaffolds, which,
as in the case of chimney shafts, should be well braced. The lower
portion may also be repaired in this way, the standards rising from
the ground level, or, if so designed, from the top of the tower. A
series of needles could be arranged for the higher portions.

Fig. 38

Domes and arches.—The scaffolding for domes and arches

consists of a series of standards standing upon the area covered by
the building, and connected by ledgers and braces in directions at
right angles to each other. The platform is laid on the top ledgers.
 When the building is of large span square timbers are often used,
balks for standards and runners, and half timbers for struts and
braces.
Fig. 38 shows a design for repairing roofs and arches where a
roadway has to be kept below.

Swinging scaffolds. Painters’ boats or cradles.—Painters’

boats are useful scaffolds for the repair of buildings, more especially
where the work is light. Fig. 39 shows the general construction. They
are suspended from jibs, fixed usually on the roof for outside work,
and by means of blocks and falls they can be moved in a vertical
direction by the workmen when in the boat.

Fig. 39
The boats are fitted with guard boards and rails, and their safety,
providing the jibs are well fixed by balancing weights, is in their
favour. They are not self-supporting, and there is a distinct danger of
their running down if the sustaining ropes are not securely fastened
off. The wind causes them to sway considerably, and their use is
confined chiefly to façade work. An improved cradle is now in
general use, which is slung by head blocks from a wire cable running
between two jibs (see fig. 40). By the aid of guy lines movement in
this case can be also obtained horizontally, which removes the
necessity of shifting the jibs or employing a greater number of boats
as in the older method.

Fig. 40
 Fig. 41
Another cradle as shown in fig. 41 has advantages which cannot
be ignored. It has steel cables with a breaking weight of 15 cwt.
instead of fibre ropes, and the cradle is raised and lowered by
means of gearing and a drum fixed in the gear case A. It is self-
supporting, and therefore safer than the cradle mentioned above.
The lower ends of the cable are fastened to the drum, and the
gearing gives sufficient mechanical advantage for one man to raise
the scaffold by turning the handle B. The uprights and rails are of
angle steel or barrel and will take apart and fold.
 Fig. 42
The boatswain’s boat (see fig. 42) is useful under some
circumstances, especially for making examinations of buildings for
possible damage. It is dangerous and awkward to work from, and is
also acted upon considerably by the wind.
The boat is slung from a single needle. The workman has no
control over its movement, as he has to be raised or lowered as
required by men having charge of the other end of the fall.