Chinese architecture

Chinese architecture is the embodiment of an architectural style that

has developed over millennia in China and has influenced architecture
throughout East Asia.[1][2][3][4] Since its emergence during the early
ancient era, the structural principles of its architecture have remained
largely unchanged. The main changes involved diverse decorative
details. Starting with the Tang dynasty,[5] Chinese architecture has had
a major influence on the architectural styles of neighbouring East Asian
countries such as Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and Mongolia in addition to
minor influences on the architecture of Southeast and South Asia
including the countries of Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Sri Lanka,[6]
Thailand,[7] Laos, Cambodia and the Philippines.[8]

Chinese architecture
:
 Top:The Forbidden City in Beijing, Middle:the Humble Administrator's
Garden and the Iron Pagoda, Bottom: The Zhujiajiao God Temple

Chinese architecture is characterized by bilateral symmetry, use of

enclosed open spaces, feng shui (e.g. directional hierarchies), a
horizontal emphasis, and an allusion to various cosmological,
mythological or in general symbolic elements. Chinese architecture
traditionally classifies structures according to type, ranging from
pagodas to palaces. Due to the frequent use of wood, a relatively
perishable material, as well as few monumental structures built of more
durable materials, much historical knowledge of Chinese architecture
derives from surviving miniature models in ceramic and published
diagrams and specifications.
:
 Although unifying aspects exist, Chinese architecture varies widely
based on status or affiliation, such as whether the structures were
constructed for emperors, commoners, or for religious purposes. Other
variations in Chinese architecture are shown in vernacular styles
associated with different geographic regions and different ethnic
heritages.

The architecture of China is as old as Chinese civilization. From

every source of information—literary, graphic, exemplary—there is
strong evidence testifying to the fact that the Chinese have always
enjoyed an indigenous system of construction that has retained its
principal characteristics from prehistoric times to the present day.
Over the vast area from Chinese Turkistan to Japan, from Manchuria
to the northern half of French Indochina, the same system of
construction is prevalent; and this was the area of Chinese cultural
influence. That this system of construction could perpetuate itself
for more than four thousand years over such a vast territory and still
remain a living architecture, retaining its principal characteristics in
spite of repeated foreign invasions—military, intellectual, and
spiritual—is a phenomenon comparable only to the continuity of the
civilization of which it is an integral part.

—Liang Sicheng, 1984[9]none

In more recent times, China has become the most rapidly modernizing
country in the world. In the past few decades, a city like Shanghai has
completely changed its skyline. Now it's dotted with multiple
skyscrapers considered to be among the tallest in the entire world. It
also has one of the most extensive high speed rail networks,
connecting and allowing its large population to travel more efficiently.
:
 Throughout the 20th century, Chinese architects have attempted to
bring traditional Chinese designs into modern architecture. Moreover,
the pressure for urban development throughout China requires high
speed construction and a greater floor area ratio: thus, in cities the
demand for traditional Chinese buildings (which are normally less than
3 levels) has declined in favor of high-rises. However, the traditional
skills of Chinese architecture, including major and minor carpentry,
masonry, and stonemasonry, are used in the construction of vernacular
architecture in China's rural areas.

History
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Neolithic and early antiquity

Further information: Yangshao culture § Houses

A model of Jiangzhai, a Yangshao village

Chinese civilizations and cultures developed in the plains along China's

numerous rivers that emptied into Bohai and Hongzhow bays. The most
prominent of these rivers, the Yellow and the Yangtze, hosted many
villages. The climate was warmer and more humid than today, allowing
millet to be grown in the north and rice in the south. However, Chinese
civilization has no single "origin". Instead, it featured a gradual
multinuclear development between 4000 and 2000 BC – from village
communities to what anthropologists call cultures to states.

Two of the more important cultures were Hongshan culture (4700–

2900 BC) to the north of Bohai Bay in Inner Mongolia and Hebei
Province and contemporaneous Yangshao culture (5000–3000 BC) in
Henan Province. Between the two, and developing later, was Longshan
culture (3000–2000 BC) in the central and lower Yellow River valley.
:
 These combined areas gave rise to thousands of small/proto-states by
3000 BC. Some shared a common ritual center that linked them to a
single symbolic order, but others developed more independently. The
emergence of walled cities during this time is a clear indication that the
political landscape was often unstable.[10]

The Hongshan culture of Inner Mongolia (located along the Laoha,

Yingjin, and Daling rivers that empty into Bohai Bay) was scattered over
a large area but had a single, common ritual center of at least 14 burial
mounds and altars over several ridges. It is dated to around 3500 BC,
or possibly earlier. Although no evidence suggests village settlements
nearby, its size is much larger than one clan or village could support. In
other words, though rituals would have been performed there for the
elites, the large area implies that audiences for the ritual would have
encompassed all the villages of the Hongshan. As a sacred landscape,
the center might have attracted supplicants from even further afield.[10]

20th century

See also: Urbanization in China and Urban planning in China

Rammed earth construction was both practically and ideologically

important during the rapid construction of the Daqing oil field and the
related development of Daqing.[11]: 55 The "Daqing Spirit" represented
deep personal commitment in pursuing national goals, self-sufficient
and frugal living, and urban-rural integrated land use.[12]: 3 Daqing's
urban-rural landscape was said to embody the ideal communist society
described by Karl Marx because it eliminated (1) the gap between town
and country, (2) the gap between workers and peasants, and (3) the
gap between manual and mental labor.[12]: 3
:
 Drawing on the Daqing experience, China encouraged rammed earth
construction in the mid-1960s.[11]: 55 Starting in 1964, Mao Zedong
advocated for a "mass design revolution movement".[11]: 55 In the
context of the Sino-Soviet split, Mao urged that planners should avoid
the use of Soviet-style prefabricated materials and instead embrace
the proletarian spirit of on-site construction using rammed earth.[11]: 55
The Communist Party promoted the use of rammed earth construction
as a low-cost method which was indigenous to China and required little
technical skill.[11]: 55

Reinforced concrete, brick-infill, and prefabricated materials were used

increasingly following the Wall Reform Movement of 1973–1976 and
were promoted in publications such as Architectural Journal.[11]: 56

In 2014, the city of Datong started to rebuild the Datong ancient city
wall and buildings in traditional architecture, although received
skepticism and opposition by citizens by then, many praised the mayor
for bringing back traditional Chinese aesthetics later on.[13]

Features
:
 A sancai (tri-colored) ceramic mansion from the Tang dynasty (618–
907), excavated from a Tang era tomb at Zhongbu village in the
western suburbs of Xi'an.
The rectangular compound has two sections of courtyards. The
buildings on the axis include central entrance, four-pointed pavilion,
mountain-shaped front hall, artificial mountain and ponds, eight-
pointed pavilion and mountain-shaped retiring quarters. The two sides
of the axis are arranged with corridor rooms symmetrically.

Bilateral symmetry
:
 The Wonderland of Fanghu in the Old Summer Palace.It was destroyed by Anglo-French Allied Forces in
1860. (Fanghu is one of the wonderlands on the sea in Chinese myths. It is the same as Fangzhang. "方
壶"，同"方丈"，是中国传说中海上三仙山之一。)

The Meridian Gate of the Forbidden City

An important feature in Chinese architecture is its emphasis on

articulation and bilateral symmetry, which there signifies balance.
These are found everywhere in Chinese architecture, from palace
complexes to humble farmhouses.[14] Secondary elements are
positioned on either side of the main structures as wings to maintain
overall symmetry. Buildings are typically planned to contain an even
number of columns to produce an odd number of bays (間). Placing the
main door in the center bay maintains symmetry.

In contrast to buildings, Chinese gardens tend to be asymmetrical.

:
 Gardens are designed to provide enduring flow.[15] The design of the
classic Chinese garden is based on the ideology of "Nature and Man in
One," as opposed to the home itself, which shows the human sphere
co-existing with, but separate from nature. The intent is that people
feel surrounded by, and in harmony with, nature. The two essential
garden elements are stones and water. The stones signify the pursuit of
immortality, while water represents emptiness and existence. The
mountain belongs to yang (static beauty), and the water belongs to yin
(dynamic wonder). They depend on each other and complete each
other.[16]

Enclosure

In much Chinese architecture, buildings or building complexes

surround open spaces. These enclosed spaces come in two forms:[14]

Courtyard (院): Open courtyards are a common feature in many

projects. This is best exemplified in Siheyuan: It consisted of an
empty space surrounded by buildings connected with one another
either directly or through verandas.
"Sky well" (天井): Although large open courtyards are less
commonly found in southern Chinese architecture, the concept of
an "open space" surrounded by buildings can be seen in the
southern building structure known as the "sky well". This structure
is essentially a relatively enclosed courtyard formed from the
intersections of closely spaced buildings and offers a small
opening to the sky through the roof space.

These enclosures aid in temperature regulation and in ventilation.

Northern courtyards are typically open and face south to allow the
maximum exposure of the building windows and walls to the sun while
:
 keeping out the cold north winds. Southern sky wells are relatively
small and collect rainwater from the roof tops. They perform the same
duties as the Roman impluvium while restricting the amount of sunlight
that enters the building. Sky wells also vent hot air skyward, which
draws cool air from the lower areas and the outside.

A skywell in a Fujian temple with enclosing halls and bays on four

sides.

A mid-20th-century colonial style Taiwanese building containing a

skywell.

A tulou outer building encloses a smaller circular building, which

encloses an ancestral hall and courtyard in the center.
:
 A dugout dwelling enclosing an underground courtyard.

An enclosing courtyard on four sides from the Astor Court in the

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, USA.

Hierarchy

A tomb mural of Xinzhou, dated to the Northern Qi (550–577 AD) period, showing a hall with a tiled roof
with chiwei roof ornaments, dougong brackets, and doors with giant door knockers (perhaps made of
bronze)

The projected hierarchy and importance and building uses in Chinese

architecture are based on the strict placement of buildings in a
:
 property/complex. Buildings with doors facing the front of the property
are considered more important than those facing the sides. Buildings
facing away from the front are the least important.

South-facing buildings in the rear and more private areas with higher
exposure to sunlight are held in higher esteem and reserved for elders
or ancestral plaques. Buildings facing east and west are generally for
junior members or branches of the family, while buildings near the front
are typically for servants and hired help.[17]

Front-facing buildings in the back of properties are used for celebratory

rites and for the placement of ancestral halls and plaques. In multi-
courtyard complexes, central courtyards and their buildings are
considered more important than peripheral ones, the latter typically for
storage, servants' rooms, or kitchens.[14]

Horizontal emphasis

Classical Chinese buildings, especially those of the wealthy, are built

with an emphasis on breadth and less on height, featuring an enclosed
heavy platform and a large roof that floats over this base, with the
vertical walls deemphasized. Buildings that were too high and large
were considered unsightly, and therefore generally avoided.[18] Chinese
architecture stresses the visual impact of the width of the buildings,
using sheer scale to inspire awe.[19] This preference contrasts with
Western architecture, which tends to emphasize height and depth. This
often meant that pagodas towered above other buildings.[20]

The halls and palaces in the Forbidden City have rather low ceilings
when compared to equivalent stately buildings in the West, but their
external appearance suggests the all-embracing nature of imperial
:
 China. These ideas have found their way into modern Western
architecture, for example through the work of Jørn Utzon.[21]

Cosmological concepts

Model of a Chinese Siheyuan in Beijing, which shows off the symmetry, enclosed heavy platform and a
large roof that floats over this base, with the vertical walls not as well emphasized.

Chinese architecture used concepts from Chinese cosmology such as

feng shui (geomancy) and Taoism to organize construction and layout.
[14] These include:

Screen walls to face the main entrance, which stems from the
belief that evil things travel in straight lines.
Talismans and imagery of good fortune:
Door gods displayed on doorways to ward off evil and
encourage good fortune
Three anthropomorphic figures representing Fu Lu Shou (福祿
壽 fú-lù-shòu) stars are prominently displayed, sometimes
with the proclamation "the three stars are present" (三星宅
sān-xīng-zhài)
Animals and fruits that symbolize good fortune and
prosperity, such as bats and pomegranates, respectively. The
association is often done through rebuses.
Orienting the structure with its back to an elevated landscape and
:
 placing water in the front.
Ponds, pools, wells, and other water sources are built into the
structure.
Aligning a building along a north–south axis, with the building
facing south (in the north where the wind is coldest in winter). The
two sides face east and west respectively.[20] The back of the
structure is generally windowless.

The use of certain colors, numbers and the cardinal directions reflected
the belief in a type of immanence, where the nature of a thing could be
wholly contained in its own form.

Beijing and Chang'an are examples of traditional Chinese town planning

that represent these cosmological concepts.

Architectural types

Han yuan tu by Li Rongjin, Yuan dynasty

:
 Jianzhang Palace, Yuan dynasty

The types of Chinese architecture may relate to the use of the

structures, such as whether they were built for royals, commoners, or
the religious.

Commoners

Due to primarily wooden construction and poor maintenance, far fewer

examples of commoner's homes survive compared to those of nobles.
Korman claimed the average commoner's home did not change much,
even centuries after the establishment of the universal style: early-
20th-century homes were similar to late and mid-imperial homes.[20]

These homes tended to follow a set pattern: the center of the building
was a shrine for deities and ancestors, and was also used during
festivities. On its two sides were bedrooms for elders; the two wings
(known as "guardian dragons") were for junior members, as well as the
living room, the dining room, and the kitchen, although sometimes the
living room was close to the center.[22]

Sometimes the extended families became so large that one or two

extra pairs of "wings" had to be built. This produced a U-shape, with a
courtyard suitable (e.g., for farm work).[20] Merchants and bureaucrats
preferred to close off the front with an imposing gate. All buildings were
legally regulated, and the law required that the number of stories, the
:
 length of the building and the building colours reflect the owner's class.

Some commoners living in areas plagued by bandits built communal

fortresses called Tulou for protection. Often favoured by the Hakka in
Fujian and Jiangxi, the design of Tulou shows the ancient philosophy of
harmony between people and environment. People used local
materials, often building the walls with rammed earth. No window
reached the outside on the lower two floors (for defense), but the
inside included a common courtyard and let people gather.[23]

Imperial

The modern Yellow Crane Tower, rebuilt in 1985 could be the finest example of Chinese architecture in East
Asia.

Certain architectural features were reserved for buildings built for the
emperor of China. One example is the use of yellow (the imperial color)
:
 roof tiles. Yellow tiles still adorn most of the buildings within the
Forbidden City. Only the emperor could use hip roofs, with all four sides
sloping. The two types of hip roof were single-eave and double-eave.
The Hall of Supreme Harmony is the archetypal example of double
eaves.[24] The Temple of Heaven uses blue roof tiles to symbolize the
sky. The roofs are almost invariably supported by brackets
("dougong"), a feature shared only with the largest of religious
buildings. The building's wooden columns well as the wall surfaces,
tend to be red. Black is often used in pagodas. It was believed that the
gods were inspired by the black color to visit earth.

The 5-clawed dragon, adopted by the Hongwu emperor (first emperor

of Ming dynasty) for his personal use, was used to decoration the
beams, pillars, and on the doors on imperial architecture. Curiously, the
dragon was never used on roofs of imperial buildings.

Only buildings used by the imperial family were allowed to have nine
jian (間, space between two columns); only gates used by the emperor
could have five arches, with the centre one, reserved for the emperor.
The ancient Chinese favored the color red.

A vaulted tomb chamber in Luoyang, built during the Eastern Han

dynasty (AD 25–220)
:
 A tomb chamber of Luoyang, built during the Eastern Han dynasty
(AD 25–220) with incised wall decorations

The Great Red Gate at the Ming tombs near Beijing, built in the
15th century

The yellow roof tiles and red wall in the Forbidden City (Palace
Museum) grounds in Beijing, built during the Yongle era (1402–
1424) of the Ming dynasty

Beijing became the capital of China after the Mongol invasion of the
13th century, completing the easterly migration of the Chinese capital
begun in the Jin dynasty. The Ming uprising in 1368 reasserted
Chinese authority and fixed Beijing as the seat of imperial power for the
next five centuries. The emperor and the empress lived in palaces on
the central axis of the Forbidden City, the crown prince at the eastern
side, and the concubines at the back (the imperial concubines were
often referred to as "The Back Palace Three Thousand"). During the
:
 mid-Qing dynasty, the emperor's residence was moved to the western
side of the complex. It is misleading to speak of an axis in the Western
sense of a visual perspective ordering facades. The Chinese axis is a
line of privilege, usually built upon, regulating access—instead of vistas,
a series of gates and pavilions are used.

Que 闕 towers along the walls of Tang-era Chang'an, as depicted in this 8th-century mural from Prince Li
Chongrun's tomb at the Qianling Mausoleum in Shaanxi

Numerology influenced imperial architecture, hence the use of nine

(the greatest single digit number) in much of construction and the
reason why the Forbidden City in Beijing is said to have 9,999.9 rooms
—just short of heaven's mythical 10,000 rooms. The importance of the
East (the direction of the rising sun) in orienting and siting imperial
buildings is a form of solar worship found in many ancient cultures,
reflecting the affiliation of Ruler with the Sun.

The tombs and mausoleums of imperial family members, such as the

8th-century Tang dynasty tombs at the Qianling Mausoleum, can be
counted as part of the imperial tradition. These above-ground earthen
mounds and pyramids had subterranean shaft-and-vault structures
that were lined with brick walls since at least the Warring States period
:
 (481–221 BC).[25]

Religious

See also: Temple (Chinese)

Nanchan Temple (Wutai), built in the late 8th century during the Tang dynasty

A timber hall built in 857 during the Tang dynasty, located at the Buddhist Foguang Temple of Mount Wutai,
Shanxi

Generally speaking, Buddhist architecture follows the imperial style. A

large Buddhist monastery normally has a front hall, housing the statues
of the Four Heavenly Kings, followed by a great hall, housing statues of
the Buddhas. Accommodations are located at the two sides. Some of
the greatest examples of this come from the 18th-century Puning
Temple and Putuo Zongcheng Temple. Buddhist monasteries
sometimes also have pagodas, which may house relics of the Gautama
Buddha; older pagodas tend to be four-sided, while later pagodas
usually have eight sides.
:
 Daoist architecture usually follows the commoners' style. The main
entrance is, however, usually at the side, out of superstition about
demons that might try to enter the premise (see feng shui.) In contrast
to the Buddhists, in a Daoist temple the main deity is located in the
main hall at the front, with lesser deities in the back hall and at the
sides. This is because Chinese people believe that even after the body
has died, the soul is still alive. From the Han grave design, it shows the
forces of cosmic yin/yang, the two forces from the heaven and earth
that create eternity.[26]

The tallest pre-modern building in China was built for both religious and
martial purposes. The Liaodi Pagoda of 1055 AD stands at a height of
84 m (276 ft), and although it served as the crowning pagoda of the
Kaiyuan monastery in old Dingzhou, Hebei, it was also used as a
military watchtower for Song dynasty soldiers to observe potential Liao
dynasty troop movements.

The architecture of the mosques and gongbei tomb shrines of Chinese

Muslims often combines traditional Chinese styles with Middle Eastern
influences. The royal and nonroyal tombs found in the third through
sixth centuries traced back to Han construction. Some tombs were
considered two-chamber spaces, where the focal point was the central
pagoda pillar. This focal point served as what Buddhist call a pagoda,
which is a symbol of the Buddha and his death.[27] The layout of such
tombs has the corpse in the back chamber, as the pillar location
indicated the Buddha's death. There would sometimes be interior tomb
decoration to portray immortal or divine meaning.[28]

Dome ceilings in the 4th and 7th centuries were representations of the
heavens.[29] This originates from Roman provincial art and ancient
Egypt. As most of these representations are circular, other forms are
:
 present: dodecagon, octagonal, and square. Many caves in the 4th-7th
centuries were probably carved throughout the Han and Tang period.

Gallery

English: A mural painting from Cave 61 at the Mogao Caves,

depicting Tang dynasty monastic architecture from Mount Wutai.

A group of temples at the top of Mount Taishan, where structures

have been built at the site since the 3rd century BC during the Han
dynasty

Nanshan Temple in Longkou, Shandong.

:
 Lianhuashan (lit. "lotus flower mountain") Temple in Dalian

Songjiang Square Pagoda, built in the 11th century

The Nine Pinnacle Pagoda, built in the 8th century during the Tang
dynasty

A Chinese pavilion instead of a minaret at the Great Mosque of

Xi'an.
:
 The Fogong Temple Pagoda, located in Ying county, Shanxi
province, built in 1056 during the Liao dynasty, is the oldest
existent fully wooden pagoda in China

The Giant Wild Goose Pagoda in Xi'an, rebuilt in 704 during the
Tang dynasty

The Songyue Pagoda, built in 523 AD during the Northern and

Southern dynasties

The Liuhe Pagoda of Hangzhou, China, built in 1165 AD during the

Song dynasty
:
 Hua Si Gongbei (the mausoleum of Ma Laichi) in Linxia City, Gansu

A timber hall built in 857 during the Tang dynasty,[30] located at

the Buddhist Foguang Temple in Mount Wutai, Shanxi

The Liaodi Pagoda, the tallest pre-modern Chinese pagoda, built

in 1055 during the Song dynasty

Urban planning
Main article: Ancient Chinese urban planning

Chinese urban planning is based on fengshui geomancy and the well-

field system of land division, both used since the Neolithic age. The
:
 basic well-field diagram is overlaid with the luoshu, a magic square
divided into 9 sub-squares, and linked with Chinese numerology.[31] In
Southern Song dynasty (1131AD), the design of Hongcun city in Anhui
was based around "harmony between man and nature", facing south
and surrounded by mountains and water. According to fengshui, it is a
carefully planned ancient village and shows the Human-Nature
Intergraded Ecological Planning concept.[32]

Since wars were frequent in northern China, many people moved to

southern China. The building method of a courtyard house was
adapted to southern China. The village of Tungyuan in Fujian Province
is a good example of a planned settlement that shows the feng shui
elements – psychological self-defense and building structure – in the
form of material self-defense.[33]

Construction
Materials and history

Models of watchtowers and other buildings made during the Eastern Han dynasty (AD 25–220); while these
models were made of ceramics, the real versions were made of easily perishable wood and have not
survived.

Wood was typically utilised as a primary building material. Also,

Chinese culture holds that life connects with nature and that humans
should interact with animated things. By contrast stone was associated
:
 with the homes of the dead.[34] However, unlike other building
materials, wooden structures are less durable. The Songyue Pagoda
(built in 523) is China's oldest extant pagoda; its use of brick instead of
wood allowed it to endure across the centuries. From the Tang dynasty
(618–907) onwards, brick and stone architecture gradually became
more common. The earliest examples of this transition can be seen in
building projects such as the Zhaozhou Bridge completed in 605 or the
Xumi Pagoda built in 636. Some stone and brick architecture was used
in subterranean tomb architecture of earlier dynasties.

A stone-carved pillar-gate, or que (闕), 6 m (20 ft) in total height, located at the tomb of Gao Yi in Ya'an,
Sichuan province, Eastern Han dynasty (25–220 AD);[35] notice the stone-carved decorations of roof tile
eaves, despite the fact that Han dynasty stone que (part of the walled structures around tomb entrances)
lacked wooden or ceramic components (but often imitated wooden buildings with ceramic roof tiles).[36]

These rammed earth ruins of a granary in Hecang Fortress (Chinese: 河仓城； Pinyin: Hécāngchéng),
located ~11 km (7 miles) northeast of the Yumen Pass, were built during the Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD)
and significantly rebuilt during the Western Jin (280–316 AD).[37]

In the early 20th century no known fully wood-constructed Tang

:
 dynasty buildings still existed; the oldest so far discovered was the
1931 find of Guanyin Pavilion at Dule Monastery, dated 984 during the
Song dynasty.[38] Later architectural historians Liang Sicheng, Lin
Huiyin, Mo Zongjiang, discovered that the Great East Hall of Foguang
Temple on Mount Wutai in Shanxi dated to 857.[38] The ground floor of
this monastic hall measures 34 by 17.66 m (111.5 by 57.9 ft).[39] The
main hall of nearby Nanchan Temple on Mount Wutai was later dated to
782.[40] Six Tang era wooden buildings had been found by the 21st
century.[41] The oldest intact fully wooden pagoda is the Pagoda of
Fogong Temple of the Liao dynasty, located in Ying County of Shanxi.
While the East Hall of Foguang Temple features seven types of bracket
arms in its construction, the 11th-century Pagoda of Fogong Temple
features fifty-four.[42]

Remnants of the Great Wall of Qi on Dafeng Mountain, Changqing District, Jinan, which was once part of
the ancient State of Qi during the Warring States period (475–221 BC).

The Great Wall of China at Mutianyu, near Beijing, built during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644)

The earliest walls and platforms used rammed earth construction.

:
 Ancient sections of the Great Wall of China used brick and stone,
although the brick and stone Great Wall seen today is a Ming dynasty
renovation.

Buildings for public use and for elites usually consisted of earth mixed
with bricks or stones on raised platforms which allowed them to
survive. The earliest of this sort of construction was during the Shang
dynasty (c. 1600 – 1046 BCE)[43]

Structure

Main article: Ancient Chinese wooden architecture

Mortise and tenon work of tie beams and cross beams, from Li Jie's
building manual Yingzao Fashi, printed in 1103.

Diagram of corbel wood bracket supports ("dougong") holding up a

:
 multi-inclined roof, from the architectural treatise Yingzao Fashi (1103
AD)

Seven forms of Han vaulting [44] Redrawn by Sijie Ren after Liu Dunzhen

Ceilings: The form that served greatest interest was the English
vault or dome. The ceiling had the appearance of posed of flat
beams, diagonal-support planks (xiecheng banliang), broken-line
wedge shaped with a plank inserted, tongue-and-groove joints,
barrel vault, or a domical vault. Most of this construction would be
done with wood.[28]
Foundation: Most buildings typically use raised platforms (臺基) as
their foundations. Vertical structural beams may rest on stone
pedestals (柱础) that occasionally rest on piles. In lower class
construction, the platforms are constructed of rammed earth,
either unpaved or paved with brick or ceramics. In the simplest
cases vertical structural beams are driven into the ground. Upper
class constructions typically sit on raised stone-paved rammed
earth or stone foundations with ornately carved heavy stone
pedestals for supporting large vertical structural beams.[17] The
beams remain on their pedestals solely by friction and the weight
of the building structure.[45]
:
 Framing: Dating back to the 5th and 6th centuries, timber
framing is evident in cave-temples like Mogao, Yungang,
Maijishan and Tianlongshan. Most of these caves use the
same method: eight sided columns, two-plate capitals, and
alternating bracket arms and V-shaped braces. Whether or
not certain structural supports were included was entirely up
to what the artisans chose. There were no symbolic meanings
behind these designs.[28]
Structural beams: Large structural timbers support the roof.
Timber, usually large trimmed logs, are used as load-bearing
columns and lateral beams. These beams are connected to each
other directly or, in larger and higher class structures, tied through
the use of brackets. These structural timbers are prominently
displayed in finished structures. It is not definitively known how
ancient builders raised the columns into position.
Structural connections: Timber frames are typically constructed
with joinery and dowelling, seldom with glue or nails. These types
of semi-rigid structural joints allow the timber structure to resist
bending and torsion under high compression.[17] Structural
stability is enhanced through the use of heavy beams and roofs.
[45] The lack of glue or nails in joinery, the use of non-rigid support

such as dougong, and the use of wood as structural members

allow the buildings to slide, flex, and hinge while absorbing shock,
vibration, and ground shifts from earthquakes without significant
damage.[17] The rich decorated the Dougong with valuable
materials to display their wealth. Common people used artwork to
express their appreciation to the house.[46]
Walls: Curtain walls or door panels delineated rooms or enclosed a
building, with the general de-emphasis of load-bearing walls in
most higher class construction. However, later dynasties faced a
:
 shortage of trees, leading to the use of load-bearing walls in non-
governmental or religious construction, made of brick and stone.
Roofs: Flat roofs are uncommon while gabled roofs are
omnipresent. Roofs are either built on roof cross-beams or rest
directly on vertical structural beams. In higher class construction,
roof beams are supported through complex dougong bracketing
systems that indirectly connect them to the primary structural
beams.[17] The three main types of roofs are:
Straight inclined: Roofs with a single incline. These are the
most economical and are most prevalent in commoner
structures.
Multi-inclined: Roofs with 2 or more sections of incline. These
roofs are used in higher class constructions.
Sweeping: Roofs with a sweeping curvature that rises at the
corners. This type is usually reserved for temples and palaces
although it may also be found in the homes of the wealthy. In
the former cases, the roof ridges are usually highly decorated
with ceramic figurines.
Roof apex: The roof apex of a large hall is usually topped with a
ridge of tiles and statues for decorative purposes as well as to
weigh down the tiles for stability. These ridges are often well
decorated, especially for religious or palatial structures. In some
regions, the ridges are sometimes extended or incorporated into
the walls of the building to form matouqiang (horse-head walls),
which served as a fire deterrent from drifting embers.
Roof top decorations: Symbolism can be found in the colors of the
eaves, roofing materials and roof top decorations. Gold/yellow is
an auspicious (good) color, imperial roofs are gold or yellow. Green
roofs symbolize bamboo shafts, which in turn represent youth and
longevity.[47]
:
 North and west walls, front chamber of cave 9, showing "Ionic" capitals on north wall, late
5th century[48]

Patterns, decoration, elaboration, and ornament: all

signatures dating back to Chinese architecture from the 5th
and 6th century. Many cave temples demonstrate such
practice. Studies find that certain patterns were repeated
often in different locations across different dynasties. It was
also found that designs found in western Asian art travelled to
patterns found in Chinese timber.[49]

Classification by structure

A pavilion inside the Zhuozheng Garden in Suzhou, Jiangsu province, one of the finest gardens in China
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 The Zhaozhou Bridge, built from 595 to 605 during the Sui dynasty. It is the oldest fully stone open-
spandrel segmental arch bridge in the world.

Chinese classifications for architecture include:

亭 (Chinese: 亭; pinyin: Tíng) ting (Chinese pavilions)

臺 (simplified Chinese: 台; traditional Chinese: 臺; pinyin: Taí) tai
(terraces)
樓 (simplified Chinese: 楼; traditional Chinese: 樓; pinyin: Lóu) lou
(multistory buildings)
閣 (simplified Chinese: 阁; traditional Chinese: 閣; pinyin: Gé) ge
(two-story pavilions)
軒 (轩) xuan (verandas with windows)
塔 ta (Chinese pagodas)
榭 xie (pavilions or houses on terraces)
屋 wu (Rooms along roofed corridors)
斗拱 (Chinese: ⽃拱; pinyin: Dǒugǒng) dougong interlocking
wooden brackets, often used in clusters to support roofs and add
ornamentation.
藻井 Caisson domed or coffered ceiling
宮 (simplified Chinese: 宫; traditional Chinese: 宮; pinyin: Gōng)
palaces, larger buildings used as imperial residences, temples, or
centers for cultural activities.

Miniature models
Main article: Science and technology of the Han dynasty § Structural
engineering

Although mostly only ruins of brick and rammed earth walls and towers
from ancient China (i.e. before the 6th century AD) survive, information
on ancient Chinese architecture (especially wooden architecture) can
:
 be discerned from clay models of buildings created as funerary items.
This is similar to the paper joss houses burned in some modern
Chinese funerals. The following models were made during the Han
dynasty (202 BC – AD 220):

A pottery palace from the Han dynasty (202 BC – AD 220)

Two residential towers joined by a bridge, pottery miniature, Han

dynasty (202 BC – AD 220)

A pottery tower from the Han dynasty (202 BC – AD 220)

:
 A ceramic model of a house with a courtyard, from the Han
dynasty (202 BC – AD 220)

A pottery gristmill from the Han dynasty (202 BC – AD 220)

A pottery tower from the Han dynasty (202 BC – AD 220)

A pottery model of a well from the Han dynasty (202 BC – AD 220)

During the Jin dynasty (266–420) and the Six Dynasties, miniature
models of buildings or entire architectural ensembles were often made
to decorate the tops of the so-called "soul vases" (hunping), found in
many tombs of that period.[50]

Culture
Beyond China's physically creative architecture techniques lies an
:
 "imaginary architecture".[51] This imaginary architecture reflected three
major principles that carry messages about the relations between
inhabitants, society, and the cosmos, and that depict gender power
imbalances.[51]

Confucius

The first design principle was that the Chinese house was the
embodiment of Neo-Confucian values. These collaborative values were
loyalty, respect, and service. They were depicted through
representations of generations, gender, and age. Unlike western
homes, the Chinese home was not a private space or a place separated
from the state. It was a community in itself that sheltered a patrilineal
kinship clan. It was quite common for houses to shelter "five
generations under one roof."[51] Social concepts reflected the Five
Relationships between "ruler and subject, father and child, husband
and wife, elder and younger brother and friends."[51] The unequal
relationship between the superior and subordinate in these
relationships was emphasized. The relationship between husband and
wife was patriarchal. The husband was required to treat the spouse
with kindness, consideration, and understanding.

Cosmic space

The Chinese house was a cosmic space. The house was designed as a
shelter to foil evil influences by channeling cosmic energies (qi) by
respecting feng shui. Depending on the season, astral cycle,
landscape, and the house's design, orientation, and architectural
details, some amount of energy would be produced. However, cosmic
energy could be used in both moral and immoral ways. The moral way
:
 is by adding feng shui to a local community temple. Feng shui could
also be used competitively to raise the value of one's house at the
expense of others. For example, if someone built part of their house
against the norm, their house could be considered a threat, because it
was recklessly throwing off cosmic energy. In one detailed account, a
fight broke out over feng shui.[52]

Feng shui was also incorporated inside the home. Symmetry,

orientations, arrangements of objects, and cleanliness were important
factors to direct cosmic energy. Even in poorer homes cleanliness and
tidiness were highly desired to compensate for the lack of space.
Sweeping was a daily task that was thought to be a purifying act.
Chinese historian Sima Guang writes, "The servants of the inner and
outer quarters and the concubines all rise at the first crow of the cock.
After combing their hair, washing, and getting dressed, the male
servants should sweep the halls and front courtyard; the doorman and
older servants should sweep the middle courtyard, while the maids
sweep the living quarters, arrange tables and chairs, and prepare for
the toilet of the master and mistress." The task of cleaning further
illustrates, the gender segregation of the Chinese household.[51]

Culture

The house was a space of culture that depicted the Chinese view of
humanity. The house was a domestic domain, separated from the
undomesticated world. The separation was commonly realized through
walls and gates. Gates were first a physical barrier and second a notice
board.

The home was where family rules could be enforced, dividing the
upbringing of the inhabitants.
:
 Women were often hidden away within the inner walls to perform
domestic duties, while men would freely interact with the outside.

While brides entered an unknown and potentially hostile environment,

the husband "never had to leave his parents or his home, he knew
which lineage and which landscape he belonged to from the time he
began to understand the world."[51] New brides were typically treated
badly by senior household members. Junior brides might be treated
like unpaid servants and forced to do unpleasant chores. Bray
characterized marriage as the bride's descent into hell. "The analogy of
the wedding process with death is made explicit: the bride describes
herself as being prepared for death, and the wedding process as the
crossing of the yellow river that is the boundary between this life and
the next. She appeals for justice, citing the valuable and unrecognized
contribution she has made to her family. Her language is bitter and
unrestrained, and she even curses the matchmaker and her future
husband's family. Such lamenting can take place only within her
parents' household and must cease halfway on the road to her new
home, when the invisible boundary has been crossed."[51] Women were
fully accepted into a new home only after bearing a child.

The confinement of women was also a method of controlling their

sexual lives. Confinement was used to prevent impregnation by an
outsider who might thereby claim a slice of the family's wealth. Bray
claimed that wives were often represented as "gossiping troublemakers
eager to stir up strife between otherwise devoted brothers, the root of
family discord, requiring strict patriarchal control."[51]

Husbands and wives did not stay in the same private room for long
periods. During the day, men would go out or work in their studies,
avoiding unnecessary contact with female relatives. Women were
:
 generally confined to the inner perimeter. When leaving the inner
perimeter, they must cover their face with a veil or a sleeve. Conversely,
men were not usually permitted to enter the inner perimeter, providing
women some control over their daily experience.

Influence from outside of China

Some Chinese mosques architecture received influence from abroad,
particularly during dynasties such as the Yuan and Qing, which were
more outward-facing.[53]The arrival of many Muslim officials, architects
and scholars from the Islamic world during the Yuan dynasty led to an
influx of Islamic elements, especially in Chinese mosques.[54]

The Zhenghai Mosque in Ningbo is an example of Islamic architecture

that appeared in China during the Song dynasty. When Arabic traders
settled in Ningbo, they spread Muslim culture and built a mosque.
Later, mosques were built around Beijing.[55][56] The mosques of Xi'an
such as Xi'an Great Mosque and Daxuexi Alley Mosque reflected similar
influences.[57] Beijing's mosques follow essentially the norms of
Chinese layout, design, and traditional wooden structure.[57][58][59][60]

Many miniature pagodas exist in Northeast China. They were built by

Buddhists during the Liao dynasty (907–1125), which supported
Buddhism. They developed Buddhist architecture that used bricks.
Many such pagodas spread from Hebei Province to Beijing and Inner
Mongolia.[61]

Influence beyond China

:
 Gate detail at the Green Palace, in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia contains Chinese architectural influences.

Chinese architecture has influenced the architecture of many other

East Asian countries. During the Tang dynasty, much Chinese culture
was imported by neighboring nations. Chinese architecture had a major
influence on the architectural styles of Japan, Korea, Mongolia, and
Vietnam where the East Asian hip-and-gable roof design is ubiquitous.
[2][38][1]

Chinese architecture influenced the architecture of various Southeast

Asian countries. Chinese architectural elements were adopted by Thai
artisans after trade commenced with the Yuan and Ming dynasties.
Temple and palace roof tops adopted Chinese-style. Chinese-style
buildings can be found in Ayutthaya, a nod towards the many Chinese
shipbuilders, sailors and traders who came to the country.[7] In
Indonesia, mosques bearing Chinese influence can be found. This
influence is recent in comparison to other parts of Asia and is largely
due to the Chinese Indonesian community.[3]

In South Asia, Chinese architecture played a significant role in shaping

Sri Lankan architecture, alongside influences from other parts of
Southeast Asia.[4][6] The Kandyan roof style, for example bears many
similarities to the East Asian hip-and-gable roof technique.[62]

The Chinese-origin guardian lion is also found in front of Buddhist

temples, buildings and some Hindu temples (in Nepal) across Asia
:
 including Japan, Korea, Thailand, Myanmar, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Nepal,
Cambodia and Laos.[63]

Regional variation
Chinese architecture varied across regions. Several of the more notable
regional styles include:

Hui Style architecture

Main article: Hui Style architecture

Shanxi architecture

Main article: Shanxi architecture

Shanxi preserves the oldest wooden structures in China from Tang

dynasty, including the Foguang Temple and Nanchan Temple. Yungang
Grottoes in Datong and numerous Buddhist temples in the sacred
Mount Wutai exemplify Chinese religious architecture. Shanxi family
compounds are representative of vernacular architecture in North
China. In the mountainous areas of Shanxi, yaodong is a type of earth
shelter that is commonly found.

Yungang Grottoes (云冈石窟), Datong (大同), China.

:
 Temples in Mount Wutai (五台山)

The Grand East Hall of the Foguang Temple (佛光寺东大殿), in

Mount Wutai

Birdview of the Zunsheng Temple (尊胜寺) in Mount Wutai

Goddess Temple of Jinci (晋祠圣母殿), Taiyuan

:
 Pingyao (平遥) City Wall

A market street in Pingyao ancient city

Wang Family Compound (王家大院), in Lingshi

Qiao Family Compound (乔家大院), Jingyi Court in Qi County

:
 Chang Family Studies, Yuci

Yaodong (窑洞) in Lingshi ( 石) County, Shanxi

Lingnan (Cantonese) architecture

Main article: Cantonese architecture

Classical Lingnan architecture is used primarily in Guangdong and the

eastern half of Guangxi. It is noted for its use of carvings and
sculptures for decorations, green brick, balconies, "Cold alleys",
"Narrow doors", and many other characteristics adaptive to the
subtropical region.

The Ho Ancestral Hall in Panyu, Guangzhou; Built in 14th century,

it utilizes manner door – a second door behind the main one,
which is related to Cantonese Feng shui culture.
:
 Chan Clan Academy in Guangzhou is often cited as a
representative example of Lingnan architecture.

A cold alley in Chan Clan Academy; A "Narrow Door" leads to the

next alley.

A monument in honor of the Cantonese folk hero Wong Fei-hung,

in Foshan.

Most Hongkongese are of Cantonese origin. Thus, Hong Kong

naturally has a lot of buildings of classical Lingnan style. Pictured
is a Mazu temple in Shek Pai Wan, Hong Kong.
:
 Minnan (Hokkien) architecture

Main article: Hokkien architecture

Minnan architecture, or Hokkien architecture, refers to the architectural

style of the Hoklo people, the Han Chinese group who are the dominant
demographic of Southern Fujian and Taiwan. This style is noted for its
use of swallowtail roofs (heavily decorated upward-curving roof ridges)
and "cut porcelain carving" for decorations.[64] The swallowtail roof is a
signature of Hokkien architecture, commonly used for religious
buildings like shrines and temples, but also in dwellings. Hokkien
architecture is dominated by decorations from carvings of natural
elements like plants and animals, or figures from Chinese mythology.
[65]

Nanputuo Temple, Xiamen

Cut porcelain carving decorations above the main door of Nanfeng

Ancestral Temple.
:
 A Mazu temple in Chiayi City, Taiwan.

A shrine for Tudigong, a Taoist earth deity, in Kaohsiung, Taiwan; It

is an example of a less garish swallowtail roof.

Front entrance of Thian Hock Keng Temple, Singapore.

Teochew architecture

Teochew architectural is the architectural style of the Teochew people,

who come from the Chaoshan region of Guangdong province. Teochew
architecture is categorised by its "curly grass roofs" (with the ridges
curving into a loop) and wood carvings, and share the "cut porcelain
carving" tradition with the closely related Hokkien people.
:
 Kaiyuan Temple, Chaozhou

Mazu temple in Dahao

Wood carvings on an ancestral temple in Chaozhou

Wat Mangkon Kamalawat, a Teochew-style Temple in Bangkok

Chinatown; most Thai-Chinese are of Teochew descent

Yueh Hai Ching Temple, Singapore's oldest Teochew temple

:
 Hakka architecture

Main article: Hakka architecture

Hakka people are noted for building distinctive walled villages in order
to protect themselves from clan wars.
:
 Gan architecture

Main article: Architecture of Jiangxi

The Gan Chinese-speaking province of Jiangxi makes use of bricks,

wood, and stones as materials, primarily using wooden frames.

Confucian academy in Fuzhou

Jiangxi's indigenous architecture – Liukeng village.

:
 A "Pai tau uk" ( 頭屋) in Nanchang, Jiangxi.

A residence in Jinxi county, Fuzhou.

Sui architecture

Mullioned windows on Leiyindong, a cave in Sui

During the Sui period in the 7th century, structures were carved in the
Hebei mountains. These structures had a quadrilateral ground plan with
intent for a cubic interior. Pillars inside would be octagonal. Another
feature included mullioned windows. Plus, there were anterooms, which
were small Buddhist caves.[28]
:
 Architecture of Sui Cave

Yaodong architecture

Main article: Yaodong

The Jin Chinese cultural area of Shanxi and northern Shaanxi is noted
for carving homes into the sides of mountains. The soft rock of the
Loess Plateau in this region makes an excellent insulating material.
:
 Tibetan architecture

Main article: Architecture in Tibet

Xinjiang architecture

Early architecture

Early Xinjiang architecture was influenced by Buddhist, Manichaean,

Sogdian, Uyghur and Chinese cultural groups, most prominent
examples including the cave temples of Bezeklik; religious and
residential buildings at Jiahoe; and temples and shrines at Gaochang.
[66]
:
 Islamic architecture

The first Muslims came to Xinjiang in the eighth or ninth centuries CE,
yet only became a significant presence during the Yuan dynasty.

Islam came to Hami province in eastern Xinjiang at the end of the

fourteenth century, and the province's first mosque was built in 1490,
with ten generations of Muslim kings of Hami buried in the complex
from the 1690s to 1932. The mausoleum complex of Hami was built in
1840 – the tomb of King Boxi'er is the complex's most prominent
feature, having been constructed after the Muslim rebellion of 1867.[66]

The mud-brick Emin Minaret (or Sugongta) in Turpan province is 44

metres (144 ft) tall is the tallest minaret in China. The tower is
decorated with sixteen patterns on the exterior, with textured bricks
carved into intricate, repetitive, geometric and floral mosaic patterns,
such as stylized flowers and rhombuses. The minaret was started in
1777 during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor (r. 1735–1796) and was
completed only one year later.

Emin Minaret
:
 Emin Minaret (detail)

Bezeklik Caves

Gaochang

Mosque in Hami's Muslim District, Xinjiang, China, 1875

Mausoleum of King Box'ier in Hami, constructed 1867-68

Others

Other regional styles include Hutong, found in northern China,

Longtang and Shikumen of Haipai (Shanghainese) architecture.
:
 Entrance to a residence in a hutong.

Shikumen in Xintiandi lanes in Shanghai.

Great Wall of Qi in Shandong.

Du Fu Thatched Cottage in Sichuan.

Jinci in the Jin Chinese-speaking province of Shanxi.

:
 See also

Architecture portal

Ancient Chinese wooden China portal

architecture
Architecture of the Song
dynasty Taiwan portal
Architecture of Hong Kong
Hutong
Architecture of Penang
Imperial roof decoration
Chinese garden
Imperial guardian lions
Chinese pagodas
Shanghai – for a gallery of modern
Caihua
buildings
Feng Shui
Shikumen
Siheyuan
Walled villages of Hong Kong
Yu Hao

References
Further reading edit
External links edit
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