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Lichenologist Mappingofammonia
Lichenologist Mappingofammonia
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C. M. van HERK*
Introduction
Since the 1950s lichens have often been used to map sulphur dioxide (SO2) air
pollution in the Netherlands (Barkman 1958; de Wit 1976). During recent
decades a progressive recovery of species sensitive to SO2 took place (van
Dobben 1993), due presumably to the falling levels of SO2. Now there are
several records of species that had not been seen for nearly a century (van Herk
& Aptroot 1996). There are even species new to science that were absent
before (Aptroot & van Herk 1998).
Some changes, however, do not fit within the spatial patterns and temporal
changes in SO2. In the course often years a spectacular increase in nitrophytic
species has taken place in all parts of the country with a high cattle density (van
der Knaap 1984; de Bakker 1987; van Dijk 1988). In these areas the trees
have become covered with such species as Phaeophyscia orbicularis, Physcia
adscendens and Xanthoria parietina. This phenomenon is especially apparent
on trees with acid bark {Quercus, Fagus), on which nitrophytes were absent or
scarce before. In the same period several acidophytes, for example Evernia
prunastri, Hypogymnia physodes, Lecanora conizaeoides and Pseudevernia furfura-
cea rapidly decreased (van Dijk 1988; van Herk 1990). A large number of
stations formerly covered with these species are now totally devoid of them.
Outside the areas with intensive cattle breeding these changes are less
significant.
Air pollution with ammonia (NH3) is considered to be the most important
cause of these changes. In the Netherlands the correlation between ammonia
and lichens has been studied repeatedly. Correlations are reported by de
Bakker & van Dobben (1988), van Dijk (1988), de Bakker (1989), Aptroot
(1989), van Herk (e.g. 1990, 1991, 1993, 1995, 1996), van Dobben (e.g.
1991, 1993) and van Dobben & Wamelink (1992). In Belgium (Vlaanderen)
*Lichenologisch Onderzoekbureau Nederland, Goudvink 47, NL-3766 WK Soest, The
Netherlands.
0024-2829/99/010009+12 S30.00/0 © 1999 The British Lichen Society
10 THE LICHENOLOGIST Vol. 31
the effects of ammonia have been studied by Hoffmann (1993). In Great
Britain effects of intensive cattle breeding have been reported from Devon
(Benfield 1994).
Field observations show a clear relationship between the distance from a
livestock farm and the abundance of nitrophytes on trees (Fig. 1A-C). Some
of the species are more dominant, whereas other species are present only in
small quantities in the immediate surroundings of the farms, for example
Phaeophyscia nigricans, Candelariella aurella and Caloplaca holocarpa (Fig. 2).
Very polluted sites show a striking resemblance to epilithic vegetation of
calcareous substrata such as concrete. Even Candelariella medians and
Caloplaca decipiens have been found at such stations on trees.
The transition zone surrounding a livestock farm is usually more or less
compressed at the west side and a little elongated at the east side, indicating
that westerly winds are more frequent. The effects are definitely not caused
only by slurry. Even in woods small branches at the tops of trees are now
covered with Physcia tenella and Xanthoria polycarpa.
The atmospheric behaviour of ammonia supplies an explanation for the
close transitions. At 100 m distance from a source, c. 10% of the ammonia is
deposited and at 1000 m this is c. 20% (Asman & van Jaarsveld 1990a).
However, the greater part of the ammonia disappears into the atmosphere
close to the source so gradients of ammonia concentrations may be abrupt at
ground level.
Until 1980 epiphytic nitrophytes on acid bark were largely confined to
farmyards, present in small quantities on trees surrounding dunghills. There
was no indication that gaseous ammonia was important for their occurrence,
only the direct influence of dung was apparent. At the end of the 1970s most
of the farmers switched over from a heavy solid straw-mixed product to liquid
manure. This switch might be an important cause of the observed changes, as
already suggested by Benfield (1994).
A few studies on bark chemistry demonstrate that the effects of ammonia on
nitrophytes are not primarily caused by the increased availability of nitrogen
(de Bakker & van Dobben 1988; van Herk 1990). More important is the rise
in bark pH, caused by the adsorption of NH 3 . In areas with a high cattle
density the pH of the Common Oak (Quercus robur), normally c. pH 4-5, can
rise to c. 6-5. At pH 6-5 most acidophytes are replaced by nitrophytes. The
term, ' nitrophytic ' assumes that such species require some form of nitrogen.
However, a high pH seems to be a more direct reason for their occurrence. A
better name should be ' neutrophytic ' but this name is already used for
another ecological group. Real neutrophytic lichens (indifferent species), for
example most Parmelia and Ramalina species seem not to be affected
significantly by ammonia, although a slight positive reaction on ammonia
might be possible.
The Netherlands is one of the most polluted parts of Europe with respect to
ammonia. Ammonia is especially a huge problem in regions with acid sandy
soils. In large areas of the Netherlands the emission values exceed 10 000 kg
NH 3 km ~ 2 year ~ * (Asman & van Jaarsveld 1990a). Surprisingly ammonia
contributes to about 45% of the total acidification in the Netherlands.
Although ammonia is not acid in itself, nitrification transforms most of the
vO
>
o
p
r-t
5'
3
3'
S-
S3
* NIW 4-5 * NIW 1-2
•NIW 3-4 * NIW 0-1 a
• NIW 2-3
j g
with oaks B hedge s
with oaks
FIG. 1. Spatial patterns in a hypothetical area with four livestock farms. A. Topography; B. Quantity of nitrophytes (NIW) on trees (all
Quercus robur); C. Reconstruction of ammonia pollution isolines based on nitrophytes.
Physcia tenella
Xanthoria polycarpa
Physcia adscendens Si
Xanthoria candelaria
Xanthoria parietina
n
Candelariella vitellina Xw
Lecanora dispersa (incl. L. hageni)
Phaeophyscia orbicularis Z
o
Candelariella reflexa 5
Physcia caesia
Physcia dubia o
I—I
Caloplaca holocarpa
H
Candelariella aurella
Phaeophyscia nigricans
Rinodina gennarii T T T T
so
o
I—I
isolines 2.0 6.0 10.0 14.0 18.0 isolines 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Fro. 3. A m m on,a (A) and ammonium (B) ah' concentrate in the Netherlands in 1988 ( , g m >) [source: National Institute of Public
Health and Environmental Protection (RIVM)]. <
O
1999 Ammonia pollution in the Netherlands—van Herk 15
• I 0.0-0.4
• i 0.5-1 4
[_1I] 1.5-2.9
• • 3.0-4.9
• • 5.0 - 6.9
• • 7.0 - 9.9
2 10
•B
^ P | Built-up areas
I ! No dala
FIG. 4. Ammonia pollution in the Netherlands derived from the abundance of nitrophytes on
Quercus robur (NIW).
dioxide air concentration, the structure of the landscape, distance from livestock farms, distance
from maize fields, the girth of the trees, and the geographical position in the Netherlands.
Results
Table 1 allows comparison of Quercus robur and Populus x canadensis for
their abundance of nitrophytes. Both tree species yield no nitrophytes
when the deposition values do not exceed, respectively, 1000 and
500 mol ha~ l year' '. Furthermore, with both tree species there is a good
dose-response relationship and the explained variance is sufficient.
There was insufficient data from Fraxinus excelsior, Salix, Tilia and Ulmus
species. The dose-response relationship of Fraxinus and Salix is acceptable,
but the explained variance is only small, which means that factors other than
ammonia might dominate the results. Tilia and Ulmus do not show a
dose-response relationship at all.
16 THE LICHENOLOGIST Vol. 31
TABLE 1. Calculated linear regressions for the abundance of nitrophytes (NIW) on Quercus robur and
Populus x canadensis against ammonia (NHJ deposition values (after van Herk 1996)*
*Dependent variables: Nitrofiele Indicatie Waarde with Quercus robur (NIW Qu ) and Nitrofiele
Indicatie Waarde with Populus x canadensis (NIW Po ). Independent variable: ammonia deposition
values (molha " ' y e a r ')•
TABLE 2. Multiple regression with the abundance of nitrophytes on Quercus robur (NIW) as dependent
variable and nine other parameters as independent variables (after van Herk 1995)*
*A total of 2349 sampling sites throughout the Netherlands were analysed. A variable enters the
model when F-Enter is at least 4-00 (corresponds to /><0-05). The contribution of the variables
on the left-hand side ('in model') is significant (.P<0-05). No significant contribution to the
model could be proved for the variables on the right-hand side (' not in model'). Dependent
variable = Nitrofiele Indicatie Waarde (NIW). Explained variance = 47-l%, degrees of free-
dom = 2342.
^Explanation of variables:
ammonia = mean ammonia (NH 3 ) air concentration per 5 x 5 km 2 (ug . m~ 3 ) [taken from the
National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection (RIVM)];
ammonium = mean ammonium (NH 4 + ) air concentration per 5 x 5 km 2 (|ig . m~ 3 ) (taken from
RIVM);
girth 0/wees=girth of the sampled trees (dm);
landscape-1 roughness ' of the landscape, parameter to express to what rate the landscape causes
turbulence and dilution (taken from RIVM);
maize fields=presence of maize fields in the surroundings (—m distance);
livestock farms=presence of livestock farms in the surroundings (—m distance);
sulphur dioxide=mean SO 2 air concentration per 5 x 5 km 2 (n . m~ 3 ) (taken from RIVM);
X-co-ordinate/Y-co-ordinate=^West-Rast/l>lorth-So\ith position in the Netherlands.
I am grateful to Dr A. Aptroot and L. Spier for discussions on this subject and useful comments
on the manuscript. Furthermore, I am grateful to the provincial administrations of Groningen,
Friesland, Drenthe, Overijssel, Gelderland, Utrecht and Noord-Brabant for making this research
possible and giving me the opportunity to publish this paper.
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