1G (1st Generation):

• First-time calling was introduced in mobile systems.

• It used analog signals.
• It used an FDD (available frequency band is divided into sub
bands) scheme and typically allocated a bandwidth of 25 Mhz.
• The coverage area was small.
• No roaming support between various operators.
• Low sound quality.
 • Speed:- 2.4 kbps.

2G (2nd Generation) :

• Shifted from analog to digital.

• It supported voice and SMS both.
• Moderate mobile data service.
• 2G WLAN provided a high data rate & large area coverage.
• Speed:- 64 kbps.
• Known as GSM(Global System for Mobile Communication)
• Used to encode voice and other information digitally before
transmitting them
• Uses CDMA AND TDMA

2.5G came after 2G which used the concept of GPRS. Streaming was also
introduced and mail services too.

Then came 2.75G or EDGE which was faster in providing services than
2.5G. It gave faster internet speed up to 128kbps and also used edge
connection.

3G-
• The Internet system was improved.
• Better system and capacity.
• Offers high-speed wireless internet.
• The connection used was UMTS (Universal Mobile
Telecommunications Service) and WCMA are both
telecommunications standards.
• Speed:- 2mbps.
• Uses Packet switching technology to reduce call cost.

4G (4th Generation) :
• IP-based protocols.
• LTE (Long term evaluation) was mainly for the internet.
 • Vo-LTE (Voice over LTE) is for both voice and the internet.
• Freedom and flexibility to select any desired service with
reasonable QoS.
• High usability.
• Supports multimedia service at a low transmission cost.
• HD Quality Streaming.
• Speed:-100mbps.

5G (5th Generation):
It is yet to come in many countries but here are some notable points about
5G.
• Higher data rates.
• Connectivity will be more fast and more secure,
• Data Latency will be reduced to a great level.
• Massive network capacity.
• It is 30 times faster than 4G.
• There would be more flexibility in the network.

Explain the shape of cell in cellular system with reason

In a cellular system, the shape of a cell is typically hexagonal. This hexagonal shape is
chosen due to its efficiency in providing coverage and minimizing interference
between adjacent cells.

Uniform Coverage: Hexagons can fit together without leaving any gaps. This
property ensures that the entire coverage area is efficiently utilized without any
overlap or dead spots, providing uniform coverage throughout the service area.

Equal Distance to Neighbouring Cells: In a hexagonal grid, each cell is

equidistant from its neighbouring cells. This uniformity helps in maintaining
consistent signal strength and quality across the entire coverage area.

Interference Minimization: Hexagonal cells minimize interference between

adjacent cells. This is because the distance from the centre of one cell to the
centre of its neighbouring cells is maximized in a hexagonal grid compared
to other regular polygonal shapes like squares or triangles.

Frequency Reuse
Frequency reuse is a fundamental concept in mobile computing and cellular networks
that refers to the practice of using the same frequency channels in different cells within
the network.

1. Fixed Frequency Reuse: In fixed frequency reuse, a predetermined

pattern or scheme is used to allocate frequency channels to cells in
a consistent manner across the entire network. This pattern typically
involves dividing the coverage area into clusters, with each cluster
containing a set of cells that are assigned the same set of
frequencies. The cells within each cluster are separated by a
sufficient distance to minimize interference.

2. Dynamic Frequency Reuse: Dynamic frequency reuse is a more

flexible approach where frequency allocation can be dynamically
adjusted based on real-time network conditions and traffic demand.
Mobile Switching Centre (MSC): The MSC is the central component of the NSS. It
handles call switching, routing, and signalling between mobile stations and external
networks, such as the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) or other mobile
networks.
Home Location Register (HLR): The HLR is a database that stores subscriber
information, including subscriber profiles, location information, and authentication
keys. It is used by the MSC for call routing and subscriber management.
Visitor Location Register (VLR): The VLR is a temporary database that stores
information about subscribers currently located within the coverage area of a particular
MSC. It allows for efficient call routing and handover between cells
Authentication Centre (AUC): The AUC is responsible for authentication and
encryption within the GSM network. It stores authentication keys and algorithms used
to verify the identity of subscribers and protect the confidentiality of their
communications.
Equipment Identity Register (EIR): The EIR is a database that stores information about
mobile devices, such as their International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) numbers. It
is used for tracking stolen or unauthorized devices and preventing their use on the
network