AQ2001 revision

Topic 1
Aquaculture - farming + intervention + ownership

Topic 2 Types of aquaculture

Extensive
⁃ Self supporting, food chain
⁃ High energy loss
⁃ Low yield/unit area
⁃ Reliability in market driven by environment
⁃ High productivity area preferred

Semi intensive
⁃ Formulated feed

Intensive
⁃ High food input
⁃ High density
⁃ High maintenance and control
⁃ High investment and operational costs

Super intensive
⁃ Recirculating tech
⁃ Highly managed culture environment

Open
⁃ Confined and protected
⁃ Lower initial and running cost
⁃ Less management (ambiguous ownership)

Semi closed
⁃ Regulation of water quality
⁃ Regulation of feed
⁃ Infrastructure: land purchase, pumps, consumables
⁃ High management
⁃ High density

Closed
⁃ Isolated from environment
⁃ Little water exchange
⁃ Recirculating heavily treated
⁃ Rigorous control of parameters
Why is the timing of stocking of aquaculture species into extensive systems
critical for production success?
Must coincide with natural food sources

Compare the advantages and disadvantages of monoculture & polyculture

Advantages monoculture: permits good control of sex age and size of crop
Disadvantages monoculture: no diversified income, population crash leads to
entire loss of stock
Advantages polyculture: diversified income, higher yield, save resources
Disadvantages polyculture:

How to differentiate between aquaculture systems?

Extensive: self-supporting, long complex food chains and ecosystem processes
at play, high energy losses, low yields/unit area (low stocking density)
Semi intensive: not self-supporting, formulated feed, low energy loss, high
yields per unit area
Intensive: high food input, high stocking density, high maintenance, high level
of control, high investment, and operational costs.
Super intensive: usually land based, recirculating technology, highly managed
culture environment, potential for extremely high yields/ unit area
(50-300kg/1000L)

What are some key differences between extensive and intensive aquaculture
Extensive: self-supporting, long complex food chains and ecosystem processes
at play, high energy losses, low yields/unit area (low stocking density)
Intensive: high food input, high stocking density, high maintenance, high level
of control, high investment and operational costs.

Extensive aquaculture produces high yield per area. T/F

False

Extensive open: giant clam aquaculture

extensive semi closed: white legged shrimp in ponds stocked at 300kg per
hectare
semi-intensive semi closed: tilapia stocked at 3000kg per hectare
intensive open: salmon in sea cages
Super-intensive closed: barramundi hatchery

Top 3 global aquaculture commodities by value: finfish, algae, crustaceans

Extensive aquaculture systems rely on access to low cost land (or other
physical footprint) and/or water. T/F
True

Reasons for operating a closed aquaculture system include

Improved resilience from adverse environmental/ weather events
Improved biosecurity
Reduced risk of culture species escape
Improved control over culture conditions
Improved ability to contain effluents reduce environmental impact of
production on natural surrounding ecosystems

Open aquaculture systems are highly susceptible to

Biofouling of structures
Attack by predators
Theft of stock

Characteristics of extensive aquaculture systems include

Low density of stock
High access to natural feeds
High energy losses to reach target species harvest

The production of molluscs by aquaculture has advantages over other species

because
Spat can be captured at a rate that are economically sustainable as an
alternative to hatchery production
Filter feeders don’t require production of feed by the aquaculturist

Integrated polyculture system allows for

Diversification of income
Improved resilience to market fluctuation

Zooplankton are important for larval rearing of aquaculture species because

When they first hatch, larval species must eat live feed

Aquaculture proposed as an important form of protein as

Lower FCR than traditional terrestrial agriculture production
All animal hatchery systems require the production of live feeds which are not
required in other phases of aquaculture production

Aquaculture in temperature zones are typically high value lower volume

production systems. T/F
True

Which of the 3 animals listed below have the highest volume of production in
tropical aquaculture
Carp, white-legged and tilapia

Super intensive aquaculture systems operate with very high density and
require the farmer to maintain multiple ecological networks to maintain the
density of feed and manage water quality. T/F
True

Intensive aquaculture is characterised by

High density of stock
Low access to natural feeds
High input of formulated feeds

Topic 3 Phases of production

Hatchery
⁃ Broodstock + larval rearing

Require knowledge
⁃ Broodstock maturation and conditions
⁃ Spawning behaviour
⁃ Egg collection, hatching and larval biological tolerance
⁃ Larval rearing

Spawning in captivity
⁃ Photoperiod
⁃ Temperature
⁃ Water volume
⁃ Density of individuals

Larval rearing
⁃ Live feed
⁃ Immunity
⁃ High nutrient load
⁃ High sensitivity to environment change
⁃ Parental protection
⁃ Change in nutrient needs
⁃ Change in water conditions

Nursery: high density weaned individuals controlled conditions prior to grow out
⁃ Reduce disease risk
⁃ Wider range of feed
⁃ Lesser control of environment

Grow out
⁃ Highest biomass
⁃ Highest investment and economic risk
⁃ Longest phase
⁃ Disease management
⁃ Genetic selection and domestication

Procedural related factors to induce spawning in captivity

Type of hormone
Hormone dosage
Hormone preparation and storage
Fish handling
Fish injection techniques
Sterile needles, syringes and saline water

Environment related factors to induce spawning in captivity

Water quality
Photoperiod
Tanksize
Water volume
Water flow rate
Stocking density
Spawning substrate

Fish related factors to induce spawning in captivity

Sexual maturity
Nutrition
Health
What are some examples of water conditions that affect spawning/ life cycles
Changes in salinity
Increases in water volume and exchange (flooding)
Increases in flow rate

What are the 3 phases of production

hatchery, nursery, grow out

Topic 4 Hatcheries

Hatcheries
⁃ Water filtration and treatment
⁃ Holding and conditioning broodstock
⁃ Dedicated spawning area
⁃ Dedicated food production
⁃ Dedicated larval rearing and hatching
⁃ Area for early nursery culture
⁃ Ready water source

Broodstock essentials
⁃ Adequate number for mating behaviour
⁃ Genetic variation
⁃ Sex determination
⁃ Mimic environmental conditions
⁃ Maturation diet -> maturation and fecundity
⁃ Hormone for spawning
⁃ Pathogen control

Broodstock nutrition
⁃ Macro: protein(most abundant) lipid carbo
⁃ Micro: vit (A C E carotene impact larval survival and hatch rate) , mineral

Method of spawning induction

⁃ Fish: chemical, hormone, physical stripping
⁃ Bivalve: physical shock, chemical, physical stripping
⁃ Crus: abaltion

Advantages w hatchery
⁃ Control of production
⁃ Better control over disease
⁃ Genetic improvement of stock
Problems w wild
⁃ Unreliable source of culture stock
⁃ Little control over disease
⁃ Pressure on natural stock, competition with fishermen
⁃ No control over supply times to market

Food production area

⁃ Algal culture
⁃ Zooplankton
⁃ Artemia

Larval rearing
⁃ Clear/ green water
⁃ Aeration
⁃ Waste drainage
⁃ Cone shape tank

Hatchery hygiene
⁃ Limit access to feed area
⁃ Distance betw broodstock and larval area

Nursery phase
⁃ Cannibalism
⁃ Mucous increase due to stress -> fish stuck together

Ideal hatchery criteria

⁃ Low silt water intake
⁃ Suitable temp
⁃ No industrial, urban agriculture
⁃ Located close to market
⁃ Close to broodstock

Water treatment
⁃ Filtration
⁃ Heating
⁃ UV
⁃ Ozone
⁃ Chemicals

Why does micro algae play a central role in hatchery nutrition

Microalgae is an important food source for fish and crustacean larva and
mollusc all life stages.
Rich in essential and non-essential amino acids, essential fatty acids, pigments
and other nutrients and trace minerals
List problems that would occur if Artemia is not decapsulated
The procedure disinfects cysts, eliminating bacteria. No shells = no risk stuck in
digestive tract and kill larvae

List at least three methods of spawning induction (+type of animal each

method is used for)
Bivalves: physical stress/shock (temperature)
Fish: chemical induction (final maturation of eggs and spawning), hormone
injection/ pellet, physical stripping of gametes
Crustaceans: ablation

Some aquaculture sectors have a wild collection of stock rather than a

hatchery phase. Which of the below sectors use wild collection to source
juvenile stock for grow out
Oysters
Bluefin tuna
Western rock lobster

Which of the below are water treatment processes that are required for
hatchery systems
UV
Heating
Filtration

Which of the below are a problem with wild collection of stock rather than a
hatchery production phase
Little control over disease
Unreliability of stock and numbers
Pressures the natural recruitment of fisheries stock

The hatchery phase of production is an important requirements to enable

selection of strains with characteristics for aquaculture T/F
True

Which of the following are qualitative traits for aquaculture species

Flesh firmness and quality
Easily weaned
Lack of aggression
Which of the following are important criteria for hatchery site selection
Low silt in intake water
Distanced from other industrial and agricultural activity
Close to market

Which of the following are quantitative traits for aquaculture species

% survival
Fecundity
FCR

Which of the following areas are required within a hatchery operation

Water treatment system
Reliable suitable water
Larval rearing area
Food production area
Dedicated spawning equipment
Broodstock holding tanks

Topic 5 Grow out

Grow out requirements

⁃ Ready source of water
⁃ Biosecurity and health
⁃ Adequate diet formulation
⁃ Feed storage
⁃ Cleaning and removal of biofouling
⁃ Access to market
⁃ Harvest and processing tech

All grow out must be economically sustainable, environment and socially. FCR, %
survival, DGR

Pond production
⁃ Source water
⁃ Storage pond
⁃ Delivery Canal
⁃ Production pond
⁃ Pond outlet
⁃ Drainage canal
⁃ Effluent pond
Tank
⁃ Recirculating flow thru
⁃ Expensive infrastructure
⁃ Intensive - super intensive
⁃ Formulated feed
⁃ Water management
⁃ Flexible
⁃ Adaptable for other phase

Advantages of tank
⁃ Cleaning
⁃ Water supply/ drainage
⁃ Good feed distribution
⁃ Stock visibility , isolation, manipulation
⁃ Environment control
⁃ Mort removal

Cage structure
⁃ Main net
⁃ Predator net
⁃ Covering net
⁃ Jump net
⁃ Collar
⁃ Floats
⁃ Moorings
⁃ Handrails
⁃ Platform

Cage design
⁃ Water flow deflection
⁃ Consider water supply
⁃ Delivery of feed
⁃ Grading of feed
⁃ Grading of fish
⁃ Monitor health and disease
⁃ Control biofouling
⁃ Harvesting

Harvesting
⁃ Fish pump
⁃ Dip net
⁃ Drain and harvest

What are the measures of success of grow out systems

economically sustainable
environmentally and socially sustainable

Measures for Economic performance relating only to production include:

FCR: Mass of feed/mass of growth
% Survival = (Number harvested/Number stocked) * 100
DGR: Daily Growth Rate = (mass final-mass stocked)/duration of stocking days
Till Harvest = number of days from stock to harvest

What are some advantages of tanks and raceways

1. Access to tanks for cleaning

2. Access to water supply and drainage

3. Good feed distribution

4. Ease of control of water supply (water quality)

5. Good stock visibility (disease management)

6. Ease of stock isolation (quarantine – disease control)

7. Ease of stock manipulation (grading & harvesting)

8. Removal of mortalities

9. Environment control (temp, pH, DO etc.)

10.Fail-safe operation(a back-up for the back-up)

What are requirements of grow out systems

Ready source of suitable water
Water management
Biosecurity & Health
Adequate diet formulation
Feed storage
Cleaning and removal of biofouling
Access to market
Harvest & processing technology

Topic 6 IMTA
IMTA
⁃ Increase additional crop
⁃ Reduce nutrient release
⁃ Sustainable products

What are benefits of IMTA

Optimising available space (multiple crop)
Reduces nutrient load within environment (nutrient recovery)
Optimal production and use of resources (circular)
Sustainable products (increased social responsibility + public perception)
Legislation on effluent discharge and bio-remediation (sustainable)

Give a brief definition of symbiotic aquaculture

Utilising ecological relationships (shelter, protection, food supply, transfer of
beneficial micro-organisms) to support the growth of multiple crops.

Topic 7 & 8 Grand challenges

Challenge 1 Feed & nutrition

⁃ Live feeds
⁃ Feed and water quality
⁃ Reduce reliance on imported raw ingredients
⁃ Replacement of fish meal and fish oil
⁃ Meet nutritional need of cultured sp to optimise health

Challenge 2 Disease
⁃ Current and emerging pathogen
⁃ Removal of antibiotics
⁃ Resistant pathogen

Challenge 3 Water quality

⁃ Open and semi closed aquaculture

Omics
⁃ Genome (DNA)
⁃ Transcriptome (RNA)
⁃ Proteome (Protein)
⁃ Metabolome (Metabolites)
⁃ Lipome (Lipids)
⁃ Virile (Viral genome)
⁃ Microbiome (all microbes)
⁃ Pathobiome (pathogens)
Why is the removal of antibiotics a goal in aquaculture
Overuse and misuse of antibiotics in aquaculture -> development of antibiotic-
resistant bacteria. Potentially spread to humans through the consumption of
contaminated seafood or through environmental pathways. Antibiotic
resistance makes it more difficult to treat bacterial infections in both humans
and animals, increasing the potential for serious illnesses.

In a short paragraph, briefly explain how disease is a grand challenge in

aquaculture

Current and emerging aquatic pathogens

Removal of antibiotics from aquaculture
Antibiotic resistance in the environment
Unravelling the multicomponent aspects of disease: host-pathogen
environment

Genomic studies always refer to the DNA sequence of the subject of study. T/F
True

Genomics
Refers to the study of the complete set of nucleic acid sequence of an
organism

Nutrition is the provision of nutrients for maintenance, growth, reproduction,

health and immune response. T/F
True

Transcriptome always refers to the messenger RNA sequence. T/F

True

Which of the following list the 3 grand challenge areas of aquaculture

Disease
Nutrition
Water quality

Transciption refers to the production of proteins from messanger RNA. T/F

False

Proteins are produced by a cell from mRNA through the process of

Translation
Metabolome refers to the
Complete set of small molecule chemicals within a biological sample

Microbiome refers to
Complete set of microbes within a biological sample

Which of the following are challenges facing aquaculture expansion

Replacing fish meal in aquafeeds
Managing existing and emerging pathogens
Improving the digestibility of aquafeeds
Managing treatment resistance by pathogens

Topic 9 live feeds

Feed
1. lecithrotropic
2. Planktonic -> phytoplankton and zooplankton
3. Rotifer
4. BBS
5. Artemia

Rotifer culture (batch, semi, continuous culture)

- Inoculate microalgae w rotifer
- Add algae/ yeast if needed
- Water change through 60um sieve
Males indicate production problem, sexual reproduction in unfavourable
condition

Artemia culture
- Inactive cyst harvest, FW/ saline, 24hrs hatch

Copepod
- Mostly planktonic
- Improve survival, growth rate, pigmentation, gut development
- Feed on detritus, improve water quality
- Superior nutritional value
- Hard to mass culture, variable and unreliable
Why are live feeds commonly used in the early stages of larval fish and shrimp
rearing?
Larvae not well-developed gastrointestinal tract: limited digestion. Limited
predation due to immature jaw, muscles, and optical ability
Live feeds are motile and trigger predatory response in larval stages
Micro sized appropriate to larval mouth
Nutritional profile suit larval needs

Compare and contrast the nutritional composition of commonly used live

feeds, such as rotifers, artemia and copepods for larval fish and shrimp
Rotifer: 50-60% protein, 13% fat, 3.1% HUFA
Artemia: Adults rich in all amino acids, nauplii deficient in histidine,
methionine, phenyl alanine, threonine

Which of the following characteristics of larval stages of aquaculture species

fall into consideration for the provision of live feeds?
Under developed jaw muscles
Short undeveloped gastrointestinal tract
Innate predator instrict

Which of the following characteristics must be considered when choosing a

microalgal species for the provision of live feed in larval aquaculture systems
Nutrient profile
Size of particles
Undigestible elements

Rotifers are usually used as the first zooplankton stage of live feeds due to their
small size and nutrient profile. T/F
True

Which of the following lists the stages of artemia cyst hatching in the correct
sequence of occurrence
Hydration
Disinfection
Decapsulation
Hatch
Harvest
Enrichment is the process whereby live feeds are fed or supplemented with
additional nutrients to enable transfer to the larval culture species via live feed
delivery. T/F
True

Topic 10 nutrition
Good nutrition
- Improve product quality
- Health
- Growth maintenance
- Reproduction

Formulated feed benefits

- Water soluble
- Dry and shelf stable
- Bulk transport
- Heat treated
- Able to manipulate and formulate

Trash fish problems

- Disease vector
- Not ideal physical form
- Limited resource
- Fast degradation
- Nutritionally incomplete
- Polluting

Lipid
- Energy dense energy efficient
- EPA DHA fatty acids
- Cholesterol
- Phospholipids
- Triglycerides
- Hormones

Carbohydrates
- Energy source carbo: starch
- Structural carbo: fibre

Vitamin
 - Cofactors in metabolic rxn
- Fat soluble: A, D, E, K
- Water soluble: B, C, choline, inositol

Protein
- Optimal animal performance -> right proportion of AA, supplement with
limiting AA, methionine, and lysine
- 10 essenstial AA for aquatic

Efficiency of feed
- Feed -> excretion through gills, defecation, retained
- 80% of nutrients digestable

Specific dynamic action: metabolic rate increase after feeding

Give a brief description of FCR

FCR: Mass of feed/mass of growth. Critical metric in aquaculture to measure
the efficiency of converting feed into biomass.

Why do formulated feed have more benefits than natural feeds

Pellets more water-stable
Dry and shelf-stable
Bulk transport easy
Heat-treated – reduces disease transmission risk
Able to manipulate physical properties
Able to formulate nutrients

SDA refers to specific dynamic action. T/F

True

Farmers need to consider SDA because it results in higher oxygen demand by

fish after feeding. T/F
True

Lipids are an essential macronutrient for the following roles

Cell membrance formation
Hormone production and expression
High energy
Essential amino acids are not produced by the body using other diet
components and therefore must be provided in the diet. T/F
True

Calcium is required for bone growth. Fish obtain calcium from the diet. T/F
False

Historically aquaculture diets were formulated to maximise growth. Modern

aquafeeds address a need to optimise health to optimise growth. T/F
True

Topic 11 & 12 water quality

Osmoregulation: active regulation of osmotic pressure of an organisms bodily

fluids managed by osmoreceptors

Marine
- Fish cell hypotonic
- Drink lots of water, pass little urine
- Prevent excess intake of ions

Fresh
- Fish cell hypertonic
- Do not drink, pass lots of urine
- Prevent loss of ions

Salinity
- Refractometer
- Fresh 0-5ppt
- Marine 30ppt

Oligohaline: tolerate little (low)

Euryhaline: tolerate wide range
Stenohaline: tolerate narrow (high)

Turbidity: measure of light scattering produced by particles suspended

- Nephelometric turbidity units
- Secchi disk/ sediment weight

Green water culture benefits

 - Live feed
- Probiotic
- Enhance visual prey detection by larvae
- Uniform distribution of fish larvae

Turbidity due to dirt

- Interfere with 02 transport
- Sedimentation
- Smothering

Dissolved oxygen
- Temp & salinity increase, DO decrease
- Max 02 5mg/L
- Anoxic conditions: CH4 gas, H2S anaerobic bacteria

pH: relationship betw H+ & OH-, -lg of H+ mol

- Desirable 6.5-9
- Lethal <5, >10

Nitrogen
- NH3 -> NH4+ -> NO2- -> NO3-
- NH3 -> NO2- by aerobic Nitrosomonas
- NO2 -> NO3 by Nitrobacter
- NO3 -> N2 by pseudomonas
- Free ammonia: diffuse into gill epithelia, competitively bind to RBC,
decrease 02 carrying capacity
- Nitrite: gill epithelia, combine with haemoglobin to form
methemoglobin, RBC cannot bind to O2

Alkalinity: measure of ability of water to buffer against pH

- Titratable bases in the water
- High alkalinity, small change in pH neutralised by CO3 HCO3

Describe alkalinity and explain whether freshwater or saltwater systems are

more prone to fluctuations in water parameters
Alkalinity is a measure of the ability of water to buffer against pH changes
Freshwater systems are more prone to fluctuations. Saltwater tends to have
more ions and titratable bases in solution, smaller changes in hydrogen ions
get mopped up by these bases.
What device is used to measure turbidity
Secchi disk

What are the parameters that should be measured for water quality testing
Salinity
Temperature
Dissolved oxygen
pH
Alkalinity
Turbidity
Nitrogen (NO2, NO3, NH3/NH4+)

What is the best time of day to monitor dissolved oxygen in open aquaculture
systems
Once before sunrise (lowest DO and pH) and once at 3-4pm (peak algal
photosynthesis activity)

Although changing pH impacts on biological function in fish, the main impact of

pH on fish health is due to the effect of pH on
Diffusion of oxygen
Diffusion of ammonia

Which of the following statements are true regarding osmoregulation in

marine fish
Must manage tendency to lose water and gain salt from environment
Drink a lot of water and excrete small amounts of urine to manage water loss

Which broad groups of organism require the ability to osmoregulate across a

wide range of salinity
Anadromous
Euryhaline
Catadromous

Osmosis
Movement of water from low ion concentration to high ion concentration
Movement of water from the hypotonic state to the hypertonic state
Movement of water molecules from high water concentration to low water
concentration

Salinity
Total weight of inorganic salts dissolved within 1kg of seawater
Majority of inorganic salts are chloride 55% and sodium 30%

Marine fish
Tend to lose water across semipermeable membranes of gut, gills and other
exposed epithelial surfaces

increase water temp

increase metabolic rate
decrease DO concentration
increase proportion of unionised ammonium to ionised ammonium in total
ammonium content

3 activities drive biological oxygen demand in system

Respi host organism
Respi phytoplankton and zooplankton
Respi aerobic microbes

Managing DO in system
Mechanical aeration to maintain circulation and turbulence within pond
Promoting and managing an microalgal bloom within a pond
Preventing over feeding and removing faecal material
Injecting oxygen into the water column

pH=8
the hydrogen in concentration is 0.00000001 per litre
the hydrogen ion concentration is 10 times less than the concentration of pH=7

DO does not drive pH change in marine system. T/F

True

Which of the following statements describe the series of reactions that

influence pH in marine systems
C02 dissolve to form carbonic acid
Carbonic dissociates into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions
Bicarbonate dissociates into carbonate ion and hydrogen ions

Alkalinity is the opposite of pH. It is the measure of OH- ions in water. T/F
False
pH is more variable within freshwater systems because they have lower
alkalinity. T/F
True

Turbidity is important
Indicator of phytoplankton in water
Can be used to prevent predation/ cannibalism by larval species
Can limit ability of predators to prey on cultured species

Highly toxic
Unionised ammonia
Nitrite

Which parameters impact proportion of unionised and ionised ammonium

within total ammonium content
Salinity
Temperature
pH

Nitrobacter and Nitrosomonas are obligate aerobes. T/F

True

Topic 14 biosecurity

Biosecurity: management of factors that contribute to disease in effort to

prevent reduce, mitigate losses

3 principles
- Prevent pathogen entry
- Optimise host health
- Optimise environment

4 phases of biosecurity
- Prevention 100:1
- Eradication 25:1
- Containment 5:1
- Asset based approach “live with it”

Optimise host health

 - Optimise nutrition
- Sp selection
- Genetic selection of best performers
- Develop vaccine and immunostimulant
- Monitor health

Measures extensive
- Stock resistant sp
- Pathogen free juveniles
- Polyculture
- Closed system
- Don’t push natural stocking density

Measures semi intensive

- Stock resistant sp
- Vaccine
- Pathogen free juveniles
- Minimise non-culture sp
- Treat water input
- Close system
- Freedom from pathogen in region

Measures intensive
- Pathogen free juveniles
- Batch in batch out
- Feed addictive
- Stock resistant sp
- Vaccine
- Biological control of parasite
- Engineering control for parasite

Measures semi closed

- Compartmentalise equipment and workers
- Batch in batch out
- Dry out between batches
- Nursery ponds pathogen free juveniles
- Stock resistant sp
- Vaccine
- Feed additive
- Close system
Measures closed
- Treat water input
- Compartmentalise
- Batch in batch out
- Dry out
- Feed additive
- Vaccine
- Pathogen free juvenile
- Stock resistant sp

Predators in a farm system can be beneficial by eating sick animals and

preventing a large load of pathogens but detrimental by also being a source
that introduces pathogens. T/F
True

Disease occurs when the conditions within the broad components of host,
pathogen and environment interact in a way favour the pathogen over the
cultured species. T/F
True

Select the statements that are true regarding disease

Disease can be from infectious and non infectious agents

The simplest principles of biosecurity involve

Prevent pathogen entry
optimise host health
optimise environmental conditions

The four phase of biosecurity practice are

Prevention
Eradication
Containment
Asset based protection

Disease occurs when the condition within the broad components of host,
pathogen and environment interact in a way that favours the pathogen over
the cultured species. T/F
True
The ability to manage host+pathogen+environment interaction vary across the
different types of aquaculture systems. T/F
True

Choosing the following biosecurity practice that are available to a farmer of an

extensive open aquaculture system to prevent and manage disease outbreaks
Stocking with disease resistant species or strains
Hold susceptible life stage in a closed or nursery system until resilient

If farmer cannot remove pathogen

Change culture species
Produce a vaccine
Adapt operations to a closed aquaculture system
Reduce stocking density

Biosecurity option available to mollusc farmers

Move to closed land based systems
Genetic selection of resistant stocks

Four broad hazard points for pathogen entry to a farm

Biological input
Environmental
Equipment
Human

3 levels of biosecurity at enterprise level are

Entry
Exit
Internal

Choose the following procedure that would be entry level biosecurity practice
Water treatment at farm intake
Purchase of pathogen free stock

Optimising of host health is difficult in many tropical species because

There is insufficient knowledge of their biological needs
Many tropical species are grown in extensive systems where there is poor
control over management of environmental conditions that impact health

The following are general options for optimising health of cultured species
Appropriate site selection
Vaccination and immunostimulant production
Genetic selection of disease resistant stock

Why hasn’t optimising health been a priority in traditional aquaculture

approaches to prevent disease
Farmers have had access to antibiotics and other treatment options
Focus has been on optimising growth and product quality
The study of health is complex and there haven’t been the sufficient tools or
research investment to study health

Disease is problematic in open aquaculture systems because

There are limited means to prevent the entry of pathogens
Open systems attract other aquatic species that can be reservoirs of pathogens
Treatment only applies to the cultured species and wild species will remain as
a source of repeat infection
Environmental conditions are not controlled and adverse conditions may
impact on the host of cultured species

Topic 15 Choosing aquatic sp.

Choice depends on (biology + knowledge of culture requirements + economic/

market issues)
- Food
- Conservation
- Maintenance of commercial fisheries
- Recreation
- Ornamental
- Economic attractiveness
- Based on control + life cycle
- Production of industrial product
- Production of food/ feeds for culture organisms
- Characteristics of a fish culture
- Fish stocked for sport fishing

Good candidate
- Suitable growth profile
 - Biologically manageable (spawn artificial, fecundity, survival thru larval
phase, hardy, handleable, FCR, disease resistant)
- Realistic promise of financial return
- Existing market
- Route of commercialisation identified

Full life cycle closure

- Culture broodstock for gametes
- Broodstock conditioning protocols
- Egg incubation methods
- Larval rearing
- Juvenile rearing
- Growout

Challenges
- Need to understand health management, nutrition, stress, water quality,
photoperiod and behaviour
- Egg collection, stripping wild fish, intervention w hormones,
acclimatisation of wild fish

List information required to allow successful culture of organisms

Animal biology
Culture systems
Water quality
Nutrition
Diseases
Genetics
Harvest technologies
Product processing
Economics
Markets

List iconic aquaculture species

Barramundi 6-8 months high density high stocking, all stages artificial food
Redclaw extremely hardy, tolerate moderate crowding, high value crop, export
potential
White-legged Shrimp
Salmon
Tiger prawn
List favourable biological traits when considering a suitable new aquaculture
species
Spawning under artificial conditions
High fecundity
High survival/low abnormalities through larval phases in culture
Hardy and tolerant of handling & high density (stress tolerant)
Good feed conversion ratio (FCR)/ high growth
Disease resistant

Topic 17 & 18 algae

Microalgae markets
- Feed: live culture, high density pastes, feed inclusion, source of DHA &
EPA
- Culture medium + food: direct food source, increase feeding incidence,
stabilise water quality

Culture tech micro

- Ponds: control over mixing and nutrient addition
- High-rate algal ponds: control over mixing and nutrient addition
- Vertical bags/ columbs: high control and relatively closed environment
- Photobioreactor/ fermenter: full environment control, maintain axenic
cultures, containment of genetically modified algae

Culture macro
- Natural substrate culture -> rocks cleaned and seeded
- Long line culture -> fragments
- Net culture -> nets seeded with spores
- Land based -> labour intensive, expensive

4 main macro
- Kelp
- Porphyra
- Eucheuma
- Gracilaria

3 products
- Alginates: food
- Phycocolloids: DNA gels
- Carrageenan: toothpaste
Names and describe four types of micro algae cultivation technologies
Ponds: control over mixing and nutrient additon
High rate algal ponds: control over mixing and nutrient additon
Vetical bags/ columbs: high control and relatively closed environment
Photobioreactor/ fermenter: full environment control, maintain axenic
cultures, containment of genetically modified algae

When are algal blooms harmful and why

When: high concentrations
Why: some microalgae produce toxins, compete for oxygen with other
organisms

List some products derived from macro algae aquaculture

Food: nori (red seaweed), kombu (brown kelp), wakame (brown kelp)
Phycocolloids: agar, carrageenan, alginates

How is microalgae used in aquaculture

Live feed for hatchery
High density nutrient booster in enrichment
Production of algae oil, plant based source of EPA and DHA

Which product is prepared from Haematococcus sp

Astaxanthin, natural pigment and antioxidant

Spirulina grows under extreme alkalinity and high conductivity conditons. T/F
True

Main factors affecting algal biomass productivity

Light and temp
Light and carbon
Light and nutrients

What does the acronym HRAPs stand for in algae aquaculture

High rate algal ponds

Seaweed plant?
Seaweeds are not considered plants because they don’t have specialised
tissues for transport of water and nutrients and because they produce spores
not seeds

Differentiate green, red and brown seaweeds through

Photosynthetic pigment
energy storage molecules

disadvantages of long line macroalgal culture

susceptible to disease
high labour input
limited by light and natural nutrient availability

benefits of integrated aquaculture of seaweeds

improve sustainability and profitability of existing operations
achieve discharge licence compliance to return restored marine and
freshwater to environment
used for bioremediation in aquaculture farms to remove nitrogen and
phosphorous from the water in zero discharge operation of farms

land based algal cultivation can deliver high yields of biomass

labour intensive
expensive

which of the following statements is correct about phycocolloids

phycolloids are the polysaccharides used as gelling and binding agents used in
a range of application

fucoxanthin
photosynthetic pigment found in brown algae

which type of seaweed cultivation is commonly used for kelp production in

china and the pacific
long line culture, attach seaweed fragments to lines and is then left to grow
out

alginate is a phycocolloid produced by

brown seaweeds

red seaweeds produce

carrageenan
agar

Topic 19 aquaculture of fish

Inducing maturation
- Environmental manipulation
- Hormonal manipulation: human chorionic gonad gonadotropin (HCG)
leutening hormone releasing hormone analogue (LHRHa), gonadotropin
through injection

Cannulation
- Eggs should be half final egg diameter at spawning

Egg incubation
- Clean well oxygenated water @ optimum temp & salinity
- Gentle Aeration
- Antimicrobial/ anti fungal/ ozone
- Unfert eggs sink
- 50-5000/L

Grow out
- Stock staggering
- RAS expensive infrastructure
- Formulated feeds: 45% protein, 1.5% BW, 1-1.2 FCR

Waste management
1. Mechanical filtration: canister filter
2. Foam fractionator (protein skimmer)
3. Biofiltration: sand filter

Cage culture
- Arrangement affect water flow and deflection
- Net pen flexiblem non soid structure
- Accessibility: feed delivery, grading, monitoring health & disease, control
of biofouling, harvest

What are the characteristics of grow out systems

Recirculating/ partial flow-through
Expensive infrastructure
Intensive - Super intensive
Formulated feeds
Require good water management
Extremely flexible

What does it mean for fish spawn to be lecithotrophic and how does this help
them through growth
Feeding on egg yolk/ yolk absorption. Once yolk has been absorbed, marine
fish larvae will have increased in size by 30%, will have pigmented eyes, a
mouth and anus, ready to accept food.

Briefly describe the procedure involved in hormonal manipulation of fish

Artificially induced final gonadotropin through direct injection of hormones
Administered either as liquid injection or cholesterol pellet deposited under
skin

Endogenous feeding applies to the stage of fish larval development after the
yolk has been absorbed. T/F
False

Early stage egg and larvae incubation involve the following conditions
Light gentle aeration
Optimal water temperature with minimal change in temperature

In captivity the final cues for fish reproduction are often missing. Wat
strategies overcome the problem
Environmental manipulation
Hormonal manipulation

Which of the following is required to progress the final cue for reproduction in
bloodstock
Gonadotropin surge

Round tanks provide the most efficient use of space and allow for terracing in
fish grow out systems. T/F
False
Which of the following lists presents water treatment options in the correct
alignment from a grow out tank in a RAS.
Filter bag
foam fractionation
ozone
fluidised bed filter

which of the following lists contains live feeds in the correct chronological
order typical for feeding larval fish
rotifer
artemia nauplii
artemia metanauplii
artificial diet

fcr 1.2 is preferable over fcr 0.9. T/F

False

Finfish largest sector by volume and value. T/F

True

Broodstock management in finfish culture includes

Minimisation of stress
Maintaining optimal water quality parameters
Optimising nutrition

Topic 20 aquaculture of molluscs

Molluscs
- Long culture period
- High disease exposure
- Reared using simple tech
- High value
- Filter feeders no cost to grow out
- IMTA

Condition index = weight of dry meat(g)/ volume of shell cavity(ml) x1000

To assess sexual maturity, maturation of gonad -> takes up certain volume in
total visceral mass
Spawning induction
- Remove biofoul on broodstock
- Physical shock
- Chemical shock: peroxide, serotonin to gonad

Too little sperm: low fert

Too much sperm: polyspermy, embryonic deformities

Triploidy
- Produce sterile organisms
- No energy dispersion to reproduction

Incubation
- 24hrs egg to veliger D
- 30-50 eggs/ ml

Larval rearing
- 1-10 D stage / ml
- Feed microalgae (Chaetoceros, Thalassioria, Tetraselmis, Pavlova,
Isochrysis)
- 3-30 days for settlement

Drain down
- Regular water change needed (2day)
- Sieve retaining larvae removed, drain water

Water change
- Fix some larvae in formalin to count % survival
- Grade larvae if necessary
- Clean tank
- Add larvae and microalgae

How does a mollusc fertilise its eggs being dioecious

Mollusc spawning can be induced by physical shock (temp, salinity) or chemical
shock (serotonin injection to the gonad). Both males and females release their
gonads into the water column where the eggs get fertilised by the sperm.

What is the formula for condition index (CI) and what is it used for?
CI= (Weight of dry meat (g)/ Volume of shell cavity (mL)) * 1000
Used to asses sexual maturity
What are the potential issues with adding too much or too little sperm to
bivalve eggs for artificial fertilisation
Too low: low fertilisation rate
Too high: embryonic abnormalities through polyspermy

Bivalves possess a shell made from two hinged valves. This poses advantages in
aquaculture by
Providing protection from adverse conditons
Allowing reduced transport cost of juveniles to grow out location compared to
fish and crustaceans

Protandrous is a hermaphroditic organism that is initially male and changes to

female. T/F
True

Protogynous is a hermaphroditic organism that is initially female and changes

to male. T/F
True

Condition index is the alternative measure to FCR that is used to determine

growth in molluscs. T/F
False

Triploidy encouraged
Produce sterile individuals that have increased growth compared to diploid
individuals
Prevents introduced species from becoming invasive species if they are
introduced to a new area

Polyspermy encouraged. T/F

False

Polar bodies
Release to ensure the fertilised egg has a diploid number

Topic 21 aquaculture of crustaceans

Reproduction
 - Hormonal regulation -> eyestalk sinus gland/ X organ -> GIH MIH ->
ablation -> increase spermatogenesis and ovarian mass
- Pre-spawning molt, 3-4 days for female to develop ovary

Brooder: Eggs on pleopod and brooded till hatch

Egg releaser: male deposit spermatophore into thelyca of female, fert occur
externally upon ovulation and passage of egg through gonaphore

Penaeid prawns
- Reproduce in large quantity
- 4-5 month marketable size
- Acclimatised
- Can grow in many type of system

Decapod growth cycle

- Intermolt
- Premolt
- Ecdysis
- Post molt

Broodstock
- 3-5% BW
- 1:1 MF ratio
- Ovary darken when mature

Eggs: float, initially irregular, become spherical after couple of minutes

Nauplii -> lecithotrophic N1-6

Protozoea -> chaetoceros feed. 30-48hrs. P1-3
Mysis -> phyto and zoo, artemia. 3-5days

Main components of shrimp farm

- Water source + tech (isolated from other farms, 35% water exchange in
one pump session)
- Storage ponds
- Delivery canals
- Production ponds
- Drainage canals
- Effluent/ remediation ponds
Series: risk of disease
Parallel: superior control, simple management
Radial: use for moving stock through growing stage

Aeration
- Paddlewheel
- Accumulation of waste

Pond Prep
- No predator
- Natural food
- Stress free
- Pond draining -> dry out egg and larve of predator, eliminate pathogen,
promote decomp, dry out algae
- pH mapping
- soil tiling
- disinfection -> remove biofoul, predator, vector
- liming -> kill parasite & microorganisms, increase alkalinity, reduce
action of sulfide and acid, reduce BOD, enhance nitrification due to input
of Ca ion

Survival estimates (7-10day)

- lift net 0.6m2
- feed place in net and lowered
- check feed every hr
- determine survival and total biomass

Harvest: ideal 5-7 day post molt

Explain ablation and why its beneficial in crustacean aquaculture

Ablation: eye-stalk removal
Removes source of gonad inhibiting hormone
Increase in total ovarian mass - acceleration of vitellogenesis
Increased spermaogenesis in males

The X-organ/sinus gland complex is important in crustacean production

because it produces hormones that have been shown to:
Influence molting
Influence gonad development
Influence water balance
Feed management is an important component of prawn farming because:
Feed is one of the major operating costs
Oversupply of feeds contributes to BOD
Large economic returns can be made through optimising FCR
Oversupply of feeds impacts on water quality
Poorly managed feeding regime leads to increased pumping costs

Algal bloom management is a critical component of prawn pond production.

T/F
True

Prawn pond preparation involves which of the following procedures

Soil tilling
Disinfection and liming
Drying
Provision of fertiliser

Paddle wheels are other aeration devices are placed into prawn ponds to
achieve the following:
Create mixing of the water column to prevent stratification
Create currents to promote the transfer of oxygen between the atmosphere
and pond water
Concentrate wastes in the centre of the pond

Water storage reservoirs must be included in prawn farms to enable which of

the following:
Consistent access to water for pond water exchange
Settling suspended solids in the intake water

Molt stage must be considered in the management of crustaceans in

aquaculture because
Crustaceans reduce feeding at pre and post molt
With the exception of soft shelled crabs markets do not want recently molted
animals
Harvest at intermolt period is most desirable
Mating occurs with close alignment to molting
Pleopods are important parts of crustacean anatomy because they are used as
tissue samples for disease screening and also because fertilised eggs attach to
the pleopods in the brooding crustaceans. T/F
True

Pereiopods are important parts of crustacean anatomy because identifying sex

is determined by the position of the gonadopore according to the numbered
pereiopod position. T/F
True

Broodstock conditioning is important in mollusc and crustacean hatchery

production because:
Early larval stages are lecithotrophic

Larval penaeids progress through a series of larval stages in the hatchery. The
larval stage development occurs in the following order:
Nauplius
Zoea
Mysis
Post larvae

The practice of ablation is performed to prevent the hepatopancreas from

releasing the moult inhibiting hormone and the gonad inhibiting hormone. T/F
False

What are the benefits to liming a prawn pond

1. Kills most microorganism especially parasites due to caustic reaction
2. Raises pH of acidic water to neutral or slightly above alkaline value
3. Increase the alkaline reserve, prevents extreme changes in pH
4. Promotes biologicsal productivity, since it enhances the breakdown of
organic substances by bacteria, creating increased oxygen and carbon
reserves
5. Precipitate suspended or soluble organic material: increase light
penetration
6. Decreases biological oxygen demand
7. Enhances nitrification due to the requirement of calcium by nitrifying
organism
8. Neutralise the harmful action of certain substances like sulfide and acid
Compare the two reproductive strategies ie. brooders and spawners
Brooders: eggs are oviposited on special pleopods and are brooded until hatch,
eggs have no cytoplasmic connection to female
Spawners: once spawned and fertilised, eggs are released into the surrounding
water
Topic 22 ornamental aquaculture
What are novel strains and what are the benefits and risks they are associated
with
Aquaculture induced variant of natural phenotypes produced through selective
breeding or dietary alterations
Benefits: consumer demand for novel strains reduces pressure on wild harvest,
increases feasibility of aquaculture operations
Risks: loss of natural genetic diversity, perception of manufactured freaks taint
such businesses

Differentiate the markets for food fish and ornamental fish

The food fish market focuses on fish for human consumption, with strict
regulations and standards for safety. In contrast, the ornamental fish market is
centred around fish kept as pets for their aesthetic value, with less stringent
regulations and a focus on the well-being of the fish in captivity.

Which of the following characteristics contribute to the success of ornamental

aquaculture production as an industry compared to food production?
High value of product relative to most species produced for food by
aquaculture
Relatively smaller capital investment required to start up
High market demand as a pet for people living in highly dense urban location
Many species will breed as pairs, rather than requiring mass spawning
population

Transgenic zebrafish have been developed in the ornamental aquaculture. The

benefits includes
Ability to produce fish to test the efficacy of drugs for human health
Ability to genetically manipulate individuals to produce customised rare colour
combination
Ability to produce fish that can be as models for research into human genetic
disorders