by Rakshita singh

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Cell : The
unit of life

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All organisms are composed
of cells.
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single cell - unicellular
organisms
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many cells - multicellular

organisms.
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What is cell ?
Anton Von Leeuwenhoek
cell is the fundamental

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first saw and described a
structural and functional

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live cell.
unit of all living
Robert Brown -Nucleus.

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organisms.

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Unicellular organisms are
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capable of

(i) independent existence

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(ii) performing the essential

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functions of life.
 observed that all plants different types of animal cells and
are composed of different reported that cells had a thin
kinds of cells which form outer layer which is today known

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the tissues of the plant. as the ‘plasma membrane’.

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In 1838, Theodore
Malthias Schleiden, Schwann (1839),

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sh CELL THEORY

Schleiden and Schwann presence of cell wall is a unique

together formulated character of the plant cells. On
the basis of this,
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the cell theory.

Schwann

did not explain as

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the bodies of animals and

to how new cells plants are composed of cells
were formed. and products of cells.
Rudolf Virchow cells divided and new
(1855) cells are formed from

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pre-existing cells

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(Omnis cellula-e
deifidoM
cellula).

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modified the hypothesis of
Schleiden and Schwann

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give the cell theory a final
shape.

Cell
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(i) all living organisms are
composed of cells and products
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theory of cells.
(ii) all cells arise from pre-
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existing cells.
 AN OVERVIEW OF CELL
Membrane bound NUCLEI

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Present Absent

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eukaryotic prokaryotic.

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The cytoplasm is the main arena of cellular
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activities in both the plant and animal cells.
Various chemical reactions occur in it to
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keep the cell in the ‘living state’.

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 }
membrane bound organelles.

prokaryotic. eukaryotic
endoplasmic reticulum (ER),

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the golgi complex,

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lysosomes,
mitochondria,

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microbodies

Absent
vacuoles.

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Ribosomes are non-membrane bound organelles
found in all cells –both eukaryotic as well as
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prokaryotic.
within
Found

chloroplasts (in plants) and

mitochondria and on rough ER.
Animal cells contain another non-membrane
bound organelle called centriole which helps in

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cell division.

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Cells differ greatly in size, shape and activities

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(Figure 8.1). For example, Mycoplasmas, the
smallest cells, are only 0.3 μm in length while

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sh bacteria

could be 3 to 5 μm. The largest isolated single

cell is the egg of an ostrich. Among
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multicellular organisms, human red blood cells

are about 7.0 μm in diameter. Nerve cells are
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some of the longest cells.

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The shape of the cell may vary with the

function they perform.
PROKARYOTIC CELLS

lack membrane bound cell organelles.

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bacteria, blue-green algae, mycoplasma and

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PPLO (Pleuro Pneumonia Like Organisms).
In addition to genomic DNA. many

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bacteria have small circular- DNA outside
the genomic DNA called PLASMIDS. Plasmid DNA

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confers certain unique phenotypic characters to
such bacteria. One such character is resistance
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to antibiotics. Plasmid DNA Is used to monitor
bacterial transformation with foreign DNA.
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A specialised differentiated form of cell

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membrane called mesosome is the

characteristic of prokaryotes.
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 Cell Envelope and its Modifications

The cell envelope consists of a tightly bound

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three layered structure

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outermost glycocalyx a loose
[slime layer]
sheath

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thick
[capsule.]
& tough

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the cell wall prevents bacteria from
bursting or collapsing.
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plasma membrane. Extension

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into the cell

the form of
mesosomes.

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vesicles

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tubules
helps in
lamellae
cell wall formation

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DNA replication

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Distribution of daughter cells
respiration
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secretion process
increase the surface area of
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P.M
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In some prokaryotes like cyanobacteria, there
are other membranous extensions into the

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cytoplasm called chromatophores which

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contain pigments.
Bacteria

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motile non-motile
thin filamentous extensions
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• Pili and fimbriae do
not play role in motility
flagella
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helps in
filament attach the bacteria to
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hook rocks in streams and

basal body also to the host tissues.
Gram positive & Gram negative
on the basis of the differences in the cell envelopes
and the manner in which they respond to the staining

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procedure developed by Gram

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take up the gram stain others that do not

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Gram positive
sh Gram negative
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Ribosomes
Prokaryotes subunits--
50S

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• Ribosomes are 70S

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30S

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Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis.
Several ribosomes may attach to a single mRNA

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and form a chain called polyribosome or
polysome.
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• The ribosomes of a polysome translate the
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mRNA into proteins

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 Inclusion bodies
Reserve material in prokaryotic cells are stored

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in the cytoplasm in the form of inclusion bodies.

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e.g., phosphate granules, cyanophycean
granules , glycogen granules.

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Gas vacuoles are found in blue green and
purple and green photosynthetic bacteria.
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 Eukaryotic Cells
The eukaryotes include all the protists, plants,

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animals and fungi.

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organised nucleus with a nuclear envelope
variety of complex locomotory and cytoskeletal

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structures

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genetic material is organised into
chromosomes.
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presence of membrane bound organelles.
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All eukaryotic cells are not identical.

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• The eukaryotes include all the protists,
plants, animals and fungi. Plant cells have

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large vacuole. Animals cells have centrioles
which are almost absent in plant cells.

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• Ribosomes are of 80S (in cytoplasm).
Small subunit is 40S and large 60S
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 • The eukaryotes include

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all the protists, plants,

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animals and fungi. Plant
cells have large vacuole.

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. Animals cells have
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centrioles which are

almost absent in plant
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cells
 Cell membrane
the cell membrane, especially in human red blood

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cells (RBCs), enabled the scientists to deduce the

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possible structure of plasma membrane.

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• Cell membrane is mainly composed of proteins
and lipids (mainly phospholipids).

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polar head (outward) non-polar tail

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(hydrophobic)
inner side

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In human RBC 52% is proteins and 40% lipids.
The lipid component of the membrane mainly
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consists of phosphoglycerides.
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• Membrane proteins can be integral or

peripheral.
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The structure of cell membrane was proposed by
Singer and Nicolson (1972) widely accepted as fluid

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mosaic model.

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• The quasi-fluid nature of lipid enables lateral

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movement of proteins within the overall bilayer.
This ability to move within the membrane is

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measured as its fluidity.
• The fluid nature of membrane is important for
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functions like cell growth, formation of
intercellular junctions, secretion, endocytosis,
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cell division etc.

• Polar molecules cannot move through the non-
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polar lipid bilayer.

• Membrane is selectively permeable. Many

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molecules can move across the

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membrane without any requirement of energy
is called passive transport.

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Movement of water by diffusion is called

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osmosis. Many molecules require energy/ATP
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for their transport called active transport,
e.g., Na+/K+ pump.
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Cell Wall
a non-living rigid structure called the cell wall
forms an outer covering for the plasma

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membrane of fungi and plants.

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Cell wall not only gives shape to the cell and

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protects the cell from mechanical damage and

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infection, it also helps in cell-to-cell
interaction and provides barrier to undesirable
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macromolecules.
• Algae have cell wall made up of cellulose,
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galactans, mannans, calcium carbonate.

In plant it consists of cellulose,
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hemicellulose, pectin and proteins.

The middle lamella is a layer mainly of
calcium pectate which holds or glues the

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different neighbouring cells together.

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The cell wall and middle lamellae may be
traversed by plasmodesmata which connect

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the cytoplasm of neighbouring cells.
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Endomembrane System
membranous organelles are considered
together as an endomembrane system

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because their functions are coordinated.

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endoplasmic reticulum (ER),

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golgi complex,
lysosomes

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vacuoles.
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functions of the mitochondria, chloroplast and
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peroxisomes are not coordinated these are

not considered as part of the endomembrane
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system.
The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Electron microscopic studies of
eukaryotic cells reveal the

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presence of a network or

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reticulum of tiny tubular
structures scattered in the

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cytoplasm that is called E.R

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divides the intracellular space
into two distinct
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compartments,
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1. luminal (inside ER)

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2. extra luminal (cytoplasm)

 ER

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RER SER.
in absence of

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The ER which has ribosomes they appear

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ribosomes on surface smooth
involved in lipid
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involved in protein synthesis like
synthesis & steroidal
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secretion extensive and

hormones
continuous with
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the outer
membrane of the
nucleus.
Golgi apparatus
Camillo Golgi (1898) first observed densely

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stained reticular structures near the nucleus.

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These were later named Golgi bodies after him.

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They consists of cisternae,

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which are concentrically
arrange near the nucleus with
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distinct convex cis or the
forming face and concave
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trans or the maturing face.

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 Principally performs the

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function of packaging or

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materials.
It is the important side for

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formation of glycoproteins
and glycolipids.

ER ita
Protein syn. Golgi body packed
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cis to trans
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 Lysosomes
These are membrane bound vesicular structures

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formed by the process of packaging in the golgi

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apparatus.

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They are rich in hydrolytic enzyme
(lipases, proteases carbohydrase's).

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Optimally active at acidic pH.
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These enzyme are capable of
digesting carbohydrates, proteins,
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lipids and nucleic acids.

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SUICIDES BAGS of Cells

Vacuoles
The vacuole is the membrane-bound space
found in the cytoplasm. It contains water,

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sap, excretory product and other materials

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not useful for the cell.

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The vacuole is bound by a single membrane
called tonoplast. In plant cells the vacuoles

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can occupy up to 90 per cent of the volume of
the cell.
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tonoplast facilitates the transport of a
number of ions and other materials against
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concentration gradients into the vacuole,

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concentration is significantly higher in the

vacuole than in the cytoplasm.
In Amoeba the contractile vacuole is important

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for excretion.

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In many cells, as in protists, food vacuoles

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are formed by engulfing the food particles.

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 Mitochondria
• Mitochondria unless specifically stained are

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not easily visible under microscope

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number of mitochondria per cell is variable

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depending on the physiological activity of the
cells.

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It is sausage-shaped
or cylindrical
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sites of aerobic respiration.
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‘power houses’ of the cell

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divide by fission.
double membrane-bound structure with the
outer membrane and the inner membrane

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dividing its lumen distinctly into two aqueous

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compartments, i.e., the outer compartment
and the inner compartment

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matrix.

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• The outer membrane forms the continuous
limiting boundary of the organelle and inner
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membrane forms cristae.[increase the surface area.]
The matrix also possesses single circular DNA
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molecule, a few RNA molecules, ribosomes

(70S) and the components required for the
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synthesis of proteins
 Plastids
Plastids are found in all plant cells and

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in euglenoids. Based on the pigments plastid

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can be classified into chloroplast, chromoplasts
and leucoplasts.

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The chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and

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carotenoid pigments which are responsible for
trapping light energy essential for
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photosynthesis.
The chromoplasts fat soluble carotenoid
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pigments like carotene, xanthophylls and

others are present.
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 store
Amyloplasts carbohydrates (starch)

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Elaioplasts oils and fats

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Aleuroplasts proteins.

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Chloroplasts are also double membrane bound

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structure which has membranous sac like
structure called thylakoids and the matrix is
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called stroma. It also contain small, ds
circular DNA and ribosomes.
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Carotenoid is fat soluble pigment

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e.g. carotene , xanthophyll

• The ribosome of the chloroplasts (70S) are
smaller than cytoplasmic ribosomes.

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• Thylakoids are arranged in stacks called grana

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(singular-granum).
Flat membranous tubules called the stroma

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lamellae connecting thylakoids of the

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different grana.

Stroma contain required

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enzymes for
carbohydrate and
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protein synthesis.
Chlorophyll pigments
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are present in the

thylakoids.
Ribosomes
Ribosomes are the granular structures first

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observed under the electron microscope as

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dense particles by George Palade (1953).
Composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and

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proteins and are not surrounded by any

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membrane.
eukaryotic 80S 60s & 40s
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prokaryotic 70S. 50s & 30s
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‘S’ stands for the sedimentation coefficient;

Cytoskeleton
An elaborate network of filamentous

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proteinaceous structures present in the

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cytoplasm is collectively referred to as the
cytoskeleton.

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The cytoskeleton in a cell are involved in
many functions such as mechanical support,
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motility, maintenance of the shape of the
cell.
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Cilia and Flagella
Cilia and flagella are hair like outgrowths of

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the cell membrane.

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Flagella are comparatively longer and
responsible for cell movement.

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Cilia Flagella
small structures comparatively

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which work like longer and
oars, causing the responsible for cell
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movement of either
movement.
the cell or the
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surrounding fluid.
The prokaryotic bacteria also possess flagella but
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these are structurally different from eukaryotic

flagella
The central core is called axoneme and
arrangement of axonemal microtubules is

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referred to as the 9 + 2 array.

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Both cilium and flagellum arise centriole like
structure called basal bodies. They are

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covered will plasma membrane

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The central tubules are connected by bridges

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and is also enclosed by a central sheath,

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which is connected to one of the tubules of
each peripheral doublets by a radial spoke

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The peripheral doublets are also

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interconnected by linkers.
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Centrosome and Centrioles
Centrosome is an organelle usually containing two

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cylindrical structures called centrioles. They are

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surrounded by amorphous pericentriolar materials
and lie perpendicular to each other.

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The central part of the proximal region of the

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centriole is proteinaceous called the hub, which is
connected with tubules of the peripheral triplets
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(nine) by radial spokes made of protein.

The centrioles form the basal body of cilia or

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flagella, and spindle fibres that give rise to

spindle apparatus during cell division in
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animal cells.
 Nucleus
Nucleus as a cell organelle was first described

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by Robert Brown as early as 1831. Later the

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material of the nucleus stained by the basic
dyes was given the name chromatin by

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Flemming

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Interphase nucleus has chromatin, nuclear
matrix and nucleolus. Nucleus has the
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membranes and the space between two
membranes is perinuclear space.
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Outer membrane usually remains continuous

with the endoplasmic reticulum and also bears
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ribosomes on it.
The nuclear matrix or the nucleoplasm contains
nucleolus and chromatin.

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During different stages of cell division, cells
show structured chromosomes. Chromatin

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contains DNA, some basic histones, some
non- histones and some RNA.

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Every chromosome
has primary
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constriction called
centromere on the
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sides of which disc

shaped structures
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called kinetochores
are present.
 Based on the position of centromere, the
chromosome can be classified into four

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types.

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Metacentric - Centromere is in the middle
Sub metacentric - Centromere slightly away

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from the middle
Acrocentric - Centromere situated close to
one end
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Telocentric - Centromere at terminal
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position
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Sometimes a few chromosomes have non staining

secondary constrictions at a constant location. This
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gives the appearance of a small fragment called the

satellite.
 Nucleolus is not a membrane bound structure
and it is a site for active ribosomal synthesis.

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MI C R O B O D I E S
• Many membrane bound minute vesicles called

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microbodies that contain various enzymes, are

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present in both plant and animal cells.

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