MODULE

MACHINING SCIENCE AND

MACHINE TOOLS
I
Theory of
Dr. Joyjeet Ghose Metal
Cutting
Email: joyjeet@bitmesra.ac.in

Associate Professor,
Department of Production & Industrial
Engineering,
Birla Institute of Technology, Ranchi
Metal Cutting History
• The first real step in metal cutting was taken in the latter part of the
eighteenth century.
• In 1775, Wilkinson invented his boring machine which enabled Watt to
carry on the development and construction of the steam engine.
• The first drill with automatic power feed was developed in 1840 by
Namsmyth.
• Richard Roberts developed the planer is 1817.
• Eli Whitney developed the first milling machine in 1818, using an
improved version of the rotary-file principle previously used by Swiss
watchmakers.
• Following this achievement, Maudslay developed his practical screw-
cutting lathe in 1880.
• Frederic W Taylor and associated metallurgists developed high-speed steel
and which revolutionised metal cutting industry. The next significant
development in metal cutting came in the twenties, with the introduction of
sintered carbides as a cutting tool. Again cutting speeds were doubled. The
latest significant development has been the use of oxide (ceramic) cutting
tools.
Metal Cutting History

Eli Whitney, painted by Samuel F. B. Richard Roberts (1789–1864)

Henry Maudslay, Portrait by Pierre Louis Portrait of 'Iron-Mad' Wilkinson
Morse, 1822.
('Henri') Grevedon 1827 Born 22 April 1789
Born 1728 England
Born December 8, 1765 Llanymynech
Born 22 August 1771
Massachusetts
Died 14 July 1808 Died 11 March 1864
Died 14 February 1831
Bradley, Near Bilston Died January 8, 1825 (aged 59)
New Haven, Connecticut Nationality United Kingdom
Nationality British

Source: Wikipedia
Diagrammatic Representation of Material Removal Operations
Examples of cutting processes

Source: “ Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials”, 4th edition, Kalpakjian, Schmid,
Prentice Hall 2003
Machine Tools
Machine tools are kind of machines on which metal cutting
processes are carried out.

Material removal is essentially done on machine tools, which

may be Lathe, Milling, Drilling, Shaping, Planing, Broaching and
Grinding machines.

The functions of machine tools are:

• holding the workpiece
• holding the tool
• moving the tool or the work piece or both relative to each
other,
• supply energy required to cause metal cutting.

Every machine tool has a primary cutting tool for metal removal.
Theory of Metal Cutting: Introduction
• The process of metal removal can be considered as a process in
which a wedge-shaped tool engages a workpiece to remove a
layer of material in the form of a chip.

Chip α
Tool

∅
Clearance Angle

Work

Figure: Tool-Work-Chip interaction diagram; chip formation model

(Ernst and Merchant, 1941; Merchant, 1945)
Theory of Metal Cutting: Introduction

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TkApH-F1vRE&t=1s
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mRuSYQ5Npek
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GghdbT0CyvI
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h2pKPpLWwr8
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uwh3ouvzSLk
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2fDJ1Wk-y04
Theory of Metal Cutting: Introduction
• During metal cutting, the metal is severely compressed in the
area in front of the cutting tool. This causes high temperature
shear, and plastic flow if the metal is ductile. When the stress in
the workpiece just ahead of the cutting tool reaches a value
exceeding the ultimate strength of the metal, particles will shear
to form a chip element, which moves up along the face of the
work. The process is repetitive, and a continuous chip is formed.
• The plane along which the element shears, is called shear
plane. The shear plane is the boundary between the deformed
and the undeformed material

Chip α
Tool
∅ Clearance Angle

Work

Figure : Tool-Work-Chip interaction diagram

Theory of Metal Cutting: Introduction

Source: “ Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials”, 6th edition, Kalpakjian, Schmid,
Pearson Education 2018
Theory of Metal Cutting: Regions of interest
• There are three regions of interest in metal cutting, they are:
Zone 1 Extends along the shear plane and is the plastic deformation
boundary between the deformed and the characteristics
undeformed material
Zone 2 Interface between the tool face and the friction and wear
chip characteristics
Zone 3 machined/finished surface Surface roughness and
the integrity of the
finished surface

Figure : Regions of interest

3
Chip Formation Mechanism: Reason of interest
• Knowledge of chip formation will help a lot in improving the
machinability through proper selection of Cutting tool, Cutting
parameters: velocity, feed and depth of cut, Cutting fluid
• Study of chips formed during a machining process can reveal the
following:
– Nature of work material; ductile or brittle
– Mode of chip formation; continuous chips indicates chip
produced by plastic flow of work material, segmental chips
indicates chip produced by brittle fracture, continuous chip with
BUE
– Approximate cutting temperature
– Influence of the cutting parameters
– Surface finish achieved
– Condition of the tool; dull or sharp
– Effects of cutting fluids
Piispanen Card Model of Chip Formation
• In the card model all atomic planes are not active shear planes, but only
those associated with structural defects (second phase particle, missing
atom, an impurity, a grain boundary, etc.). This results in inhomegeneous
strain and a series of sharp points on both surfaces of the chip.
• This action, shown in figure is similar to the action that takes place when a
deck of cards is given a push and sliding, or shearing occurs between the
individual cards.

Figure : Piispanen Card Model of Chip Formation

Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting
The two basic methods of metal cutting using a single point tool are
the orthogonal (2 D) and oblique (3D). Orthogonal cutting takes place
when the cutting face of the tool is 90 degree to the line of action of the
tool. If the cutting face is inclined at an angle less than 90 degree to
the line of action of the tool, the cutting action is known as oblique.
Orthogonal and Oblique Cutting

Work
Work

Feed
Feed
Tool
Tool
Oblique cutting
Orthogonal cutting

Oblique Cutting:
Orthogonal Cutting:
• The cutting edge of the tool remains inclined at an acute
 The cutting edge of the tool remains normal to the
angle to the direction of tool feed or work feed.
direction of tool feed or work feed.
• The direction of the chip flow velocity is at an angle with
 The direction of the chip flow velocity is normal
the normal to the cutting edge of the tool. The angle is
to the cutting edge of the tool.
known as chip flow angle.
 Here only two components of forces are acting:
• Here three components of forces are acting: Cutting Force,
Cutting Force and Thrust Force. So the metal
Radial force and Thrust Force or feed force. So the metal
cutting may be considered as a two dimensional
cutting may be considered as a three dimensional cutting.
cutting.
 The cutting edge being oblique, the shear force acts on a
larger area and thus tool life is increased.
References
1. Kalpakjian, Schmid, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th
edition,, Prentice Hall 2003
2. E. P. DeGarmo, J. T. Black, and R. A. Kohser, Materials and processes in
Manufacturing, PHI.
3. P. N. Rao, Manufacturing Technology – Metal Cutting and Machine Tools, TMH.
4. Mikell P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing: Material. Processes,
and systems, 2nd Edition, Wiley India, 2007
5. P. F. Ostwald, and Jairo Munoz, Manufacturing Processes and Systems, 9th ed.,
Wiley, India, 2002
6. Amitabha Battacharya , Metal Cutting Theory and Practice
7. M. C. Shaw, Metal Cutting Principles, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1984.
8. George Schneider,Jr. CMfgE, Cutting Tool Applications
9. J. A. Schey, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1977.
10. R. A. Lindberg, Processes and Materials of Manufacture,
11. William J Patton, Machine tool Operations, Reston publishing company
12. O W Boston, Metal Processing, 2nd edition 1951, John Wiley and Sons
13. B.S.Raghuwanshi, A course in Workshop Technology-Dhanpat Rai & Sons.
14. Hajra Choudhury, Elements of Workshop Technology–Vol.-II, Media Promoters
and Publishers.
MODULE
Manufacturing Processes:
Theory of Metal Cutting &
I Machine Tools

Mechanics
of
Dr. Joyjeet Ghose Orthogonal
Metal
Email: joyjeet@bitmesra.ac.in

Associate Professor,
Department of Production Engineering,
Cutting
Birla Institute of Technology, Ranchi
Mechanics of orthogonal metal cutting
During metal cutting, the metal is severely compressed in the
area in front of the cutting tool.
This causes high temperature shear, and plastic flow if the metal
is ductile.
When the stress in the workpiece just ahead of the cutting tool
reaches a value exceeding the ultimate strength of the metal,
particles will shear to form a chip element, which moves up
along the face of the work.
The outward or shearing movement of each successive element
is arrested by work hardening and the movement transferred to
the next element.
The process is repetitive and a continuous chip is formed.
The plane along which the element shears, is called shear plane.
Assumptions in orthogonal metal cutting
• No contact at the flank i.e. the tool is perfectly sharp.
• No side flow of chips i.e. width of the chips remains
constant. (plain strain)
• Uniform cutting velocity.
• A continuous chip is produced with no built-up edge.
• The work material undergoes deformation across a
thin shear plane.
• There is uniform distribution of normal and shear
stress on the shear plane.
• Depth of cut is constant
• The cutting edge is a straight line extending
perpendicular to the direction of motion and
generates a plane surface as the work moves past it.
Metal cutting Terminologies
Schematic illustration of a two-dimensional cutting
process (also called orthogonal cutting).

Source: “ Manufacturing Processes for Engineering

Materials”, 4th edition, Kalpakjian, Schmid, Prentice
Hall 2003
Rake Angle, : It is the angle of inclination of the
cutting tool’s rake surface/tool face from the reference
plane, that is, the plane perpendicular to the velocity
vector, Vc.
Clearance angle: It is the angle of inclination of the
clearance / flank surface of the tool from the finished
surface or the cutting plane
Chip thickness

Fig. : Orthogonal cutting showing the effect of large and small shear angles on chip thickness and length
of shear planes
Source: Tool Design, C. Donalson, Joyjeet Ghose et. al., Tata McGraw Hill 2012
Chip thickness ratios
The outward flow of the metal causes the chip to be thicker after the
separation from the parent metal. That is the chip produced is thicker than
the depth of cut.

(∅‐α)
Chip thickness ratio
Chip thickness ratio

to ls sin 
r 
tc ls cos(   )
sin 
r
cos(   )

1 to sin 
r  
rc t c cos(   )
∅

Rearranging:
(∅‐α)

r cos
tan 
1  r sin
Velocity Relationship

FIGURE (a) Schematic illustration of the basic mechanism of chip formation in cutting. (b) Velocity
diagram in the cutting zone

Source “ Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials”, 4th edition, Kalpakjian, Schmid,
Prentice Hall 2003
Velocity Relationship

Vf

Vc

Analytically,
vc vf vs
 
sin(90  (   )) sin  sin(90   )
vc vf v
  s
cos(   ) sin  cos

vc sin  sin 
vf   r  
cos(   )  cos(  -  ) 
Volume of material per unit time  Volume of material flowing up the chip
v f  vc  r
 v c  t0  w  v f  tc  w
vc cos t0
vs   v f  vc  r As, r 
cos(   ) tc
Cutting forces
Cutting is a process of extensive stresses and plastic deformations. The high
compressive and frictional contact stresses on the tool face result in a
substantial cutting force.
Knowledge of the cutting forces is essential for the following reasons:
• proper design of the cutting tools
• proper design of the fixtures used to hold the workpiece and
cutting tool
• calculation of the machine tool power
• selection of the cutting conditions to avoid an excessive distortion
of the workpiece
Cutting forces
The force system in general case of conventional turning process
Cutting forces
The largest magnitude is the vertical
force Fc which in turning is larger than
feed force Ff, and Ff is larger than radial
force Fr.
For orthogonal cutting system Fr is made
zero by placing the face of cutting tool at
90 degree to the line of action of the tool.
Cutting forces in oblique cutting

From DeGarmo, E. P., J. T. Black, and R. A. Kohser, Materials and processes in Manufacturing, PHI.
The forces in orthogonal cutting (turning)
The forces in orthogonal cutting (turning)

Source: Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing: Materials, Processes, and Systems, Fourth Edition,
Mikell P. Groover, JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.
Forces acting on Chip in two-dimensional cutting

R
F
α
Chip Tool


Fs
N
∅
Fc Clearance Angle

Work
Ft
Fn
The forces acting on the chip in orthogonal cutting

/  
R  NF
  
R  FS  FN

Fs = Shear Force, which acts along the shear plane, is the resistance to shear of the metal in
forming the chip.
Fn = Force acting normal to the shear plane, is the backing up force on the chip provided by the
workpiece.
F = Frictional resistance of the tool acting against the motion of the chip as it moves upward along
the tool.
N = Normal to the chip force, is provided by the tool.
It is assumed that the resultant forces R & R/ are equal and opposite in magnitude and
direction. Also they are Collinear. Therefore for the purpose of analysis the chip is regarded as
an independent body held in mechanical equilibrium by the action of two equal and opposite
forces R, which the workpiece exerts upon the chip and R/ which the tool exerts upon the chip.
Merchant’s Circle Diagram
The following is a circle diagram. Known as Merchant’s circle diagram, which is convenient to
determine the relation between the various forces and angles. In the diagram two force
triangles have been combined and R and R/ together have been replaced by R. the force R
can be resolved into two components Fc and Ft.
Fc and Ft can be determined by force dynamometers.
  
R  Fc  Ft
The rake angle (α) can be measured from the tool, and forces F and N can then be
determined. The shear angle () can be obtained from it’s relation with chip reduction
coefficient. Now Fs & Fn can also be determined.

Chip α
Tool
Fs
Fc ∅ Clearance Angle

(β - α)
Work
Fn

Ft R
α

M. Eugene Merchant
F

N
The procedure to construct a merchants circle diagram

Chip α
Tool
Fs
Fc ∅ Clearance Angle

Work
Fn
Ft R
α

N
The procedure to construct a merchants circle diagram
• Set up x-y axis labeled with forces, and the origin in the centre
of the page. The cutting force (Fc) is drawn horizontally, and
the tangential force (Ft) is drawn vertically. (Draw in the
resultant (R) of Fc and Ft.
CHIP
• Locate the centre of R, and draw a circle that encloses vector
R. If done correctly, the heads and tails of all 3 vectors will lie α
TOOL
on this circle. Fs
Fc 
• Draw in the cutting tool in the upper right hand quadrant,
taking care to draw the correct rake angle (α) from the vertical WORK
axis.
Fn R α
• Extend the line that is the cutting face of the tool (at the same Ft
rake angle) through the circle. This now gives the friction
vector (F). F
• A line can now be drawn from the head of the friction vector,
to the head of the resultant vector (R). This gives the normal β
vector (N). Also add a friction angle (β) between vectors R and N
N. Therefore, mathematically, R = Fc + Ft = F + N.
• Draw a feed thickness line parallel to the horizontal axis. Next
draw a chip thickness line parallel to the tool cutting face.
• Draw a vector from the origin (tool point) towards the
intersection of the two chip lines, stopping at the circle. The
result will be a shear force vector (Fs). Also measure the shear
force angle between Fs and Fc.
• Finally add the shear force normal (Fn) from the head of Fs to
the head of R.
• Use a scale and protractor to measure off all distances (forces)
and angles.
Merchant’s Circle Diagram

Chip α
Tool
Fs
Fc ∅ Clearance Angle
(β - α)
Work
Fn
Ft R
α

N
Relationship of various forces acting on the chip with the horizontal and
vertical cutting force from Merchant circle diagram

Frictional Force System

D Chip α
α Tool
C Fs
Fc Clearance Angle
(90-α) ∅
α
E α Fc O (β - α)
(β - α) Work
(90-α) G Fn
Ft R
Ft R α
α
F
α F

β
β N
B N

𝐹 𝑂𝐴 𝐶𝐵 𝐶𝐺 𝐺𝐵 𝐸𝐷 𝐺𝐵 The coefficient of friction

⇒𝐹 𝐹 sin 𝛼 𝐹 cos 𝛼
F
𝑁 𝐴𝐵 𝑂𝐷 𝐶𝐷 𝑂𝐷 𝐺𝐸   tan 
⇒𝑁 𝐹 cos 𝛼 𝐹 sin 𝛼 N
Where   Friction angle
Relationship of various forces acting on the chip with the horizontal and
vertical cutting force from Merchant circle diagram

Shear Force System

B
α Chip α
A Tool
Fs Fs
(90‐∅) Fc Clearance Angle
Fc ∅ ∅
C O
∅ (β - α)
(β - α)
(90‐∅) Work
Fn
Fn D
R Ft R
Ft α
α
∅ F

β
E N

FS  OA  OB  AB  OB  CD
 FS  FC cos  Ft sin  Also:

FN  AE  AD  DE  BC  DE FN  FS tan(     )
 FN  FC sin   Ft cos
Relationship of various forces acting on the chip with the horizontal and
vertical cutting force from Merchant circle diagram

α
F  FC sin   Ft cos
Chip
Tool
Fs
Fc Clearance Angle
∅
(β - α)
Work
N  FC cos  Ft sin 
Fn
Ft R
α
FS  FC cos  Ft sin 
F FN  FC sin   Ft cos
β FN  FS tan(     )
N
Power required in Metal cutting

The Power consumed/ work done per sec in cutting: PC  FC  vC

The Power consumed/ work done per sec in shear: Ps  Fs  vs

The Power consumed/ work done per sec in friction: PF  F  v f

The total Power required:
P  Power supplied by the motor
 P  Work consumedin cutting per sec  work spent in feeding per sec
 P  Fc  vc  Ft  feed velocity
In comparison to the cutting velocity the feed velocity is very nominal. Similarly, Fc is very
small compared to Fc. So, the work spent in feeding can be considered negligible.

Therefore, total power required in cutting P  Pc  Ps  Pf

Specific Energy
Specific Energy, ut ,is defined as the total energy per unit volume of material
removed.

FC vc FC
ut  
wt0vc wt0
Therefore is simply the cutting force to the projected area of cut.
If uf and us be specific energy for friction and specific energy for shearing ,
then

Fv f Fs vs Fr Fs vs
ut  u f  us    
wt0vc wt0vc wt0 wt0vc

As the rake angle increases, the frictional specific energy remains more or less
constant, where as the shear specific energy rapidly reduced.
Approximate specific-energy requirements in cutting operations.

MATERIAL SPECIFIC ENERGY*

W‐s/mm3 hp‐min/in3
Aluminum alloys 0.4‐1.1 0.15‐0.4
Cast irons 1.6‐5.5 0.6‐2.0
Copper alloys 1.4‐3.3 0.5‐1.2
High‐temperature alloys 3.3‐8.5 1.2‐3.1
Magnesium alloys 0.4‐0.6 0.15‐0.2
Nickel alloys 4.9‐6.8 1.8‐2.5
Refractory alloys 3.8‐9.6 1.1‐3.5
Stainless steels 3.0‐5.2 1.1‐1.9
Steels 2.7‐9.3 1.0‐3.4
Titanium alloys 3.0‐4.1 1.1‐1.5
* At drive motor, corrected for 80% efficiency; multiply the energy
by 1.25 for dull tools.
Source “ Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials”, 4th edition, Kalpakjian, Schmid,
Prentice Hall 2003
Theory of Ernst and Merchant (1944)

Ernest and Merchant gave the relation


1
   (  )
4 2
M. Eugene Merchant
Assumptions of the theory:
• Tool edge is sharp.
• The work material undergoes deformation across a thin shear
plane.
• There is uniform distribution of normal and shear stress on the
shear plane.
• The work material is rigid and perfectly plastic.
• The shear angle ∅ adjusts itself to give minimum work.
• The friction angle β remains constant and is independent of ∅.
• The chip width remains constant.
Theory of Ernst and Merchant (1944)

Chip α
Tool
Fs
Fc Clearance
∅
(β - α)
(   ) Work
Fn
Ft R
α

β
N

They have assumed that  adjusts itself to give minimum work. And for a given set of cutting
condition, to, w and α are all constants. They also assumed that β is independent of .
Theory of Ernst and Merchant (1944)

We can either maximize s or minimize Fc

Therefore in the above equation the term cos(     ) sin  Chip α
contains only one variable . Tool
Fs
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑦 cos 𝜑 𝛽 𝛼 sin 𝜑 Fc
∅ Clearance Angle
𝑑𝑦 (β - α)
𝑑𝜑 Work
Fn
sin 𝜑 𝛽 𝛼 sin 𝜑 cos 𝜑 𝛽
Ft R
𝛼 cos 𝜑 α
for maximum value of y
𝑑𝑦 F
⇒ 0
𝑑𝜑
⇒ sin 𝜑 𝛽 𝛼 sin 𝜑 β
cos 𝜑 𝛽 𝛼 cos 𝜑 N
⇒ tan 𝜑 𝛽 𝛼 cot 𝜑
⇒ tan 𝜑 𝛽 𝛼 tan 𝜋 2 𝜑
⇒𝜑 𝛽 𝛼 𝜋 2 𝜑
𝜋 1 Experimental verification revealed that the above equation is an
⇒𝜑 𝛽 𝛼 over estimate.
4 2
Merchant later modified this equation and gave another equation 2      C

Where C is the machining constant. Usually C  depends upon the work materials.
2
According to Merchant, C is a property of work material unaffected by cutting conditions, but
grain size and micro structure have an affect on C.
Stress and Strain acting on the chip

D/ Chip

C D

(Φ-α)
Work α A/
E Tool
Φ
Φ
B A
(90-Φ)

Shearing of chip
Stress and Strain acting on the chip (contd..)

The magnitude of shear strain 

𝐴𝐸 𝐴/ 𝐸
tan ∠ 𝐴𝐵𝐸 tan ∠ 𝐴/ 𝐵𝐸
𝐵𝐸 𝐵𝐸 D/ Chip
𝐴𝐸 𝐴/ 𝐸
⇒𝛾 C
𝐵𝐸 𝐵𝐸 D
∠𝐴/ 𝐵𝐸 90 90 𝜑 𝛼 𝜑 𝛼
(Φ-α)
⇒ 𝛾 cot 𝜑 tan 𝜑 𝛼 Work α A/
cos 𝜑 sin 𝜑 𝛼 E Tool
⇒𝛾 Φ
sin 𝜑 cos 𝜑 𝛼 Φ
A
B
⇒𝛾 (90-Φ)
cos 𝜑 cos 𝜑 𝛼 sin 𝜑 sin 𝜑 𝛼 Shearing of chip
sin 𝜑 cos 𝜑 𝛼
cos 𝜑 𝜑 𝛼
⇒𝛾
sin 𝜑 cos 𝜑 𝛼
cos 𝛼
⇒𝛾
sin 𝜑 cos 𝜑 𝛼
Cutting Temperature
In cutting, nearly all of energy dissipated in plastic deformation is converted
into heat that in turn raises the temperature in the cutting zone. Since the heat
generation is closely related to the plastic deformation and friction, we can
specify three main sources of heat when cutting,
• Plastic deformation by shearing in the primary shear zone (heat source
Q1 )
• Plastic deformation by shearing and friction on the cutting face (heat
source Q2)
• Friction between chip and tool on the tool flank (heat source Q3)

Heat is mostly dissipated by,

• The discarded chip carries away about 60~80% of the total heat (q1)
• The workpiece acts as a heat sink drawing away 10~20% heat (q2)
• The cutting tool will also draw away ~10% heat (q3).
If coolant is used in cutting, the heat drawn away by the chip can be as big as
90% of the total heat dissipated.
Cutting Temperature
Cutting Temperature
Knowledge of the cutting temperature is important because it:
• affects the wear of the cutting tool. Cutting temperature is the primary
factor affecting the cutting tool wear.
• can induce thermal damage to the machined surface. High surface
temperatures promote the process of oxidation of the machined surface.
The oxidation layer has worse mechanical properties than the base
material, which may result in shorter service life.
• causes dimensional errors in the machined surface. The cutting tool
elongates as a result of the increased temperature, and the position of
the cutting tool edge shifts toward the machined surface, resulting in a
dimensional error of about 0.01~0.02 mm. Since the processes of
thermal generation, dissipation, and solid body thermal deformation are
all transient, some time is required to achieve a steady-state condition.
As a result, an additional shape error appears on the machined surface
in the beginning of cutting
Cutting Temperature
Temperature Distribution in the Cutting Zone

FIGURE: Typical temperature distribution in

the cutting zone. Note that the maximum
temperature is about halfway up the face of the
tool and that there is a steep temperature
gradient across the thickness of the chip. Some
chips may become red hot, causing safety
hazards to the operator and thus necessitating
the use of safety guards. Source: After G.
Vieregge.

Figure from: “ Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials”, 4th edition, Kalpakjian, Schmid,
Prentice Hall 2003
Temperature Distribution in Turning

FIGURE : Temperature distribution in turning: (a) flank temperature for tool shape (b) temperature of the
tool-chip interface. Note that the rake face temperature is higher than that at the flank surface. Source:
After B. T. Chao and K. J. Trigger.

Figure from: “ Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials”, 4th edition, Kalpakjian, Schmid,
Prentice Hall 2003
Hardness Distribution in the Cutting Zone

FIGURE : (a) Hardness distribution in the

cutting zone for 3115 steel. Note that
some regions in the built-up edge are as
much as three times harder than the bulk
metal. (b) Surface finish in turning 5130
steel with a built-up edge. (c) Surface
finish on 1018 steel in face milling.
Magnifications: 15X. Source: Courtesy of
Institute of Advanced Manufacturing
Sciences, Inc.

Figure from: “ Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials”, 4th edition, Kalpakjian, Schmid,
Prentice Hall 2003
Example 1
During orthogonal machining of a mild steel part, a depth of cut of 0.8 mm is
used at 55 rpm. If the chip thickness is 1.6 mm determine the chip thickness
ratio. Also calculate the length of chip removed in one minute if the work
diameter is 50 mm before the cut is taken. Assume a continuous type of chip.
Solution:
Given: depth of cut, d = 0.8 mm, N= 55 rpm, chip thickness, tc = 1.6 mm, work
diameter D = 50 mm
Considering the depth of cut, d to be equal to the uncut chip thickness, t0 ,
then𝑡 𝑑 0.8 𝑚𝑚
.
The chip thickness ratio, 𝑟 0.5
.

The length of chip to be removed in one rotation, l0 will be

𝑙 𝜋𝐷𝑁 𝜋 50 55 𝑚𝑚/𝑚𝑖𝑛 8639.38 𝑚𝑚/𝑚𝑖𝑛
Example 1 Contd…
Considering the volume of the material remains constant after deformation,
then
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑡
⇒𝑤 𝑡 𝑙 𝑤 𝑡 𝑙 (where w is the width of cut)
𝑡
⇒𝑙 𝑙 𝑟 𝑙 8639.38 0.5 𝑚𝑚/𝑚𝑖𝑛 4319.693 𝑚𝑚/𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑡
Example 2
In orthogonal turning of a 50 mm diameter mild steel bar on a lathe the
following data were obtained: Rake angle = 15o, cutting speed =100 m/min,
feed 0.2 mm/rev, cutting force =1800 N. Feed force=600 N. Calculate the chip
thickness ratio, shear plane angle, and coefficient of friction, if the chip
thickness is 0.3 mm.
Solution:
Given: cutting speed, Vc= 100 m/min, rake angle,  =150 , feed, f = 0.2
mm/rev, cutting force, Fc=1800N , thrust force, Ft=600N, chip thickness, tc =
0.3 mm
For the case of orthogonal turning, feed is approximately equal to uncut chip
thickness, therefore 𝑡 𝑓 0.2 𝑚𝑚

.
The chip thickness ratio, 𝑟 0.667
.
We know the shear angle,
𝑟 cos 𝛼 0.667 cos 15
𝜙 tan tan 37.91
1 𝑟 sin 𝛼 1 0.667 sin 15
Example 2 Contd.
In order to calculate the coefficient of friction, the frictional force and normal
force needs to be determined out using the following equations,
𝐹 𝐹 sin 𝛼 𝐹 cos 𝛼 1800 sin 15 600 cos 15 1045.43 𝑁
𝑁 𝐹 cos 𝛼 𝐹 sin 𝛼 1800 cos 15 600 sin 15 1583.38 𝑁
For values of F and N, the coefficient of friction can be determined as,
𝐹 1045.43
𝜇 0.66
𝑁 1583.38
Example 3
During orthogonal turning operation on a work piece of diameter 120 mm at
100 m/min with rake angle 150, the width of the cut and the chip thickness
are 0.4 mm and 0.3mm respectively. The feed during the operation was 0.2
mm/rev. If the cutting force and the thrust force are 1200 N and 300 N
respectively, calculate the shear angle, friction angle, shear stress and shear
strain.
Solution: Given, cutting speed, Vc= 100 m/min, rake angle,  =150 , width of
the cut, w = 0.4 mm, chip thickness, tc = 0.3 mm, feed, f = 0.2 mm/rev,
cutting force, Fc= 1200N , thrust force, Ft = 300N
For the case of orthogonal turning, feed is approximately equal to uncut chip
thickness, therefore 𝑡 𝑓 0.2 𝑚𝑚
.
The chip thickness ratio, 𝑟 0.67
.

.
We know the shear angle, 𝜙 tan tan 38.06
.
Example 3 Contd….
In order to calculate the coefficient of friction, the frictional force and normal
force needs to be determined using the following equations,
𝐹 𝐹 sin 𝛼 𝐹 cos 𝛼 1200 sin 15 300 cos 15 600.36𝑁
𝑁 𝐹 cos 𝛼 𝐹 sin 𝛼 1200 cos 15 300 sin 15 1081.47 𝑁
For values of F and N, the coefficient of friction can be determined as,
𝐹 1045.43
𝜇 0.555
𝑁 1583.38
The friction angle can be determined using the following equation,
𝛽 tan 𝜇 tan 0.555 29.03
Shear force, Fs is expressed as,
𝐹 𝐹 cos 𝜙 𝐹 sin 𝜙 1200 cos 38.06 300 sin 38.06
759.89 𝑁
The average shear stress, s required during metal cutting can be
mathematically represented as,
𝐹 sin 𝜙 759.89 sin 38.06
𝜏 𝑁/𝑚𝑚 5855.77 𝑁/𝑚𝑚
𝑤 𝑡 0.4 0.2
Shear strain,  is expressed as
𝛾 cot 𝜙 tan 𝜙 𝛼 cot 38.06 tan 38.06 15 1.703
Example 4
The end of a pipe was orthogonally cut with a tool of 20° rake angle. The
chip length was measured as 85 mm whereas uncut chip length was 202 mm.
Determine the shear plane angle and chip thickness if the depth of cut was
0.5 mm.
Solution:
Assume, the chip width bc = width of uncut chip, b0
Chip length lc = 85 mm
Length of uncut chip l0 = 202 mm

The chip thickness ratio, 𝑟 0.42

.
We know the shear angle, 𝜙 tan tan 27.4
.

Assuming 𝑡 𝑑 0.5
.
The chip thickness,𝑡 1.19𝑚𝑚
.
Example 5
A specimen of 100 mm length along the stroke of a shaper is machined with a
15° rake angle tool. Determine the shear plane angle and chip thickness if
uncut chip thickness is 1.5 mm and the chip length obtained is 40 mm.

Solution: Assuming that there is no change in the width of the chip during
machining,
Chip length lc = 40 mm
Length of uncut chip l0 = 100 mm

The chip thickness ratio, 𝑟 0.40

.
We know the shear angle, 𝜙 tan tan 25.8
.

given 𝑡 1.5 mm
.
The chip thickness,𝑡 3.75 𝑚𝑚
.
Example 6
Determine the shear plane angle, the resultant force on the tool and cutting
force component for the orthogonal cutting operation of a material with a
shear yield strength of 200 N/mm2. The machining data is as follows:
 Uncut chip length = 100 mm
 Length of cut length = 50 mm
 Rake angle of tool = 10o
 Width of cut = 1.5 mm
 Uncut chip thickness = 0.2 mm
 Coefficient of friction = 0.8

Solution: Assuming that there is no change in the width of the chip during
machining,
Chip length lc = 50 mm
Length of uncut chip l0 = 100 mm

The chip thickness ratio, 𝑟 0.50

.
We know the shear angle, 𝜙 tan tan 28.34
.
Example 6
𝐹 sin 𝜙
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜏
𝑤 𝑡

𝑤 𝑡 𝜏 1.5 0.2 200 60

𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒, 𝐹
sin 𝜙 sin 28.34 0.47
127.66 𝑁
We know, tan 𝛽 𝜇 0.8
𝛽 tan 0.8 38.66
We know, 𝐹 𝑅 cos 𝜑 𝛽 𝛼

𝐹 127.66 127.66
𝑅 233 𝑁
cos 𝜑 𝛽 𝛼 cos 28.34 38.66 10 cos 56.99
Therefore, Cutting force, 𝐹 𝑅 cos 𝛽 𝛼 = 233 cos 38.66 10 = 204 N
MODULE
Manufacturing Processes:
Theory of Metal Cutting &
I Machine Tools

Geometry
of Single
Dr. Joyjeet Ghose Point
Cutting
Email: joyjeet@bitmesra.ac.in

Assocuate Professor,
Department of Production Engineering,
Tool
Birla Institute of Technology, Ranchi
Single Point Cutting Tool Geometry
Right hand single point cutting tool

FIGURE : (a) Schematic illustration of a right-hand cutting tool. Although these tools have traditionally
been produced from solid tool-steel bars, they have been largely replaced by carbide or other inserts of
various shapes and sizes, as shown in (b).

Source: “ Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials”, 4th edition, Kalpakjian, Schmid,
Prentice Hall 2003
Single Point Cutting Tool Geometry

Geometry of positive rake single point cutting tool

End cutting edge angle (ECEA)

Top View
Nose Radius (NR)

Side cutting edge angle (SCEA)

Back rake angle (αb)

Side rake angle

(αs) Lip angle
Front View
Side View

Side relief angle (SRA) End relief angle (ERA)

Single Point Cutting Tool Geometry

Geometry of negative rake single point cutting tool

End cutting edge angle (ECEA)

Top View
Nose Radius (NR)

Side cutting edge angle (SCEA)

Side rake angle (αs) Back rake angle (αb)

Lip angle Front View

Side View

Side relief angle (SRA) End relief angle (ERA)

Single Point Cutting Tool Geometry (Pro-E, Solid Model)

ISOMETRIC VIEW

TOP VIEW

SIDE FRONT VIEW

VIEW
Cutting tool angles and their significance
Back rake angle:
•The back rake angle is the angle between the face of the tool and a line
parallel to the base of the shank in a plane parallel to the side cutting edge.
•The back rake angle affects the ability of the tool to shear the work material
and form chip.
Side Rake Angles:
•It is the angle by which the face of the tool is inclined side ways.
The Rake Angle:
The rake angle is always at the topside of the tool.
The side rake angle and the back rake angle combine to form the effective
rake angle. This is also called true rake angle or resultant rake angle of the
tool.
The basic tool geometry is determined by the rake angle of the tool.
Rake angle has two major effects during the metal cutting process.
One major effect of rake angle is its influence on tool strength. A tool with
negative rake will withstand far more loading than a tool with positive rake.
The other major effect of rake angle is its influence on cutting pressure. A tool
with a positive rake angle reduces cutting forces by allowing the chips to flow
more freely across the rake surface.
Cutting tool angles and their significance
The rake angle has the following function:
• It allows the chip to flow in convenient direction.
• It reduces the cutting force required to shear the metal and consequently
helps to increase the tool life and reduce the power consumption. It
provides keenness to the cutting edge.
• It improves the surface finish.

Positive Rake:
•Positive rake or increased rake angle reduces compression, the forces, and
the friction, yielding a thinner, less deformed and cooler chip.
•But increased rake angle reduces the strength of the tool section, and heat
conduction capacity.
•Some areas of cutting where positive rake may prove more effective are,
when cutting tough, alloyed materials that tend to work-harden, such as
certain stainless steels, when cutting soft or gummy metals, or when low
rigidity of workpiece, tooling, machine tool, or fixture allows chatter to occur.
•The shearing action and free cutting of positive rake tools will often
eliminate problems in these areas.
Cutting tool angles and their significance
Negative Rake:
• To provide greater strength at the cutting edge and better heat
conductivity, zero or negative rake angles are employed on carbide,
ceramic, polycrystalline diamond, and polycrystalline cubic boron
nitride cutting tools.
• These materials tend to be brittle, but their ability to hold their
superior hardness at high temperature results in their selection for
high speed and continuous machining operation.
• Negative rakes increases tool forces but this is necessary to provide
added support to the cutting edge. This is particularly important in
making intermittent cuts and in absorbing the impact during the initial
engagement of the tool and work.
• Negative rakes are recommended on tool which does not possess
good toughness (low transverse rupture strength).
• Thus negative rake (or small rake) causes high compression, tool
force, and friction, resulting in highly deformed, hot chip.
The rake angle for a tool depends on the following factors:
• Type of material being cut: A harder material like cast iron may be
machined by smaller rake angle than that required by soft material
like mid steel or aluminum.
• Type of tool material: Tool material like cemented carbide permits
turning at very high speed. At high speeds rake angle has little
influence on cutting pressure. Under such condition the rake angle
can be minimum or even negative rake angle is provided to
increase the tool strength.
• Depth of cut: In rough turning, high depth of cut is given to remove
maximum amount of material. This means that the tool has to
withstand severe cutting pressure. So the rake angle should be
decreased to increase the lip angle that provides the strength to the
cutting edge.
• Rigidity of the tool holder and machine: An improperly supported
tool on old or worn out machine cannot take up high cutting
pressure. So while machining under the above condition, the tool
used should have larger rake angle.
Relief Angles
• Relief angles are provided to minimize physical interference or rubbing
contact with machined surface and the work piece.
• Relief angles are for the purpose of helping to eliminate tool breakage and
to increase tool life.
• If the relief angle is too large, the cutting tool may chip or break. If the
angle is too small, the tool will rub against the workpiece and generate
excessive heat and this will in turn, cause premature dulling of the cutting
tool.
• Small relief angles are essential when machining hard and strong materials
and they should be increased for the weaker and softer materials.
• A smaller angle should be used for interrupted cuts or heavy feeds, and a
larger angle for semi-finish and finish cuts.
Side relief angle: The Side relief angle prevents the side flank of the tool
from rubbing against the work when longitudinal feed is given. Larger feed
will require greater side relief angle.
End relief angle: The End relief angle prevents the flank of the tool from
rubbing against the work. A minimum relief angle is given to provide
maximum support to the tool cutting edge by increasing the lip angle. The
front clearance angle should be increased for large diameter works.
Cutting tool angles and their significance
Side cutting edge angle:
The following are the advantages of increasing this angle:
• It increases tool life as, for the same depth of cut; the cutting force is
distributed on a wider surface.
• It diminishes the chip thickness for the same amount of feed and
permits greater cutting speed.
• It dissipates heat quickly for having wider cutting edge.

•The side cutting edge angle of the tool has practically no effect on the
value of the cutting force or power consumed for a given depth of cut
and feed.
•Large side cutting edge angles are likely to cause the tool to chatter.

End cutting edge angle:

The function of end cutting edge angle is to prevent the trailing front
cutting edge of the tool from rubbing against the work. A large end
cutting edge angle unnecessarily weakens the tool.
It varies from 8 to 15 degrees.
Cutting tool angles and their significance
Nose radius:

The nose of a tool is slightly rounded in all turning tools.

The function of nose radius is as follows:

• Greater nose radius clears up the feed marks caused by the

previous shearing action and provides better surface finish.

• All finish turning tool have greater nose radius than rough turning
tools.

• It increases the strength of the cutting edge, tends to minimize the

wear taking place in a sharp pointed tool with consequent increase
in tool life.

• Accumulation heat is less than that in a pointed tool which permits

higher cutting speeds.
Tool signature
It is the system of designating the principal angles of a single point cutting
tool.
The signature is the sequence of numbers listing the various angles, in
degrees, and the size of the nose radius.
There are several systems available like American standard system (ASA),
Orthogonal rake system (ORS), Normal rake system (NRS), and
Maximum rake system (MRS).
The system most commonly used is American Standard Association
(ASA), which is:
Bake rake angle, Side rake angle, End relief angle, Side relief angle, End
cutting Edge angle, Side cutting Edge angle and Nose radius.
Tool signature
For example a tool may designated in the following sequence:
8-14-6-6-6-15-1
1. Bake rake angle is 8
2. Side rake angle is 14
3. End relief angle is 6
4. Side relief angle is 6
5. End cutting Edge angle is 6
6. Side cutting Edge angle is 15
7. Nose radius is 1 mm
References
1. Kalpakjian, Schmid, Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 4th
edition,, Prentice Hall 2003
2. E. P. DeGarmo, J. T. Black, and R. A. Kohser, Materials and processes in
Manufacturing, PHI.
3. P. N. Rao, Manufacturing Technology – Metal Cutting and Machine Tools, TMH.
4. Mikell P. Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing: Material. Processes,
and systems, 2nd Edition, Wiley India, 2007
5. P. F. Ostwald, and Jairo Munoz, Manufacturing Processes and Systems, 9th ed.,
Wiley, India, 2002
6. Amitabha Battacharya , Metal Cutting Theory and Practice
7. M. C. Shaw, Metal Cutting Principles, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1984.
8. George Schneider,Jr. CMfgE, Cutting Tool Applications
9. J. A. Schey, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1977.
10. R. A. Lindberg, Processes and Materials of Manufacture,
11. William J Patton, Machine tool Operations, Reston publishing company
12. O W Boston, Metal Processing, 2nd edition 1951, John Wiley and Sons
13. B.S.Raghuwanshi, A course in Workshop Technology-Dhanpat Rai & Sons.
14. Hajra Choudhury, Elements of Workshop Technology–Vol.-II, Media Promoters
and Publishers.