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Another random document with
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whether in addition to swine fever another disease existed, known on
the Continent under the name of swine erysipelas. The importance of
this question will be appreciated when it is explained that on the
Continent swine erysipelas is classed among the contagious diseases
of the pig.
The clinical evidence of the disease called swine erysipelas on the
Continent appears to be more or less discoloration of the skin,
similar to that which is frequently observed in swine fever, together
with the occasional presence within the warty growths upon the
valves of the heart of a bacillus which is regarded by Continental
authorities as the cause of the disease.
Early in the inquiry it was ascertained that a bacillus identical with
that found in swine erysipelas was also present in the diseased
portion of the valves of the heart of the pigs in this country.
But the inquiries made did not corroborate or favour the
suggestion that the disease which produced these morbid growths
was in any way infectious or contagious. Such inquiries as could be
made led to the opposite conclusion, since in every instance where
the cases could be followed up it was ascertained that the deaths had
been quite sudden, were limited to a single animal, and that those in
contact remained in perfect health.
At this stage the all-important point to determine was whether the
disease which existed in this country, “verrucous endocarditis,” was
communicable from pig to pig, and with this object numerous
experiments have been conducted to discover whether the bacilli
found within the hearts of diseased pigs were pathogenic to healthy
swine.
A large number of healthy pigs have been fed or inoculated with
the blood, the diseased portions taken from the valves of the heart,
and with artificial cultures of the bacilli obtained from the heart, but
in no instance has the attempt to produce this disease been
successful.

PNEUMONIA OF THE PIG.

The occasional association of pneumonia with or without pleurisy

in cases of swine fever has led many veterinarians in England to
regard lung complications as one of the lesions produced by that
disease.
In the Board of Agriculture’s report for the year 1894 a description
was given of the various diseases in the lungs of swine which had
come under notice, and it was therein stated that the Board had been
unable to discover any special lesion of the lung which would
warrant them in stating that it was indicative of swine fever or due to
contagion.
It is an indisputable fact that pigs are extremely liable to
pneumonia and pleurisy. But as the clinical appearances present in
the lungs examined in no wise differed from those which take place
in the lungs of other animals which have been exposed to cold or
septicæmia and other causes, the Board’s officers have never
accepted these lesions as being specific.
It is well known that both in Germany and the United States
outbreaks of pneumonia of a contagious nature attributed to the
presence of a bacillus pathogenic to the pigs of those countries are
reported to occur. Indeed, contagious pneumonia of swine under the
names of schweineseuche in Germany and swine plague in America
are regarded as one and the same disease.
In view of the fact that in a large number of cases pneumonia,
more or less extensive, sometimes associated with pleurisy, was
found among the specimens forwarded to London, it was considered
desirable that the departmental committee should institute a series
of experiments to decide whether we had in this country a form of
pneumonia in the pig which was communicable from one pig to
another.
Accordingly a series of bacteriological experiments were conducted
by Professor McFadyean with a view to isolate, if possible, a
microorganism which would be capable of inducing pneumonia in
healthy pigs. A number of diseased lungs, some of which were taken
from pigs affected with swine fever, were examined microscopically
by him, and, as was to be expected, several organisms were isolated,
but they proved to be morphologically and culturally different from
the bacillus of swine fever. Inoculations were carried out with these
organisms not only subcutaneously but directly into the lung through
the walls of the chest, and feeding experiments were also conducted.
The results of these experiments were entirely negative; a certain
amount of local injury was caused to the lungs at the seat where they
had been punctured, but in no case was either pneumonia or swine
fever induced.
The experiments have therefore demonstrated that the pneumonia
found in the lungs of pigs affected with swine fever is not due to the
swine fever bacillus.
The departmental committee arrived at the conclusion that the
pneumonia which is occasionally encountered as an independent
disease of the pig or in association with swine fever is not ascribable
to contagion, but to the presence of organisms which are generally
saprophytic in their mode of life, and which only in particular
circumstances (such as lowered vitality and diminished resistance on
the part of the pig) are able to multiply in the air passages and lung
tissue and thus induce pneumonia; and it appeared to the
departmental committee that in this country pneumonia of the pig is
sporadic and not contagious or epizootic.

CONCLUSIONS.

There is now no reason whatever to believe that there exists at the

present time in Great Britain any disease of a contagious nature
affecting pigs other than swine fever. The disease of the heart,
“verrucous endocarditis,” and the pneumonia which are so
frequently met with in pigs cannot be regarded as lesions indicative
of an attack of swine fever.
As regards verrucous endocarditis and pneumonia, it may safely be
said that they do not exist in England in a contagious form.
Considering all the evidence, it may reasonably be concluded that
the departmental committee were correct in their views when they
stated that “the evidence obtained during the whole inquiry justifies
the conclusion at which they have arrived, viz., that there is no
epizootic of swine except swine fever in any part of the United
Kingdom which requires to be dealt with under the provisions of the
Act of 1894.”
Finally, it may be said that the great factors in perpetuating swine
fever will always be pigs which are affected with that disease in the
less fatal and unrecognisable form. These animals are constantly
distributing the germs of swine fever through their highly infective
evacuations wherever they may be taken during the whole period of
their illness, and the final extinction of the malady must depend
upon the possibility of enforcing measures which will have the effect
of preventing the movement of pigs affected with swine fever in this
particular form.
 HÆMORRHAGIC SEPTICÆMIA IN CATTLE.
In 1902 Drs. Wilson and Brimhall, of the State Board of Health of
Minnesota, U.S.A., described under the title of “hæmorrhagic
septicæmia of cattle” a widespread infectious disease of bovines
which has the following general characteristics:—The disease is
distributed the world over, but is apparently most common in low-
lying regions, and most general in wet seasons. The animals attacked
are of all ages. The onset of the disease is sudden, its course rapid,
and its termination usually (90 to 98 per cent.) fatal. Thirty to 90 per
cent. of all animals in an infected herd die. The clinical symptoms are
refusal of food, cessation of rumination and lactation, initially
increased temperature (107° to 109° F.: 42° to 43° C.), rapid,
laboured breathing, sometimes bloody discharge from nostrils,
bladder, and bowels, and non-crepitant swellings in the throat
region, back of shoulders, or about the fetlocks. The most striking
pathological lesions are hæmorrhages from 1 millimètre to 20
centimètres in diameter, throughout the subcutaneous, submucous,
subserous and intermuscular connective tissue, infiltrating the
lymphatic glands, and involving several or all of the internal organs.
The spleen is neither enlarged nor darkened. The causative bacteria,
which may be isolated from the larger hæmorrhagic areas, lymph
glands, heart’s blood, lung, spleen, etc., have the following
distinguishing characteristics:
Ovoidal bacilli, with rounded ends of 0·5 to 0·8 microns in
transverse diameter, and 1·0 to 1·5 microns in length; sometimes
paired and sometimes in chains of three to six individuals. The bacilli
in the tissues exhibit polar staining with an unstained “belt” or
“middle piece.” They are non-capsulated, non-spore-forming, non-
Gramstaining, and non-motile. They grow best aërobically at 98·5° F.
(37° C.), though capable of developing anaërobically and at room
temperature; prefer the depths rather than the surfaces of media;
grow feebly, if at all, on potato; fail to liquefy gelatine; produce acid,
but no gas in glucose media, neither acid nor gas in lactose media;
and develop varying amounts of indol and phenol in peptone
solution. The organisms have been named Bacillus bovisepticus. The
lesions of the disease are reproduced in cattle and other animals by
inoculation of pure cultures of the organism.
It should be insisted upon that the identification of the disease in a
locality in which it has not been previously described, or by
veterinarians not having had previous experience therewith, shall
take into consideration—(a) the essential clinical symptoms; (b) the
pathological lesions as observed before the onset of decomposition;
and (c) the morphological and biological identification of the
specific bacilli.
The following is a tabulated list of the principal epidemics so
studied and reported to January 1st, 1901:
 Table showing the Principal Epidemics of Hæmorrhagic Septicæmia in
Bovines due to Bacillus bovisepticus.
Name of Local or reporter’s name of
Year. Locality.
observer. disease.
Bollinger 1878 Germany Wild und Rinderseuche.
Kitt 1885 „ Rinderseuche.
Kitt 1887 „ Septikæmia hæmorrhagica.
Septic pleuro-pneumonia of
Poels 1886 Holland
calves.
Oreste et
1886 Italy Barbone.
Armanni
Jensen 1889 Jutland Rinderseuche.
Piot 1889 Egypt Kounnaq.
1890
Van Eecke Java Septichæmia hæmorrhagica.
1895
Hubenet 1895 „ „„
France, imported
Galtier 1891 Infectious pneumo-enteritis.
from Algiers
Maladie des buffles ou Angine
Reischig 1891 Hungary
Charbonneuse.
Bongartz 1892 Germany Wild und Rinderseuche.
Jakobi 1892 „ Wildseuche.
Buch 1892 „ Hæmorrhagische septikæmia.
Güllebeau and Septikæmia hæmorrhagica.
1894 „
Hess Charbon Blanc.
Fischer 1894 Dutch Indies Septichæmia hæmorrhagica.
Leclainche 1895 France Pneumo-enteritis.
Von Ratz 1896 Hungary Barbonekrankheit.
Sanfelice, Loi,
1897 Sardinia „
and Malato
Bosso 1898 Italy Septicæmia hæmorrhagica.
Pease 1898 British India Ghotwa or Ghotu.
Pasteurellosis bovina.
Lignières 1898 Argentina
“Diarrhœa” and “Enteque.”
Fenimore 1898 Tennessee Wild and cattle disease.
It may not be out of place to give at this point a short list of the
principal infective diseases of definitely known ætiology, with which
hæmorrhagic septicæmia in cattle has been, and may readily be,
confused:
 Name of disease. Diagnostic points.

Anthrax Altered condition of blood, enlarged spleen, presence

of B. anthracis, etc.
Black-quarter Usually localised lesion, crepitant tumour, presence of
B. anthracis symptomatici.
Septicpneumo- Due to a spore-bearing bacillus—“Pneumobacillus
enteritis of calves septicus”—which grows rapidly on potato.
(Galtier)
Septicæmia of calves Due to typhoid-like bacilli.

CONCLUSIONS.

(1.) Eight outbreaks of hæmorrhagic septicæmia in cattle due to B.

bovisepticus occurred in Minnesota from August to December, 1900.
(2.) So far as can be determined, the only other outbreak of this
disease hitherto published as occurring in America was one near
Knoxville, Tenn., in 1898. The foci of the disease have also
apparently been present in Texas and the district of Colombia. No
relation can be traced between the disease elsewhere and the present
outbreaks, nor between any two of the present ones.
(3.) Of 160 animals in the eight herds, sixty-four showed
symptoms of the disease, and all such died—a mortality of 40 per
cent. of all the animals in the herds, and of 100 per cent. of those
showing symptoms.
(4.) The chief symptoms were loss of appetite, fever, stiffness,
swelling of the legs and throat, and a black, tarry, or bloody
discharge from the bowels. Bloody urine and bloody nasal discharge
were present in some cases. Death occurred usually in from six to
twenty-four hours after the first appearance of symptoms.
(5.) The chief lesions discovered at autopsy were ecchymoses, and
small and large hæmorrhagic areas in the subcutaneous connective
tissues, muscles, lymph glands, and throughout the internal organs.
The cervical lymph glands, heart muscle, and alimentary canal were
most affected. The spleen was not enlarged nor darkened (except
after onset of decomposition).
(6.) From the twenty-two animals on which autopsies were made
the same bacillus was obtained from all the tissues examined. Where
the examination was made immediately after death—nine cases—it
was unmixed with any other organism.
(7.) The bacillus was identified as belonging to the hæmorrhagic
septicæmia group of Hüppe, best specifically designated as B.
bovisepticus; and besides causing hæmorrhagic septicæmia in cattle
(synonyms—rinderseuche, buffleseuche, barbone, khounnaq,
charbon blanc, ghotwa, pasteurellosis bovina, etc.), closely
resembles, if, indeed, it is not identical with, the bacilli causing
wildseuche, swine plague, schweineseuche, rabbit septicæmia,
chicken cholera, grouse disease, duck cholera, etc. The organism was
studied in direct coverglass preparations, parallel cultures in and on
various media, and by inoculation of animals in which the
characteristic lesions were reproduced, and from the tissues of which
the inoculated bacilli were recovered in pure culture.
(8.) An attempt was made to immunise cattle by the injection of
filtered, and later of the killed, cultures of the bacillus. The chief
difficulties met with were in maintaining the virulence of the bacillus
on artificial media, and in determining the proper dosage. The
experiments were too few, and the results not sufficiently tested to
warrant conclusive statements as to the protective value of the
inoculations, but it would appear that a fairly high degree of
immunity was produced.
(9.) The prompt removal of the dead animals and isolation of sick
ones, accompanied by thorough disinfection by fire, carbolic acid,
corrosive sublimate, and freshly-slaked lime, apparently served to
check each outbreak within a short time after the measures were
instituted.
SECTION XI.
OPERATIONS.
 CHAPTER I:
CONTROL OF ANIMALS.

CONTROL OF OXEN.

The safe and efficient performance of surgical operations renders

it necessary that the animal should first of all be placed under
complete control. This precaution, therefore, is the first to merit
attention. Animals are either secured completely or to a more or less
limited extent, according to circumstances. The ox, for example, may
be secured by the head, one or more limbs may be fastened, or, by
being placed in a trevis, the whole of the animal may be secured.

PARTIAL CONTROL.

(1.) The simplest method of securing the ox is to grasp the nostrils

or lower extremity of the septum nasi between the thumb and index
finger of the right or left hand (Fig. 57).
(2.) This method may be rendered more complete by the assistant
passing his arm from behind forward over the animal’s head between
its horns, and then grasping the nostrils as above described, whilst
one of the horns is firmly held with the other hand (Fig. 58).
(3.) A third method consists in fixing the head to a post, tree,
fence, or other solid body, by passing a rope round the base of the
horns and tying it to the object selected.

CONTROL OF THE LIMBS.

To prevent the animal kicking or moving about during an

operation it is sometimes necessary to fix the limbs. A front leg may
be lifted as for shoeing, or may be kept lifted by means of a rope
passed around the fetlock, over the withers, downward between the
front legs, outside the forearm, in front of the chest and inside the
pastern, after which one or more turns may be made around the
pastern to prevent the rope slipping.
A hind limb may be secured in a simple way by passing the end of
the tail round it in front of the hock (Fig. 284); any violent and
extensive movement of the limb is then necessarily painful to the
animal owing to the tension of the tail.

Fig. 284.—Fixing the head and a hind limb.

Greater security, however, is given by passing a rope backward and

forward around the hind legs, above the hocks, in the form of a figure
of eight (Fig. 285). This does not prevent all movements of the hind
limbs, but it limits them and secures both animal and operator from
danger.
Should it become necessary to examine the hind foot or
interdigital space, it is useful at times to pass a loop of cord round
the leg in the region of the tendo-Achillis, and to twist and tighten
this loop by a short, stout stick passed through it; this is the leg
twi
tch
de
scr
ibe
d
in
Do
lla
r’s
“O
pe
rat
ive
Te
ch

Fig. 285.—Fixing the hind limbs.

nique,” p. 7.
For such examinations, however, the animal is usually placed in
the trevis, or is secured to the side of a long waggon (Fig. 286).
To secure the limbs beneath the abdomen a strip of webbing or a
rope is fastened round the pastern, passed between the fore limbs,
then in front of the shoulder of the opposite side, over the withers
and beneath the elbow of the same side, being secured with a slip-
knot.
For castration in the standing position a hind and a fore limb may
be fastened together, as shown in Fig. 287.
In examining the sole of the hind claws, the animal’s head may be
secured to a tree, and the hind limb lifted by a strip of webbing or
rope fixed to the body of a waggon (Fig. 288).
 GENERAL CONTROL.

General control in the standing position can only be made really

effective by using the trevis, in which both the head and the fore and
hind limbs are secured.

Fig. 286.—Fixing a front limb. Examining a hind foot.

Fig. 287.—Fixing two limbs of one side for the operation of bistournage.

The practitioner, however, is often content with much less perfect

methods, using either the so-called “bulldogs” or the nose ring,
which may usually be so manipulated as to control all but the most
dangerous animals. The nose ring is seldom employed except for
bulls, which are usually ringed at an early age; the “bulldogs” can be
employed and removed at will.
In inserting a nose ring the head is securely fixed, the centre line of
the muzzle is grasped with the left hand, and the septum nasi is
pierced with a straight bistoury, the cutting edge being turned in a
backward direction; the aperture being thus prepared, the ring is
introduced and fixed. Some operators prefer to use a trocar, slightly
exceeding in diameter the ring to be worn; in that case the manual
technique is the same. The puncture is made, the trocar alone is
withdrawn, and the canula remains in situ; one extremity of the ring
is then inserted into the canula, and both are drawn through the
septum together. There is no difficulty in thus inserting the ring,
though puncture with the trocar is perhaps rather less convenient
than with the bistoury.

Fig. 288.—Fixing an ox for the examination of a hind limb.

Relative control without casting may also be effected by attaching

the end of the tail to the base of the horns or the head to the cannon
bone of a front or hind limb. These methods, however, are of little
value except to prevent animals at grass from escaping entirely
during operation.

CONTROL BY CASTING.

Oxen should always be cast on a thick straw bed to avoid

fracturing the horns.
The simplest method consists in using hobbles and ropes, as for
the horse.
Another, though less practical, method consists in using two long
ropes, each fixed to the base of the horns and passed first between
 the front,
then the
hind
limbs,
round the
hind
pasterns
from
within
outwards
and then
brought
forward
(Fig. 292).
When the
ropes are
drawn
tight by
assistants
standing
in front of
the
Fig. 289.—A, “bulldogs” operated by a screw; B, animal,
“bulldogs” with a sliding ring. the latter
usually
falls on its
hocks and rolls over to the right or left, according to the direction
given to it.
A third method is particularly useful in young or feeble animals. It
consists in fixing around the horns a rope about eight to ten yards in
length, the free end of which is carried along the upper margin of the
neck and back. A loop is formed embracing the base of the neck, a
second behind the shoulders in the region occupied by the girth, and
a third around the flanks (Fig. 293). By pulling in a backward
direction the rope is drawn tight, and the animal first backs and
afterwards falls on its hocks, subsiding either to the right or left, as in
the case previously mentioned.
 In
using
either
of
these
two
metho
ds it is
very
import
ant, as
soon
as the
animal
falls, to
secure
the
limbs
in a
certain
way,
accordi
Fig. 290.—Nose ring open for insertion. ng to
the
nature
of the operation to be performed. This can be effected with hobbles
and ropes passed round the hocks, above the knee, etc.

CONTROL OF SHEEP AND GOATS.

The above animals may be secured, whilst standing, by grasping

the head and neck or, when cast by crossing the front and hind limbs
in the form of an X and tying a soft rope or piece of webbing round
the crossing of the limbs.
Fig. 291.—Nose ring closed.
Fig. 292.