Chapter 3

Hydropower

Abstract Among all the renewable energy sources, the contribution of hydropower
to the worldwide electricity generation is the highest. A hydropower system can
be used to generate a few kilowatt of electricity to about 18,000 MW. Although
there are a number of advantages and benefits of using hydropower systems,
various environmental issues are restricting their development. These issues include
depletion of nutrients in the water body, obstruction of the fish ladder for salmon,
and fish shearing in turbines. In this chapter, a general description of a hydropower
system and its various components are discussed.

3.1 Introduction

Hydropower generating plants capture the kinetic energy of falling water, such as
from a river and waterfalls, to generate electricity. A turbine and a generator convert
the kinetic energy from water, first to mechanical energy and then to electrical
energy using a generator. Hydropower is considered a renewable energy source since
the water cycle, shown in Fig. 3.1, is a continuous cycle. The description of basic
technology has been provided by a number of researchers [1–11].
The Greeks are believed to be the first to use hydropower in about 100 B. C.
for grinding wheat into flour. Around 4 A.D., Asia and Europe started utilizing
hydropower for milling. Modern hydropower turbines were designed in the mid-
1700s by a French hydraulic and military engineer, Bernard Forest de Bélidor, who
wrote Architecture Hydraulique, in which he described the use of a vertical-axis
versus a horizontal-axis turbine. Around 1880, hydropower was used to generate
direct-current. The first hydroelectric plant generating alternating current (AC)
in the world was located in the United States, Appleton, Wisconsin, in 1882.
Hydropower provided about 15% of the U.S. electrical generation in 1907, and its
contribution increased to almost 40% in 1940. Currently, about 8–10% of the U.S.
electricity comes from hydropower. There are about 80,000 MW of conventional
and 18,000 MW of pumped storage electrical power generation capacity in the USA.

T.K. Ghosh and M.A. Prelas, Energy Resources and Systems: Volume 2: 157
Renewable Resources, DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1402-1 3,
© Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011
158 3 Hydropower

Fig. 3.1 The natural water cycle (Courtesy of Energy Information Administration) [12]

Solar energy heats water of the river, ocean, and any other water reservoir open
to the atmosphere, causing it to evaporate. As the water vapor rises to the upper
atmosphere, and cools down, it condenses into clouds and falls back onto the surface
as precipitation (rain water). The water flows through rivers, back into oceans, where
it again evaporates and begins the cycle over again.
Worldwide generation of hydroelectric power increased by 406 billion kilowatt-
hours between 1994 and 2004, or at an average annual rate of 1.6%. As shown
in Fig. 3.2, Canada, China, Brazil, the United States, and Russia, were the five
largest producers of hydroelectric power in 2004. Their combined hydroelectric
power generation accounted for 51% of the world total. Canada led the world with
334 billion kilowatt-hours or 3.35 quadrillion Btu. China ranked second with 328
billion kilowatt-hours or 3.28 quadrillion Btu, and Brazil was third with 318 billion
kilowatt-hours or 3.18 quadrillion Btu. The United States was fourth with 268 billion
kilowatt-hours or 2.7 quadrillion Btu, followed by Russia with 165 billion kilowatt-
hours or 1.7 quadrillion Btu.
3.1 Introduction 159

Fig. 3.2 Hydroelectricity generating capacity of top 12 countries in the world (Courtesy of Energy
Information Administration [13])

Although hydropower contributes about 3% towards the world’s energy need

(Fig. 3.3), the main use of hydropower is to generate electricity. As shown in
Fig. 3.4, worldwide approximately 18.6% of the electricity is generated from
hydropower. Hydroelectricity also contributes significantly to the total electricity
generation in a number of countries.
The increase in the contribution of hydroelectricity to the total electricity
consumption by the top ten countries in the world from 2005 to 2006 is given
in Table 3.1. As can be noted from the table, the increase in generation from
hydropower during this time period was rather small. Various environmental issues
are restricting its expansion and are discussed in details later in the chapter. As
mentioned earlier, hydropower generated almost 40% of the electricity in the USA
in 1940, but it was only 6.5% in 2006 (see Fig. 3.5).
While thermal-generated electricity is by far the most common, representing over
60% of worldwide electricity generation, in some regions, other energy sources can
supply a majority of the electricity. For example, in South America, hydroelectricity
accounts for 80% of all electricity produced, which is over four times as much as
thermal electricity, and over 50 times as much as nuclear power.
Hydropower can contribute significantly to meet the growing demand for
electricity worldwide. As can be noted from Fig. 3.6, several regions are utilizing
only a small fraction of this resource.
160 3 Hydropower

a Renewables (9%)
Nuclear (6%)

Oil (37%)

Natural Gas (23%)

Coal (25%)

b Geothermal (0.2%) Biofuel (0.2%)

Wind (0.3%) Solar PV (0.04%)

Solar heat (0.5%)

Biomass
Biomass(4%)
(4%)

Hydropower
Hydropower (3%)
(3%)

Fig. 3.3 Contribution of hydropower to the total world energy mix. (a) contribution of the primary
sources, (b) breakdown of the renewable portion (Source: Energy Information Administration [13]
and World Energy Council [14])

Underutilization of the hydropower resources is mainly in Asia, Africa, and

some parts of South America. One of the main reasons for underutilization is the
access to these resources. A higher capital investment would be necessary to utilize
them. Most developed countries are using a significant portion of their hydropower
resources. The economic advantages of hydropower over thermal power systems can
be seen in Fig. 3.7. The development and operating costs of hydropower generating
3.2 Hydropower Systems 161

40
39.8
35
Percentage of Global Electricity Supply

30

25
by Fuel Type

20
19.6
15
16.1 15.7
10

5 6.7
1.8
0.3
0
Coal

Gas

Hydroelectric

Nuclear

Oil

Renewables

Non-renewables
Waste
Fig. 3.4 The contribution of hydropower to the world electricity generation (Source: International
Hydropower Association [15])

systems are significantly lower than that of gas turbines and fossil fuel systems. Of
the four major electrical power generating systems, the total costs for hydropower
systems are the lowest.

3.2 Hydropower Systems

Hydropower systems may be divided into two ways: (1) based on its construction
methods and (2) based on its size. There are three types of hydropower systems
based on construction methods:
• Impoundment.
• Diversion or run of river.
• Pumped storage.
Hydropower systems can range in size from 5,000 to 10,000 MW that supply many
consumers with electricity to small and micro plants that can meet an individual’s
energy needs. These systems are also divided into three categories based on
their size.
162 3 Hydropower

Table 3.1 Contribution of hydroelectricity to the total electricity generation of selected countries
Total electricity Total hydro electricity
generation (billion generation (billion % of the total
Country kilowatt hour) kilowatt hour) generated electricity
Australia 244.22 16.68 7
Austria 59.31 33.59 57
Belgium 82.94 0.37 0
Brazil 437.26 370.63 85
Canada 612.60 365.30 60
China 3,042.31 429.98 14
France 537.91 57.61 11
Germany 594.66 20.09 3
India 665.30 121.18 18
Italy 292.11 33.13 11
Japan 1,082.24 74.61 7
Mexico 243.29 26.86 11
Nepal 2.70 2.69 100
New Zealand 42.41 23.28 55
Norway 135.02 132.82 98
Pakistan 93.26 32.79 35
Romania 58.25 15.74 27
Russia 964.21 177.01 18
Spain 287.39 27.15 9
Sweden 143.82 65.38 45
Switzerland 64.56 34.85 54
Turkey 181.56 35.44 20
United Kingdom 371.01 5.05 1
United States 4,166.51 248.31 6
Venezuela 110.73 83.03 75
Vietnam 61.02 27.12 44

• Large hydropower
• Small hydropower
• Micro hydropower
Large hydropower Although definitions vary, the US Department of Energy
(USDOE) defines large hydropower as facilities that have a capacity of more than
30 MW.
Small hydropower The USDOE defines small hydropower as facilities that have a
capacity of 100 kW to 30 MW.
Micro hydropower A micro hydropower plant has a capacity of up to 100 kW.
A small or micro-hydroelectric power system can produce enough electricity for a
home, farm, ranch, or village.
Each system has its own applications and impact on the eco-system and is
described in Table 3.2.
3.2 Hydropower Systems 163

Petroleum (3%) Others (2.9%)

Hydroelectric (6.5%)

Natural Gas (18.7%)

Coal (49.7%)

Nuclear (19.3%)

Fig. 3.5 Contribution of hydropower to total electricity generation in the USA in 2006 (Source:
Energy Information Administration [13])

Fig. 3.6 Hydroelectricity generation potential in different regions of the world (Source: Interna-
tional Hydropower Association [15])
164 3 Hydropower

Fig. 3.7 Breakdown of 4.0

average cost for power
production by various Fuel cost
systems (Adapted from 3.5
Maintenance cost
Wisconsin Valley
Improvement Company [16]) Operation cost
3.0

Cents per Killowatt-hour

2.5 Data 1

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
Fossil Fueled steam

Nuclear

Hydroelectric

Gas Turbine

3.3 Hydropower System Construction Methods

The construction method depends mainly on the size of the plant. Other factors
that are considered in selecting a particular type of construction method include the
geology of the land, terrains, and environmental impacts.

3.3.1 Impoundment

Most of the large hydropower systems are impoundment type [17–20]. A dam is
used to store river water in a reservoir. Water released from the reservoir flows
through a turbine to generator electricity. The water may be released either to
meet changing electricity needs or to maintain a constant reservoir level. The basic
structure of an impoundment dam is shown in Fig. 3.8. A more detailed construction
of a hydroelectric system is given in Fig. 3.9.
Some of the largest impoundment hydropower systems constructed around the
world are listed in Table 3.3.
3.3 Hydropower System Construction Methods
Table 3.2 Service and impact by different types of hydropower systems
Type Service
Reservoir/Impoundment • Storage capacity of water
and energy
• Annual energy production
• Instant generating capacity
• Flexibility in providing base
load and peak load services
• Can include irrigation, flood
mitigation, water supply,
environmental management,
transportation, ground water
recharge, recreation, climate
change protection
Run-of-river • Base load with limited
flexibility to follow variation
in power demand
Pumped Storage • Storage capacity of energy
• System security
• Quality and reliability
through ancillary services
and peak-load support
Diversion • Water and power supply
Source: International Hydropower Association [15]
Fig. 3.8 Basic components of an impoundment dam for generating hydroelectricity (Source:
Tennessee Valley Authority as reported in Combs [21])
165
Impact
• Changes of habitat and
social impacts through
reservoir inundation
• Modification of river flows
• Impacts mainly due to
reservoir
• Need to evaluate cumulative
impacts of other water uses
• Limited flooding and
changes to river flows
• Net consumer of electricity
• Environmental impacts
confined to small area
• Flow reduction downstream
of diversion
• Increase of flow in receiving
stream
166 3 Hydropower

Fig. 3.9 Longitudinal section of an underground hydropower plant (Courtesy of Munchener Ruck
Munich Re Group [22])

Table 3.3 Some large scale Hydropower system Location Capacity (MW)
impoundment hydropower
facilities around the world Three Gorges dam China 18,200
Itaipu Brazil/Paraguay 12,600
Guri Venezuela 10,000
Grand Coulee US 6,494
Sayano-Shushensk Russia 6,400
Krasnoyarsk Russia 6,000
Churchill falls Canada 5,428
La Grande Canada 5,328
Source: International Hydropower Association [15]

The main components that are constructed on site of an impoundment

hydropower system are:
• Dam
• Spillway

3.3.1.1 Dam

A dam is built to raise the water level of the river to create a falling water system.
This also controls the flow of water. Dams have multipurpose use and are not
necessarily built for power generation. Most dams in the USA are built for flood
control and irrigation. Only 2,400 of 80,000 existing dams in the USA are used to
generate power. Such a low utilization of hydropower resources in the USA is partly
due to the strict site requirements for power production. Other uses of the reservoir
of a dam are shown in Fig. 3.10.
3.3 Hydropower System Construction Methods 167

Fig. 3.10 Various uses of Debris Control 0.8%

reservoir of a dam in the USA
(Source: Federal Emergency
Management Agency [23])
Hydroelectric 2.9%
Undetermined 3.8% Navigation 0.4%
Tailings & Other 8.0%

Irrigation Recreation
11.0 % 38.4 %

Fire & Farm

Ponds
17.1 %
Flood Control
17.7 %

The reservoir of a dam basically stores the energy in the form of potential energy.
When water flows down from the reservoir into a turbine, this potential energy is
converted to kinetic energy that rotates the turbine blades. The type of dam to be
built and its construction method depends on various factors:
• The water height of the reservoir
• The shape and size of the valley at the proposed construction site, as this will
determine the capacity of the hydropower plant
• The geology of the valley walls and floor. This will determine the availability of
the construction materials and associated costs.
The main factor that needs to be considered is the ability of the dam to withstand
the pressure of water build up behind it. This will determine the type and capacity,
(thereby, the electricity generation capacity) of a dam to be constructed and
construction materials. The construction materials should be impermeable to water.
Dams can be grouped in two major categories on the basis of the composition of
their construction materials:
• Embankment dams
• Concrete dams

Embankment Dams

These types of dams are built with cheap materials such as rock, gravels, earth or
clay to hold back the water. The construction materials are used to make a natural
settling angle of the material. The central core section is made of concrete, bitumen
or clay to prevent water seeping through the dam [24–28]. Various components are
shown in Fig. 3.11.
168 3 Hydropower

Fig. 3.11 Cross section through a rockfill dam (Courtesy of Munchener Ruck Munich Re
Group [22])

Concrete Dams

As the name suggests, concrete is used to construct the dams [29, 30]. Several
construction methods of concrete dams are proposed: Concrete Gravity Dam,
Roller-compacted Concrete Dam, and Concrete Arch Dam. Basically, the weight
of concrete and/or the shape of the dam hold back the water. Concrete is a
relatively expensive material and the construction of concrete dams is usually more
labor-intensive than the construction of embankment dams. Basic structure of a
conventional concrete dam is shown in Fig. 3.12.

3.3.1.2 Spillways

When dams are designed, provision must be made to cope with large floods.
Spillways are pathways for floodwater to flow over or around the dam so that the
dam itself is not breached. Spillways on concrete dams are usually constructed to
allow water to flow over the top. Spillways in embankment dams are built at the side
of the dam and away from the downstream face (Fig. 3.13). If the water is allowed
to flow over the dam, serious damage can occur to rocks or the earth that are used to
construct it.

3.4 Hydroturbine

Several types of hydroelectric turbines are available for power generation [31–33].
All of them operate on the principle of converting the potential energy stored in
water to mechanical energy by rotating a paddle-wheel or a propeller-type runner on