ARCHES 2.1 INTRODUCTION ‘An arch may be visualised as a beam curved in elevation with convexity upward which is restrained at its ends from spreading outwards under the action of downward vertical loading. The inward horizontal reactions induced by the end resttaints produce hogging moments in the arch which effectively counteract the static sagging moments set up by the vertical loads. The consequent reduction in the net moments which is responsible for a significantly higher load_bearing capacity of an arch as compared to the corresponding beam, presents the arch as an attractive option in the construction of buildings and bridges, In order to introduce the terms associated with arches, consider the arch for a highway bridge shown in Fig. 2.1.1(a). The highest point C of the arch rib ACB is called the crown whereas the lowest points A and B at the ends are called the Pavement Pavement bE z zy (b) Pavement oS = Stal oS > big86 Theory of Structures—Vol. Il springings. The arch axis denoted by the broken line joins the centroids of all cross-sections of the arch rib. The two spaces between the arch rib and pavement, marked as SP in the figure, are called the spandrels. The pavement is supported by two or more discrete arch ribs placed in vertical planes parallel to each other. Alternatively the arch may be in the form of a barrel surface. In this case a portion of the arch called the arch ring, between two vertical planes a unit distance apart, parallel to the line of traffic may be analysed instead of the arch rib. Arches may be classified in several ways. For example, they may be classified on the basis of the following: (i) Shape of Arch Axis The arches are called parabolic, circular or elliptic depending upon the shape of the arch axis. Several other shapes have also been adopted for the arch axis. (ii) Material Used The arches are called masonry, aensclbes sredbion tinberarches depending upon the material used. (iii) Type of Spandrel ‘When the spandrels are filled with soil, fhasonry or einerede, they are called filled spandrel arches“In long span arches, the filling adds significantly to the dead weight of the arch. Hence open spandrel arches are often preferred for long span arches. In these arches, the bridge deck is supported by columns resting on the arch rib as shown in Fig. 2.1.10). (iv) Type of Arch Rib The arch rib may be solid, hollow like a box or in the form of a truss. When the arch rib is in the form of a truss, it is called a trussed arch as shown in Fig. 2.1.1(c). —_" (v) Number of Hinges Used When hinges are provided at the springings A and B and also at or near the crown C as shown in Fig. 2.1.1(a), it is called a three hinged arch. In a two_ hinged _arch, the hinges are provided only at the two ends as shown in Fig. 2.1.1(b). In a fixed or hingeless arch, there are no hinges and the ends are restrained from linear and rotational displacements. (vi) Static Indeterminacy While a three hinged arch is statically determinate, the two hinged and fixed arches are statically indeterminate. The arch is in a state of perpetual compression because of the horizontal reactions at the end supports which is induced due to the tendency of the arch rib to spread out. In every cross-section of the arch, there is a point at which theArches 87 resultant compression or thrust acts. This point is called the centre of compression. The line joining these points in all cross-sections or the locus of the centre of compression is called the pressure line or the line of thrust. When the pressure line coincides with the axis of the arch, it is known as the theoretical or linear arch. This condition arises when the shape of the static bending moment, i.e. the bending moment in the corresponding simply supported beam due to applied loads is the same as the shape of the arch axis. For instance, a parabolic arch carrying uniform load is a linear arch. Since the shape of the arch axis in general, cannot be the same as the shape of the static moment diagram, the pressure line is usually eccentric with respect to the arch axis. At any cross-section, the product — of the thrust and-Tis eons iicify fom the ach axis is equal to the bending moment. It is primarily to resist this bending moment that concrete arches are reinforced or pre-stressed. In masonry arches, the eccentricity of the pressure line Should not Be So large as to produce a tensile stress in the arch because the masonry is very weak in tension. When the arch rib has rectangular cross-section, the eccentricity of the pressure line should be less than one sixth of the depth of the section in order to avoid the tensile stress. This condition, which limits the pressure line within the middle third of the section of a masonry arch is known as the middle third rule. Figure 2.1.2(a) shows the axis of a polygonal arch having hinged supports at A and B at the same level and an internal hinge at F carrying vertical loads W,, W, and W;. The corresponding simply supported beam carrying the same vertical ~ Stee Monat (ul B Ne “ “wm Fig. 2.1.2(a), (6) and (c)88 Theory of Structures—Vol. II loads at the respective points is shown in Fig. 2.1.2(b). The bending moment diagram called the free-span moment diagram for the corresponding simply sup- ported beam is shown in Fig. 2.1.2(c). Let the shape of the polygonal arch of Fig. 2.1.2(a) be chosen in such a way that its rise y’ at any point P is proportional to the bending moment M, at the corresponding point in Fig. 2.1.2(¢). Hence y =kM, (2.1.1) in which & is the constant of proportionality. Since the bending moment at the internal hinge F is zero, it follows that Mp = Myp ~ Hyp = Myp- Hk Myp = 0 or kH=1 (2.1.2) Hence the bending nioment at any point P in the arch may be written as M, - Hy’ =M,-HkM, =0 Ye L (2.1.3) It follows that the bending moment is zero at all points in the arch of Fig. 2.1.2(a). Consequently it is a theoretical arch in which the pressure line coincides with the arch axis. Since an arch can be made theoretical only for a given set of loads, and since the loading on an arch generally keeps changing, it is not possible to eliminate the bending moments in the arches. The arches Wa > Fig. 2.1.2(d) and (e) usually have a smooth curved shape as shown in Fig. 2.1.2(d). Let the rise of the actual arch at the internal hinge F be the same as that in the theoretical arch, yp = yf. In this actual arch, the bending moment at any point P may be cexpressechas ee M=M,- Hy (2.1.4) The bending moment diagram of Fig. 2.1.2(e) is obtained from Eq, (2.1.4). The first term on the right side of Eq. (2.1.4) is represented by the polygon ACDEBArches 89 which is the same as the free span moment diagram of Fig. 2.1.2(c). The second term Hy is represented by the curve AFB which has the same shape as the arch of Fig. 2.1.2(d) because #7 is a constant. Putting M, = (y’/k) and H = (I/k) in accordance with Eqs (2.1.1) and (2.1.2) into Eq. (2.1.4), the bending moment at any point P in the actual arch of Fig. 2.1.2(d) may be written as @Oy-» BK Oy) @isy The term inside the parentheses on the right side of Eq. (2.1.5) represents the vertical intercept at P between the theoretical arch and the actual arch. This criterion is known as the Eddy’s theorem which states that the vertical intercept between the theoretical arch and the actual arch represents to some scale the bending moment at the point considered in the actual arch. 2.2 GEOMETRICAL PROPERTIES The geometrical properties of parabolic and circular curves which are commonly adopted for the axis of the arch are discussed below. Similar properties may be derived for any other curve adopted for the arch axis. The properties which are of particular interest are the ordinate and the slope of the curve at any point. (i) Parabola Taking A as origin, the equation for the parabolic curve. ACB shown in Fig. 2.2.1(a) may be written as Le Fig. 2.2.1 yrex(L-x) €— At x = L/2, the ordinate y = yc. Hence the constant, c = 4 y-/L? and therefore the equation of the parabola may be written as 4yc x(L-x) a ——_ The ordinates of the parabola at quarter points, i.e. at x = L/4 and x = 3L/4 are each equal to 0.75 ye. The slope of the curve @at any point P may be determined from (2.2.1) (2.2.2)90 Theory of Structures—Vol. II (ii) Circle The radius of curvature R of the circular curve ACB shown in Fig. 2.2.1(b) may be determined from ale Lis VA Ye (2R - yo) = (4) Ci (2.2.3) Consider any point P on the curve at a horizontal distance x from D as shown in the figure. The inclination of the tangent to the curve @ at P may be determined from xe sing = 44 (2.2.4) The inclination of the tangents at A and B may be determined from Li2 sina == (2.2.5) The ordinate y at P may be determined from R-yo+y=Reos 0 or Pe =Reos 0-R+ yo (2.2.6) 2.3 BASIC MECHANICS Consider the arch carrying any arbitrary vertical loading as shown in Fig, 2.3.1(a). The internal forces at any point P on the arch axis may be determined byArches 91 considering the free body of the portion AP shown in Fig. 2.3.1(b). The horizontal thrust H at P may be determined by considering the equilibrium of horizontal forces. H=H, (23.1) This equation shows that if the external load is vertical, the horizontal thrust is same at all points in the arch. The vertical shear V may be determined by considering equilibrium of the vertical forces. V=V,- Wp (2.3.2) in which Wp is the resultant of the vertical load acting over the portion AP. The bending moment M at point P may be determined by taking moments about P. M = My + V,x— Wap (x—X yp) - Hy (2.3.3) in which X,p is the horizontal distance of Wip from A. These equations may be used to determine the internal forces H, V and M at any point provided that the support reactions H4, V, and M, at A are known. The moment M, at A is zero if, the arch is supported on a hinge at A. Knowing the horizontal thrust H and the vertical shear V, the axial thrust § and the radial shear Q normal to the arch axis shown in Fig. 2.3.1(c) may be determined from ~ S=Vsin 6+ H Gos 6 (2.3.4) —@ = Vcos 0-H sin 8 (2.3.5) The resultant force F ar any point P shown in Fig. 2.3.1(d) is given by F=fH? +V? ={s?+@ (2.3.6) The inclination of the resultant F to the horizontal is given by =v tan B= H (2.3.7) The eccentricity ¢ of the resultant force F is given by M es (2.3.8) When the resultant F at any point of the arch is known in magnitude, position and direction, its orthogonal components H and V in the horizontal and vertical directions or its orthogonal components S and Q in the axial or radial directions may be determined by resolving F in the appropriate directions. Knowing S, the bending moment at the point under consideration may be determined from Eq. (2.3.8). The reaction components H,, Vy and M, at support A in Eqs (2.3.1) to (2.3.3) may be determined from equations of equilibrium alone when the arch is statical- ly determinate. When the arch is statically indeterminate, it is necessary to use a sufficient number of compatibility equations in addition to the equilibrium equa- tions. Since arches, with the exception of tied arches and bow string girders, have an open configuration, they are statically determinate internally. Hence the92. Theory of Structures—Vol. Il degree of static indeterminacy of an arch is equal to (r, - 3) where r, is the number of external reaction components. When the arch has internal hinges, the degree of static indeterminacy is reduced by one for each internal hinge. Accord- ingly the degree of static indeterminacy of the arches shown in Figs 2.3.2(a) to (d) are 0, 1, 3 and 3 respectively. The closed configuration of the tied arch of Fig. 2.3.2(e) can be made open by releasing the tensile force S in the tie AB. Hence its degree of static indeterminacy is one. ¢ BR~<—H, 4 Ve 4 Le Fig. 2.3.2 oF 2.4 ARCHACTION — vin2 $< y, According to Eq. (2.3.3), the bending momeni“At any point in an arch may be written as M = (My +V,x—- Wap (x- Xp )] — Hy (2.4.1) fat BAX Map (7 Xap J) Ay The term within parentheses on the right side of Eq. (2.4.1) is similar to that representing the bending moment at the corresponding point in the beam having the same span, end restraints and vertical loading. This sagging moment is reduced due to the hogging moment Hy caused by the phenomenon known as the arch action. The reason for the development of arch action is fairly evident. Under the action of the downward vertical load, the arch has a tendency to spread out. The restraints at the ends of the arch prevent the spreading of the arch, giving rise to horizontal reactive forces directed inwards, ie. towards right at the left support and towards left at the right support. These horizontal reactive forces at ends significantly reduce the net bending moment in the arch. It is evident, therefore, that the arch action can develop only when the end restraints are capable of providing the horizontal reactive forces. The arch action isArches 93 reduced if the end supports yield in the horizontal direction. The arch action would be lost completely if the arch is simply supported, ie. hinge support at one end and roller support at the other end. Since the arch action reduces the net bending moment, an arch is capable of carrying heavier loads as compared to the corresponding beam. Alternatively, for a given intensity of load, an arch can be built over a larger span as compared to a beam. When the arch rests on hinge supports at both ends at the same level as shown in Fig. 2.4.1(a), the end moments M, and M, are zero and the vertical reactions V, and Vy are independent of the horizontal reactive forces at the ends of the arch. In this case, Eq. (2.4.1) for the bending moment at any point P in the arch may be written as ae _ Ke M=[V4x-Wyp (x-Xp)1-Hy 4 (2.4.2(a)) =m, €t) PB 2.4.20) in which M, is the bending moment at point P in ihe coneaponding simply supported beam shown in Fig. 2.4.1(b). The sagging bending moment M, plotted in Fig. 2.4.1(c) has to be combined with the hogging moment Hy plotted in Fig. 2.4.1(d) to obtain the net bending moment diagram shown in Fig. 2.4.1(e). Comparing the net moment in Fig. 2.4.1(e) with the moments in the corresponding beam shown in Fig. 2.4.1(c), it is evident that the moments in the arch are much smaller than those in the corresponding beam. > Fig. 2.4.1 The extensive use of arches in buildings and bridges from medieval times bears testimony to the fact that the benefits of the arch action were appreciated long ago. It is interesting to note that, but for the arch action, it would not have been possible to drive deep tunnels. The weight of the overburden over an unlined tunnel during a driving operation is carried essentially by the arch action.